Institutiones physiologicae

SECT. XLIV.
OF THE GROWTH, STATIONARY CONDITION, AND
DECREASE OF MAN.

640. Nothing more remains at present than to survey
at one view the natural course of the life of man, whose
animal functions we have hitherto arranged in classes and
examined individually, and to accompany him through
his principal epochs from his birth to his grave.^*

641. The commencement of formation appears to happen
about the third week from conception (569), and genuine
blood is first observable about the fourth, the life of the
foetus at this period being extremely faint (82) and almost
merely that of a vegetable; the motion of the heart (98),
under fortunate circumstances, has been observable at this
time in the human embryo,^† though long ago detected
by Aristotle in the incubated egg,^‡ and since his time
denominated the punctum saliens.

The original form of the embryo is simple, and, as it
were, disguised, wonderfully different from the perfect con-
[Seite 364] formation of the human frame, which deserves to be re-
garded as the grandest effect of the nisus formativus, and
at which it arrives by gradual changes or, if we may so
speak, metamorphoses from a more simple to a more per-
fect form.^*

642. The formation of human bone ^† begins, if we are
not mistaken, in the seventh or eighth week. First of
[Seite 365] all, the osseous fluid forms its nuclei in the clavicles, ribs,
vertebrae, the large cylindrical bones of the extremities,
the lower jaw, and some other bones of the face, in the
delicate reticulum of some flat bones of the skull, – of the
frontal and occipital, but less early in the parietal. In
general, the growth of the embryo, and indeed of the
human being after birth, is more rapid as the age is less,
and vice versa.(A)

643. About the middle of pregnancy, certain fluids be-
gin to be secreted, as the fat (486) and bile. In the course
of the seventh month, all the organs of the vital, natural,
and animal functions have made such progress, that if the
child happens to be born at this period, it is called, in a
common acceptation of the word, vital, and regarded as a
member of society.

644. In the foetus, near its full growth, not only is the
skin covered by a caseous matter, but delicate hair appears
upon the head, and little nails become visible; the mem-
brana papillaris splits (262); the cartilaginous external
ear becomes more firm and elastic; and in the male the
testes descend. (510 et seq.)

645. About the end of the tenth lunar month, the child
being born, (595), undergoes besides those important
changes of nearly its whole economy, which were formerly
described at large, other alterations in its external ap-
pearance; v.c. the down which covered its face at birth,
gradually disappears, the wrinkles are obliterated, the anus
becomes concealed between the swelling nates, &c.

[Seite 366]

646. By degrees the infant learns to employ its mental
faculties of perception, attention, reminiscence, inclina-
tion, &c. whence, even in the early months, it dreams,
and s. p.^*

647. The organs of the external senses are gradually
evolved and perfected, as the external ear, the internal
nares, the coverings of the eyes, viz. the supra orbital
arches, the eyebrows, &c.

648. The bones of the skull unite more firmly; the fon-
ticuli are by degrees filled up; and about eight months
after birth, dentition commences.

649. At this period the child is ready to be weaned, its
teeth being intended to manducate solid food and not to
injure the mother’s breast.

650. About the end of the first year, it learns to rest
upon its feet and stand erect, – the highest characteristic
of the human body.^†

651. The child now weaned from its mother’s breast
and capable of using its feet, improves and acquires more
voluntary power daily: another grand privilege of the
human race is bestowed upon it, – the use of speech, – the
mind beginning to pronounce, by means of the tongue,
the ideas with which it is familiar.

652. The twenty milk teeth by degrees fall out about
the seventh year, and a second dentition produces, in the
course of years, thirty-two permanent teeth.

653. During infancy, memory is more vigorous than
[Seite 367] the other faculties of the mind, and much more powerful
than at any other period in tenaciously receiving the
impressions of objects: after the fifteenth year, the fire of
imagination burns most strongly.

654. This more lively state of the imagination occurs
very opportunely at puberty, when the body, undergoing
various remarkable changes, is being gradually prepared
for the exercise of the sexual functions.

655. Immediately after the period when the breasts of
the adolescent girl have begun to swell, the chin of the
boy is covered with down, and the phenomena of puberty
manifest themselves in either sex. The girl begins to men-
struate, (554), – an important change in the female eco-
nomy, accompanied among other circumstances, nearly
always by an increased brightness of the eyes and redness
of the lips, and by more evident sensible qualities of the
perspiration. The boy begins to secrete genuine semen
(527), and, at the same time, the beard ^* grows more abun-
dantly, and the voice becomes remarkably grave.

By the spontaneous internal voice of nature, as it were,
the sexual instinct (71) is now for the first time excited,
and man, being in the flower of his age, is capable of
sexual connection.

656. The period of puberty cannot be exactly defined:
it varies with climate and temperament,^† but is generally
[Seite 368] more early in the female; so that in our climate, girls
arrive at puberty about the fifteenth year, and young men,
on the contrary, about the twentieth. (B)

657. Soon after this, growth terminates; at various
periods in different climates, to say nothing of particular
individuals and families.^* (C)

658. The epiphyses of the bones hitherto distinct from
their diaphyses, now become intimately united, and, as it
were, confounded with them.

659. At manhood, – the longer and more excellent pe-
riod of human existence, life is, with respect to the cor-
poreal functions, at the highest pitch (82), or, in other
words, these functions are performed with the greatest
vigour and constancy; in regard to the mental functions,
the grand prerogative of mature judgment is now afforded.

660. The approach of old age ^† is announced in women
by the cessation of the catamenia (556), and not unfre-
[Seite 369] quently by an appearance of beard upon the chin;^* in
men, by less alacrity to copulate: in both, by a senile ^†
dryness and a gradually manifested decrease of vital
energy.

661. Lastly, the frigid condition of old age is accom-
panied by an increasing dulness of both the external and
internal senses, a necessity for longer sleep, and a torpor
of all the functions of the animal economy. The hairs
grow white and partly fall off. The teeth gradually drop
out. The neck is no longer able to give due support to
the head, nor the legs to the body. Even the bones
themselves – the props of the machine – in a manner waste
away, &c.^‡

662. Thus we are conducted to the ultimate line of phy-
siology, – to death without disease,^§ to the senile ευϑανασικ,
which it is the first and last object of medicine to pro-
cure, and the cause of which must be self-evident from
our preceding account of the animal economy.^¶

[Seite 370]

663. The phenomena of a moribund person ^* are cold-
ness of the extremities, loss of brilliancy in the eyes, small-
ness and slowness of the pulse, which more and more fre-
quently intermits, infrequency of respiration, which at
length terminates forever by a deep expiration.

In the dissection of other moribund mammalia the
struggle of the heart may be perceived; and the right
auricle and ventricle are found to live rather longer than
the left, (117).

664. Death is manifested by the coldness and rigidity
of the body, the flaccidity of the cornea, the open state of
the anus, the lividness of the back, the depression and
flatness of the loins (59, Note), and above all, by an
odour truly cadaverous.^† If these collective marks are
present, there can be scarcely room for the complaint of
Pliny, that one ought not to believe even a dead man.^‡

665. It is scarcely possible to define the natural period
of life, or, as it may be termed, the more frequent and
regular limit of advanced old age.^§ But by an accurate
[Seite 371] examination of numerous bills of mortality, I have ascer-
tained a remarkable fact, – that a very large proportion of
Europeans reach their eighty-fourth year, while, on the
contrary, few exceed it (D).

666. On the whole, notwithstanding the weakness of
children, the intemperance of adults, the violence of dis-
eases, the fatality of accidents, and many other circum-
stances, prevent more than perhaps seventy-eight persons
out of a thousand from dying of old age, without disease,
nevertheless, if human longevity ^* be compared, caeteris
paribus, with the duration of the life of any other known
animal among the mammalia, we shall find that of all the
sophistical whinings about the misery of human life, no
one is more unfounded than that which is commonly made
respecting the shortness of its duration (E).

NOTES.

(A) For a minute account of ossification I refer to Mr.
Howship’s papers in the sixth and seventh volumes of the
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and more particularly to
a review of the first paper in the first number of the Annals
of Medicine and Surgery.

(B) Instances continually occur in both sexes of early
puberty, sometimes joined with very rapid growth. The
[Seite 372] mind however does not usually keep pace with the body,
(or rather the brain with the rest of the body) and such
individuals have commonly short lives. Some males are
reported to have been adult before the completion of
their first year. One of the earliest examples of female
puberty is given in the Medico-Chirurgical Transac-
tions:^* the girl began to menstruate when not three
years of age, and soon after acquired large breasts, broad
hips, &c. Schurig relates that a little couple, each nine
years of age, married and begot a son.^†

The activity of the grand organs of generation, – of the
testes in the male and the ovaria in the female, pro-
duces the great changes in the rest of the generative
organs and in the system at large at the period of puberty,
for if they are previously removed, these changes do
not occur, and they appear in general proportional
to the evolution and activity of those organs.^‡ This is
well known in regard to animals and man. We perhaps
have no well authenticated instance of the castration of
a woman,^§ but when the ovaria have been found defici-
ent, the signs of puberty have not appeared,^¶while
[Seite 373] the absence of the uterus has not been attended by any
deficiency in the general changes.^* I must think with
Moreau ^† that many phenomena have been ascribed to
sympathy with the uterus which are really referrible to
the ovaria.

Mr. Hunter made an experiment respecting the removal
of one ovarium only. He took two young sows in all
respects similar to each other, and after removing an
ovarium from one he admitted a boar of the same farrow
to each and allowed them to breed. The perfect sow bred
till she was about eight years old, – a period of almost six
years, in which time she had thirteen farrows, and in all
one hundred and sixty-two pigs; the other bred till she
was six years old, – during a space of more than four
years, and in that time she had eight farrows and in all
seventy-six pigs. Thus it would appear that each ovarium
is destined to produce a certain number only of foetuses,
and that the removal of one, although it does not influ-
ence the number of foetuses produced by the other, causes
them to be produced in a shorter time.^‡

(C) Not only do instances of early puberty and full
growth frequently occur, but likewise of deficient and
exuberant growth. Dwarfs are generally born of the
same size as other children, but after a few years they
suddenly cease to grow. They are said to be commonly
ill-shaped, to have large heads, and to be stupid or mali-
cious,^§ and old age comes upon them very early. The
[Seite 374] three foreign dwarfs lately exhibited in London, two men
and one woman, had certainly large heads and flat noses,
but in other respects were well made. The tallest of the
three seemed a sulky creature, but the woman was very
ingenious and obliging, and Simon Paap, the least of the
three, appeared very amiable. He was twenty-eight
inches high and twenty-six years old. They were not re-
lated to each other, and the relations of all were of the
common size. Their countenances were those of persons
more advanced. The smallest dwarf on record was only
sixteen inches high, when thirty-seven years of age.^*

The tallest person authentically recorded has never ex-
ceeded nine feet, according to Haller.

The young man from Huntingdonshire also lately exhi-
bited in London was of remarkable height. Although
only seventeen years of age, he was nearly eight feet.
He had a sister of extraordinary height, and many of his
family were very tall. He was, as is usual, born of the
ordinary size, but soon began to grow rapidly. He ap-
peared amiable, and as acute as most youths of his age
and rank. Giants and dwarfs providentially seldom reach
their fortieth year and have not very active organs of
generation.^†

[Seite 375]

(D) Our countryman Parr married when a hundred
and twenty years of age, retained his vigour till a hundred
and forty, and died at a hundred and fifty-two from ple-
thora induced by a change in his diet. Harvey who dis-
sected him, found no decay of any organ,^* and had not
Parr become an inmate of the Earl of Arundel’s family in
London, he probably would have lived many years longer.
Our other countrymen Jenkins, who lived a hundred
and sixty-nine years, is perhaps the greatest authentic
instance of longevity.

It is unnecessary to observe that the height and the
age of men at present are the same as they have been for
thousands of years. It is a common custom to magnify
the past. Homer who flourished almost three thousand
years ago, makes his heroes hurl stones in battle which

–––––––– ου’ δύο γ’ ἂνδρε φέροιεν

Οἶοι νῦν βροτοί εἰσι.^†

Yet the giant who was the terror of the Israelites, was
not probably more than nine feet in height, and David,
who slew him, and was nearly cotemporary with Homer’s
heroes, says, ‘“The days of our years are threescore and
ten; and if by reason of strength they be forescore
years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow; for it is
soon cut off and we fly away.”’^‡

(E) The functions of the human machine having now
been fully described, it may be of advantage to consider
it in its relation to other animated systems, and to review
the chief varieties in which it appears.

[Seite 376]

Numerous authors have remarked that a gradation
exists among all the objects of the universe, from the Al-
mighty Creator, through arch-angels and angels, men,
animals, vegetables and inanimate matter, down to nothing.

‘“Vast chain of being which from God began,’
‘Natures ethereal, human, angel, man,’
‘Beast, bird, fish, insect, what no eye can see,’
‘No glass can reach, from infinite to thee,’
‘From thee to nothing.”’*

Yet this gradation deserves not the epithet regular or in-
sensible. ‘“The highest being not infinite must be, as has
been often observed, at an infinite distance below infinity.”’
‘“And in this distance between finite and infinite there will
be room for ever for an infinite series of indefinable exist-
ence. Between the lowest positive existence and nothing,
wherever we suppose existence to cease, is another chasm
infinitely deep; where there is room again for endless
orders of subordinate beings, continued for ever and
ever, and yet infinitely superior to non-existence.”’ ‘“Nor
is this all. In the scale, wherever it begins or ends, are
infinite vacuities. At whatever distance we suppose the
next order of beings to be above man, there is room for
an intermediate order of beings between them, and if for
one order then for infinite orders; since every thing that
admits of more or less, and consequently all the parts of
that which admits them, may be infinitely divided. So
that as far as we can judge, there may be room in the
vacuity, between any two steps of the scale, or between
any two points of the cone, for infinite exertion of infinite
power.”’^†

[Seite 377]

In fact, at how vast a distance do we see the innate
mental properties of man standing above those of the
most sagacious animal: how immensely does the volition
of the lowest animal raise it above the whole vegetable
kingdom; and how deep the chasm between the vital
organisation of the meanest vegetable and a mass of in-
animate matter. Gradation must be admitted, but it is
far from regular or insensible. Neither does it regard
the perfection, nor so much the degree, but the excellence
and combination, of properties, – man, placed at the sum-
mit of the terrestrial gradation, by the excellence of his
mind and the combination of the common properties of
matter, of those of vegetables and of those of animals,
with those peculiar to himself, is surpassed by the dog
in acuteness of smell and by the oak in magnitude, nor is
he more perfect than the gnat or the thistle in its kind.

Bodies consist of particles endowed with certain pro-
perties, without which their existence cannot be conceiv-
ed, viz. extension and impenetrability; with others which
proceed indeed from their existence, but are capable of
being subdued by opposing energies, viz. mobility, in-
ertness; and with others neither necessary to their ex-
istence nor flowing from it, but merely superadded; for
example, various attractions and repulsions, various
powers of affecting animated systems.

Inanimate bodies have no properties which are not ei-
ther analogous to these or dependent upon them; are for
the most part homogeneous in their composition, and
disposed to be flat and angular, increase by external ac-
cretion, and contain within themselves no causes of
decay.

Vegetables, in addition to the properties of inanimate
matter, possess those of Life, viz. sensibility (without
[Seite 378] perception) and contractility;^* their structure is beauti-
fully organized, and their surfaces disposed to be round-
ed; they grow by internal deposition, and are destined
in their nature for a period of increase and decay.

Animals, in addition to the properties of vegetables,
enjoy Mind, the indispensable attributes of which are,
the powers of consciousness, perception, and volition;
the two former without the latter were, like vegetable or
organic sensibility without contractility, useless, and the
latter could not exist without the two former, any more
than vegetable or organic contraction could occur with-
out sensibility; nor can the existence of mind be con-
ceived without the faculties of consciousness, perception,
and volition, any more than the existence of matter with-
out extension and impenetrability. The possession of
mind by animals necessarily implies the presence of a
brain for its performance, and of a nerve or nerves for
the purpose of conveying impressions to this brain, and
volitions from it to one or more voluntary muscles. A
system which is not thus gifted certainly deserves not
the name of animal.^†

[Seite 379]

Notwithstanding the vast interval which of necessity
exists between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, the
lowest animals approach as nearly as possible in organi-
zation, and consequently in function, to vegetable simpli
city. They possess merely consciousness, perception and
volition, with the instinct for taking food, and multiply by
shoots, fixed like vegetables to the spot which they in-
habit. The five senses, instincts, memory, judgment,^*
[Seite 380] and locomotive power, with the necessary organs, are
variously superadded, and endless varieties of organiza-
tion constructed, so that air and water, the substance and
the surface of the earth, are all replenished with animals
calculated for their respective habitations.^*

[Seite 381]

Man, besides the common properties of animals, has
others, which raise him to an immense superiority. His
mind is endowed with powers of the highest order which
they have not, and his body being, like the bodies of all
animals, constituted in harmony with the mind, that the
powers of the latter may have effect, differs necessarily
in many points of construction from the body of every
animal. Well might the greatest of all uninspired poets
exclaim, ‘“What a piece of work is man! How noble in
reason! how infinite in faculties! in form and moving
how express and admirable! in action how like an angel!
in apprehension how like a god! the beauty of the world!
the paragon of animals!”’^*

The true ourang-outang (simia satyrus) approaches
the nearest of all animals to the human subject. Curious,
imitative, covetous, social, placing sentinels and dispos-
ing themselves in a train for the propagation of alarm,
sometimes seeming to laugh,^† walking occasionally erect,
defending themselves with sticks and stones, copulating
face to face,^‡ carrying their young either in their arms
or on their backs, possessing teeth of the same number
and figure as our own, and very lascivious in regard to
our species, the ourang-outangs at first sight afford, if any
of the genus can afford, a little probability to the opinion
of a close connection between monkeys and the human
race. Uncivilized men, too, make a slight approach in
many corporeal particulars, as we shall hereafter find, to
[Seite 382] the structure of other animals, and since also the circum-
stances of their existence call into action few of the pecu-
liar mental powers of our nature, they have been adduced
in corroboration of this opinion. But an attentive exami-
nation displays differences of the greatest magnitude be-
tween the human and the brute creation. These we shall
review under two divisions, the first embracing the mental,
and the second the corporeal characteristics of mankind.

In judging of the mental faculties of mankind, not
merely those should be considered which an unfortunately
situated individual may display, but those which all the
race would display, under favourable circumstances. A
seed and a pebble may not on a shelf appear very dissi-
milar, but if both are placed in the earth, the innate cha-
racteristic energies of the seed soon become conspicuous.
A savage may in the same manner seem little superior to
an ourang-outang, but if instruction is afforded to both,
the former will gradually develop the powers of our na-
ture in all their noble superiority, while the latter will
still remain an ourang-outang. The excellence of man’s
mind demonstrates itself by his voice and hands. Wit-
ness the infinite variety and the depth of thought express-
ed by means of words: witness his great reasoning pow-
ers, his ingenuity, his taste, his conscientious, religious,
and benevolent feelings, in his manufactories, his galleries
of the fine arts, his halls of justice, his temples, and his
charitable establishments. Besides the qualities common
to all animals, each of which he, like every animal, pos-
sesses in a degree peculiar to himself, and some indeed
in a degree very far surpassing that in which any animal
possesses them, for instance, benevolence, mechanical
contrivance, the sense for music, and the general power
of observation and inference, he appears exclusively gifted
[Seite 383] with feelings of religion and justice, with taste, with wit,
and with the faculty of comparing things, and diving into
their causes.^*

The corporeal characteristics of mankind are not less
striking and noble.^† Among the beings beheld by Satan
in Paradise,

‘“Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall,’
‘Godlike erect, with native honour clad’
‘In naked majesty seemed lords of all.”’‡

The erect posture is natural and peculiar to man.^§ All
nations walk erect, and among those individuals who
have been discovered in a wild and solitary state, there
is no well authenticated instance of one whose progres-
sion was on all fours. If we attempt this mode of pro-
[Seite 384] gression, we move either on the knees or the points of the
toes, throwing the legs obliquely back to a considerable
distance; we find ourselves insecure and uneasy; our eyes,
instead of looking forwards, are directed to the ground;
and the openings of the nostrils are no longer at the lower
part of the nose, in a situation to receive ascending odo-
rous particles, but lie behind it. Our inferior extremities
being of much greater length in proportion to the superior,
and the trunk than the posterior, of animals with four ex-
tremities, even in children in whom the proportion is less,
are evidently not intended to coincide with them in move-
ment; they are much stronger than the arms, obviously
for the purpose of great support; the presence of calves,
which are found in man alone, shews that the legs are to
support and move the whole machine; the thigh bones are
in the same line with the trunk; in quadrupeds they form
an acute angle; the bones of the tarsus become hard and
perfect sooner than those of the carpus, because strength
of leg is required for standing and walking sooner than
strength of arm and hand for labour; the great toe is of
the highest importance to the erect posture, and is be-
stowed exclusively on mankind. The superior extremi-
ties do not lie under the trunk, as they would if destined
for its support, but on its sides, capable of motion towards
objects in every direction; the fore arm extends itself
outwards, not forwards, as in quadrupeds, where it is an
organ of progression; the hand is fixed not at right angles
with the arm, as an instrument of support, but in the
same line, and cannot be extended to a right angle with-
out painfully stretching the flexor tendons; the superior
extremity is calculated in the erect posture for seizing and
handling objects, by the freedom of its motions, by the
great length of the fingers above that of the toes, and by
[Seite 385] the existence of the thumb, which, standing at a distance
from the fingers, and bending towards them, acts as an
opponent, while the great toe is, like the rest, too short
for apprehension, stands in the same line with them, and
moves in the same direction. Quadrupeds have a strong
ligament at the back of the neck, to sustain the head; in
us there is no such thing, and our extensor muscles at the
back of the neck are comparatively very weak.^* They
have the thorax deep and narrow, that the anterior ex-
tremities may lie near together, and give more support;
the sternum too is longer, and the ribs extend consider-
ably towards the pelvis, to maintain the incumbent visce-
ra; our thorax is broad from side to side, that the arms,
being thrown to a distance, may have greater extent of
motion, and narrow from the sternum to the spine; and
the abdominal viscera, pressing towards the pelvis, rather
than towards the surface of the abdomen, in the erect at-
titude, do not here require an osseous support. The pelvis
is beautifully adapted in us for supporting the bowels in
the erect posture; it is extremely expanded, and the sa-
crum and os coccygis bend forwards below: in animals it
does not merit the name of pelvis; for, not having to
support the abdominal contents, it is narrow, and the
sacrum inclines but little to the pubis. The nates, besides
extending the pelvis upon the thigh bones in the erect
[Seite 386] state of standing or walking, allow us to rest while awake
in the sitting posture, in which the head and trunk being
still erect, our organs of sense have their proper direction
equally as in walking or standing: were we compelled to
lie down like brutes, while resting during the waking
state, the different organs of the face must change their
present situation, to retain their present utility, no less
than if we were compelled to adopt the horizontal pro-
gression; and, conversely, were their situation so chang-
ed, the provision for the sitting posture would be com-
paratively useless.

While some, perversely desirous of degrading their
race, have attempted to remove a grand source of dis-
tinction, by asserting that we are constructed for all fours,
others, with equal perverseness and ignorance, have as-
serted that monkeys are destined for the upright posture.
Monkeys, it is true, maintain the erect posture less awk-
wardly than other animals with four extremities, but they
cannot maintain it long, and, while in it, they bend their
knees and body; they are insecure and tottering, and glad
to rest upon a stick; their feet, too, instead of being
spread for support, are coiled up, as if to grasp some-
thing. In fact, their structure proves them to be neither
biped nor quadruped, but four-handed animals. They
live naturally in trees, and are furnished with four hands
for grasping the branches and gathering their food. Of
their four hands, the posterior are even the more perfect,
and are in no instance destitute of a thumb, although,
like the thumbs of all the quadrumana, so insignificant,
as to have been termed by Eustachius ‘“omnino ridicu-
lus;”’ whereas the fore hands of one variety (simia pa-
niscus) have not this organ.

It was anciently supposed that man, because gifted with
[Seite 387] the highest mental endowments, possessed the largest of
all brains.^* But as elephants and whales surpass him in
this respect, and the sagacious monkey and dog have
smaller brains than the comparatively stupid ass, ox and
hog, the opinion was relinquished by the moderns, and
man was said only to have the largest brain in propor-
tion to the size of his body. But as more extensive ob-
servation proved canary and other birds, and some va-
rieties of the monkey tribe, to have larger brains than
man in proportion to the body, and several mammalia to
equal him in this particular, and as rats and mice too
surpass the dog, the horse, and the elephant, in the com-
parative bulk of their brains, this opinion gave way, in
its turn, to that of Soemmerring, – that man possesses
the largest brain, in comparison with the nerves arising
from it. This has not yet been contradicted, although
the comparative size of the brain to the nerves origin-
ating from it, (granting that they originate from it) is
not an accurate measure of the faculties, because the seal
has in proportion to its nerves a larger brain than the
house dog, and the porpoise than the ourang-outang.

As the human brain is of such great comparative mag-
nitude, the cranium is necessarily very large, and bears a
greater proportion to the face than in any animal. In an
European, a vertical section of the cranium is almost
four times larger than that of the face, (not including the
lower jaw); in the monkey, it is little more than double;
in most ferae, nearly equal; in the glires, solipedes, pe-
cora and belluae, less. The faculties, however, do not
depend upon this proportion, because men of great ge-
[Seite 388] nius, as Leo, Montaigne, Leibnitz, Haller, and Mira-
beau, had very large faces, and the sloth and seal have
faces larger than the stag, horse and ox, in proportion
to the brain, and the proportion is acknowledged by Cu-
vier to be not at all applicable to birds. We are assist-
ed in discovering the proportion between the cranium
and face by the facial angle of Camper. He draws two
straight lines, the one horizontal, passing through the
external meatus auditorius and the bottom of the nos-
trils, the other more perpendicular, running from the
convexity of the forehead to the most prominent part of
the upper jaw. The angle which the latter, – the proper
facial line, makes with the former, is least in the human
subject, from the comparative smallness of the brain and
the great developement of the mouth and nose in ani-
mals. In the human adult this angle is 85°; in the
ourang-outang 67°; in some quadrupeds 20°; and in the
lower classes of vertebral animals, it entirely disappears.

Neither is it to be regarded as an exact measure of the
understanding, for persons of great intellect may have a
prominent mouth; it shows merely the projection of the
forehead, while the cranium and brain may vary greatly
in size in other parts; three-fourths of quadrupeds,
whose crania differ extremely in other respects, have the
same facial angle; great amplitude of the frontal sinuses,
as in the owl and hog, without any increase of brain,
may diminish it, and for this reason Cuvier draws the
facial line from the internal table of the frontal bone.

In proportion as the face is elongated, the occipital
foramen lies more posteriorly; in man consequently it is
most forward. While in man it is nearly in the centre
of the base of the cranium, and horizontal, and has even
sometimes its anterior margin elevated, in most quadru-
[Seite 389] peds it is situated at the extremity of the cranium ob-
liquely, with its posterior parts turned upwards, and is
in some completely vertical. On this difference of situa-
tion, Daubenton founded his occipital angle.^* He drew
one line from the posterior edge of the foramen to the
lower edge of the orbit, and another in the direction of
the foramen, passing between the condylcs, and intersect-
ing the former. According to the angle formed, he es-
tablished the similarity and diversity of crania. The in-
formation derived from it in this respect is very im-
perfect, because it shows the differences of the occiput
merely. Blumenbach remarks, that its variations are in-
cluded between 80° and 90° in most quadrupeds, which
differ very essentially in other points.

The want of the os intermaxillare has been thought
peculiar to mankind. Quadrupeds, and even the ape
tribe, have two bones between the superior maxillary,
containing the dentes incisores when these are present,
and termed ossa intermaxillaria, incisoria, or labialia.
Its universal existence in them, however, is not satisfac-
torily established. Man alone has a prominent chin: his
lower jaw is the shortest, compared with the cranium;
and its condyles differ in form, direction, and articula-
tion, from those of any animal: in no animal are the
teeth arranged in such a close and uniform series; the
lower incisores, like the jaw in which they are fixed, are
perpendicular, – a distinct characteristic of man, for in
animals they slope backwards with the jaw bone; the
canine are not longer than the rest, nor insulated, as in
monkeys; the molares differ from those of the ourang-
[Seite 390] outang, and of all the genus simia, by their singularly ob-
tuse projections.

The slight hairiness of the human skin in general, al-
though certain parts, as the pubis and axillae, are more
copiously furnished with hair than in animals; the situa-
tion of the heart lying not upon the sternum, as in qua-
drupeds, but upon the diaphragm, on account of our
erect position, the basis turned not as in them to the
spine, but to the head, and the apex to the left nipple;
the omnivorous structure of the alimentary canal; the
curve of the vagina corresponding with the curve of the
sacrum formerly mentioned, causing woman to be not,
as brute females are, retromingent; perhaps the hymen;
the singular structure of the human uterus and placenta;
the length of the umbilical chord, and the existence of the
vesicula umbilicalis till the fourth month; the extreme
delicacy of the cellular membrane; the absence of the
allantois, of the panniculus camosus, of the rete mirabile
arteriosum, of the suspensorius oculi; and the smallness
of the foramen incisivum, which is not only very large
in animals, but generally double; are likewise structural
peculiarities of the human race.

Man alone can live in almost every climate; he is the
slowest in arriving at maturity, and, in proportion to his
size, he lives the longest; he alone procreates at every
season, and, while in celibacy, experiences nocturnal
emissions. None but the human female menstruates.

Man, thus distinguished from all other terrestrial
beings, evidently constitutes a separate species, – fact
harmonizes with the Mosaic account of his distinct crea-
tion. For ‘“a species comprehends all the individuals
which descend from each other, as from a common pa-
rent, and those which resemble them as much as they
[Seite 391] do each other,”’ and no animal bears such a resem-
blance to man.^*

He is subject, however, to great variety, so great in-
deed, that some writers have contended that several races
of men must have been originally created. We shall now
examine the principal of these varieties.

The most generally approved division
of mankind is that of Blumenbach.^† He makes five va-
rieties; the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Ameri-
can, and Malay. The following are the characteristics
of each.

1. The Caucasian. The skin white; the cheeks red,
– almost a peculiarity of this variety; the hair of a nut
brown, running on the one hand into yellow, and on the
other into black, soft, long, and undulating.

The head extremely symmetrical, rather globular; the
forehead moderately expanded; the cheek bones narrow,
not prominent, directed downwards from the Malar pro-
cess of the superior maxillary bone; the alveolar edge
round; the front teeth of each jaw placed perpendicularly.

The face oval and pretty straight; its parts moderate-
ly distinct; the nose narrow and slightly aquiline, or at
least its dorsum rather prominent; the mouth small; the
lips, especially the lower, gently turned out; the chin
full and round; – in short, the countenance of that style
which we consider the most beautiful.

This comprehends all Europeans, except the Lap-
landers, and the rest of the Finnish race, the western
[Seite 392] Asiatics as far as the Obi, the Caspian, and the Ganges,
and the people of the North of Africa.

M. de Virey subdivides this variety into two parts:^*
the one with very light skin and hair and great muscu-
lar strength, including most European nations, as the
Cimbri and Scandinavians, Teutoni, Celts, properly so
called, Goths, Saxons, Icelanders, Britons, Normans,
Francs, Italians, Greeks, and Celtiberians, and even the
Galatae or Asiatic Gauls, who have spread themselves in
Asia Minor, the Morea, Georgia, and Circassia: the
other not so light, including the Vandals, Illyrians or
Sclavonians, Getae, Sarmatae, Gepidae, Thracians, Rus-
sians, Turks, Tartars of the Crimea, Scythians, Persians,
Arabians, Moors, and even the Cisgangetic Hindus.

2. The Mongolian. The skin of an olive colour; the
hair black, stiff, straight and sparing.

The head almost square; the cheek bones prominent
outwards; the space between the eyebrows, together
with the bones of the nose, placed nearly in the same
horizontal plane with the malar bones; the superciliary
arches scarcely perceptible; the osseous nostrils narrow;
the fossa maxillaris shallow; the alveolar edge arched
obtusely forwards; the chin somewhat projecting.

The face broad and flattened, and its parts consequent-
ly less distinct; the space between the eyebrows very
broad as well as flat; the cheeks not only projecting out-
wards, but nearly globular; the aperture of the eye-lids
narrow, linear; the nose small and flat.

This comprehends the remaining Asiatics, except the
Malays of the extremity of the Transgangetic peninsula;
the Finnish races of the North of Europe, – Laplanders,
[Seite 393] &c.; and the Esquimaux diffused over the most northern
parts of America, from Bhering’s Strait to the farthest
habitable spot of Greenland.

In this M. de Virey makes three subdivisions: the
first short, weak, barbarous and cowardly, and lean and
brown even in cold and temperate climates, embracing all
the circumference of the Arctic pole, Spitzberg, Petzora
and Greenland, the Esquimaux, Tschutches, Kamtschat-
kans, Koriaks, Ostiaks, Gakats, Jukagres, Samoides, and
Laplanders: the second, for the most part horridly ugly,
embracing the Eluths and Calmucks, Tunguses, Baskirks,
true Cossacks, Kirghises, Tschouvachs, Burats, Soonga-
rees, the Mantchoos people of the north of China, and
the Tanjutic tribes of Thibet: the third, less ugly, en-
joying a more southern climate and fixed abodes, em-
bracing the Chinese, Japanese, Coresians, Tonguinese,
Cochinchinese, the people of Jesso, many of Thibet, the
Siamese, &c.

3. Ethiopian. The skin black; the hair black and
crisp.

The head narrow, compressed laterally; the forehead
arched; the malar bones projecting forwards; the osseous
nares large; the malar fossa behind the infra-orbitar fo-
ramen deep; the jaws lengthened forwards; the alveolar
edge narrow, elongated, more elliptical; the upper front
teeth obliquely prominent; the lower jaw large and
strong; the cranium usually thick and heavy.

The face narrow, and projecting at its lower part; the
eyes prominent; the nose thick and confused with the
projecting cheeks; the lips, especially the upper, thick;
the chin somewhat receding.

The legs in many instances bowed.

This comprehends the inhabitants of Africa, with the
[Seite 394] exception of those in the northern parts, already included
in the Caucasian variety.

M. de Virey here also makes two subdivisions; the
one embracing the people of the equatorial parts of Afri-
ca, of Nigritia and Guinea, the Madingos, Jaloffs, Caf-
fres, Galla, the inhabitants of Conjo, Angola, the coast
of Zanguebar, Monoëmugi, the interior of Madagascar
and of New Guinea, and lastly, the Papoos: the other of
an olive tint, nearly approaching to black, embracing the
Hottentots, the Namaguese, nearly the whole of New
Holland and some neighbouring islands, as New Caledo-
nia and the island of the Quirds.^*

4. The American. The skin of a copper colour; the
hair black, stiff, straight and sparing.

The forehead short; the cheek bones broad, but more
arched and rounded than in the Mongolian variety, not,
as in it, angular and projecting outwards; the orbits ge-
nerally deep; the forehead and vertex frequently deform-
ed by art; the cranium usually light.

The face broad, with prominent cheeks, not flattened,
but with every part distinctly marked, if viewed in pro-
file; the eyes deep; the nose rather flat, but still promi-
nent.

This comprehends all the Americans, excepting the
Esquimaux.

5. The Malay. The skin tawny; the hair black, soft,
curled, thick, and abundant.

The head rather narrow; the forehead slightly arched;
the parietal bones prominent; the cheek bones not pro-
minent; the upper jaw rather projecting.

[Seite 395]

The face prominent at its lower part; not so narrow as
in the Ethiopian variety, but the features, viewed in pro-
file, more distinct; the nose full, broad, bottled at its
point; the mouth large.

This comprehends the inhabitants of the Pacific, Ma-
rian, Philippine, Molucca, and Sanda isles, and of the
peninsula of Malacca.

General Remarks. The colour of the hair thus appears
somewhat connected with that of the skin, and the colour
of the iris is closely connected with that of the hair.
Light hair is common with a white and thin skin only,
and a dark thick skin is usually accompanied by black
hair; if the skin happens to be variegated, the hair also
is variegated; with the milk white skin of the albino, we
find hair of a peculiar yellowish white tint; and where
the skin is marked by reddish freckles, the hair is red.
When the hair is light, the iris is usually blue; when
dark, it is of a brownish black; if the hair loses the light
shade of infancy, the iris likewise grows darker, and when
the hair turns grey, in advanced life, the iris loses much
of its former colour; the albino has no more colouring
matter in his iris than in his skin, and it therefore allows
the redness of its blood to appear; those animals only,
whose skin is subject to varieties, vary in the colour of
the iris; and if the hair and skin happen to be variegated,
the iris is observed likewise variegated.^*

[Seite 396]

The Caucasian variety of head, nearly round, is the
mean of the rest, while the Mongolian, almost square,
forms one extreme, having the American intermediate;
and the Ethiopian the other extreme, having the Malay
intermediate between it and the Caucasian.

The Caucasian variety of face is also the mean, while
the Mongolian and American, extended laterally, form
one extreme, and the Ethiopian and Malay, extended
inferiorly, constitute the other. In the first of each ex-
treme, viz. the Mongolian and Ethiopian, the features
are distinct, while in the second, viz. the American and
Malay, they are confused.

Although this division of mankind is well founded and
extremely useful, it is liable, like every artificial division
of natural objects, to many exceptions. Individuals be-
longing to one variety are not unfrequently observed
with some of the characteristics of another;^* the charac-
[Seite 397] teristics of two varieties are often intimately blended in
the same individual (indeed all the four varieties run
[Seite 398] into each other by insensible degrees;)^* and instances
continually occur of deviation in one or more particulars
from the appearances characteristic of any variety;^† so
that the assemblage, rather than individual marks, must
frequently be employed to determine the variety.

Particular Remarks. The Caucasian variety is pre-
eminent in all those mental and corporeal particulars
which distinguish man from animals. The general aspect
is dignified; the men appear formed for valour and con-
templation, the women for every sweet attractive grace.
The cranium is very capacious; the area of the face bears
to its area but a proportion of one to four, and projects
little or not at all at the lower parts: the intellectual fa-
culties are susceptible of the highest cultivation. Philo-
sophy and the fine arts flourish in it as in their proper
soil: to it revelation was directly granted.

The Ethiopian variety, when instructed by the Cauca-
sian, has produced instances of mental advancement great
[Seite 399] indeed, but inferior to what the latter is capable of at-
taining. ‘“There scarcely ever,”’ says Hume, ‘“was a
civilized nation of that complexion, nor even an indi-
vidual, eminent either in action or speculation. No
ingenious manufactures amongst them, no arts, no
sciences. On the other hand, the most rude and bar-
barous of the whites, such as the ancient Germans, the
present Tartars, have still something eminent about
them, in their valour, form of government, or some
other particular.”’^* Blumenbach, however, possesses
English, Dutch and Latin poetry, written by different
negroes, and informs us, that, among other examples of
distinguished negroes, a native of Guinea, eminent for
his integrity, talents, and learning, took the degree of
doctor in philosophy, at the University of Wittenberg;
and that Lislet, of the Isle of France, was chosen a cor-
responding member of the French Academy of Sciences.
‘“Provinces of Europe,”’ says he, ‘“might be named, in
which it would be no easy matter to discover such
good writers, poets, philosophers, and correspondents
of the French Academy; and on the other hand, there
is no savage people which have distinguished them-
selves by such examples of perfectibility, and even ca-
pacity for scientific cultivation, and, consequently, that
none can approach more nearly than the negro to the
polished nations of the globe.”’^† This mental inferiority
is attended of course by a corresponding inferiority of
the brain. The circumference, diameters, and vertical
arch of the cranium being smaller than in the European,^‡
[Seite 400] and the forehead particularly being narrower and falling
back in a more arched form, the brain in general, and
particularly those parts which are the organs of intellect
properly so called,^* must be of inferior size. The orbits
on the contrary, and the olfactory and gustatory, or ra-
ther masticatory organs, being more amply evolved, the
area of the face bears a greater proportion to the area of
the skull, – as 1. 2. to 4.; the proportion is greater in the
ourang-outang, and in the carnivora nearly equal.^† The
senses here situated, as well as that of hearing, are re-
markably acute, and the corresponding nerves, at least
the first, fifth, and facial, of great size.^‡

The ossa nasi lie so flatly as to form scarcely any
ridge; the face, as we have formerly seen, projects con-
siderably at its lower part;^§ the lower jaw is not only
long, but extremely strong; the chin not only not promi-
[Seite 401] nent, but even receding, and the space between it and
the lower teeth is small, while that between the upper
teeth and the nose is large; the meatus auditorius is
nearer the occiput, – more remote from the front teeth
than in the European; the foramen magnum occipitale
lying farther back, the occiput is nearly in a line with
the spine; the body is slender, especially in the loins and
pelvis, whose cavity likewise is small; the length of the
fore-arms and fingers bears a large proportion to that of
the os humeri; the os femoris and tibia are more con-
vex, and the edge of the latter, which, in consequence of
hearing the remark from my friend Mr. Fyfe, of Edin-
burgh, I have frequently examined in living negroes, is
very sharp; the calves are placed high; the os calcis, in-
stead of forming an arch, is on a line with the other
bones of the foot, which is of great breadth; the toes are
long; the penis large, and frequently destitute of fraenum.

Mr. White, from whom many of these remarks are
derived, describes the testes and scrotum as small, but
this does not accord with my own experience; the skin
is thicker;^* and finally the term of life shorter, than in
Europeans.

Nearly all these facts demonstrate a greater affinity of
the Negro than of the European to the brute creation.
But so slightly inferior to the Caucasians, and so im-
mensely superior to the most intelligent animals, the
poor negro might justly class those of us, who philosophi-
cally view him as merely a better kind of monkey, or
[Seite 402] who desire to traffic in his blood, not only below himself,
but below apes in intellect, and tigers in feeling and pro-
pensity.

‘“Indica tigris agit rabida cum tigride pacem’

‘“Perpetuam. Saevis inter se convenit ursis.”’^*

The Malays have but little hair upon the chin, and
possessing a great developement of the parts of the head
above the ears, are, as might be expected,^† signalized
for their treachery, cunning, and ferocity, and their pas-
sionate fondness for poetry.

The Mongolians are remarkably square and robust;
their shoulders high; their extremities short and thick.

The Americans have small hands and feet, and are
nearly destitute of beard. Shorter in the forehead than
the Mongolians, they have not so great intellectual dis-
tinction.

Not only have the five varieties their distinctive cha-
racteristics, but the different nations comprehended in
each variety, have each their peculiarities, both mental
and corporeal: among the Caucasians, for example, the
Germans, French, Spaniards and English, are extreme-
ly different from each other. Nay, the provinces of the
same country differ, and the families of the same pro-
vince, and, in fact, every individual has his own pecu-
liar countenance, figure, constitution, form of body, and
mental character.

[Seite 403]

A question here presents itself. – Are the differences
among mankind to be ascribed to the influence of va-
rious causes upon the descendants of two; – or of more,
but all similar, primary parents; – or to original differ-
ences in more than two primary parents? If considera-
tions à priori, analogical and direct facts, and the history
of mankind, corroborate in conjunction the first supposi-
tion, there will be no necessity to have recourse to the
bolder second, nor to the third, – the boldest of the three.

Our inquiries on this point should be prosecuted, as
well as all inquiries into nature, without reference to re-
velation. Lord Bacon has observed, that the union of
religious and philosophical investigation is often detri-
mental to the cause of truth.^*

If we resolve to make religion and philosophy harmo-
nize before we are certain of being perfectly acquainted
with the meaning of the sacred text, or masters of all the
facts necessary to establish legitimately a philosophical
opinion, the one or the other, or perhaps both, will be
strained and distorted. The truth will be more readily
obtained, if we examine the sense of scripture, indifferent
to the conclusions of philosophy, and inquire into na-
ture, indifferent to the pronunciations of revelation.
They must ultimately agree; for the works and the voice
of the Almighty cannot contradict each other. But this
agreement should be spontaneous; assured that it will
ultimately occur, its absence should have no other in-
fluence upon our minds, than to stimulate us to farther
inquiry, convincing us that either our conclusions are
illegitimate, or our facts deficient; but not inclining us
to deviate in the least from the severest and most inde-
[Seite 404] pendent mode of investigation, nor to force the scripture
from its well established signification.

On the point before us, the Bible speaks positively and
clearly, without the possibility of various interpretation or
corruption of the text, and not only in the account of the
creation, but incidentally in many other places.^* It is
[Seite 405] delightful to find nature and history investigated already
so far, as to harmonize with the statement of holy writ:
[Seite 406] but we shall detail the arguments, independently of this
consideration.^*

A priori, I think, the universal simplicity of nature’s
causes would induce us to imagine, that as, if the vari-
eties among us are accidental, two individuals were evi-
dently sufficient for the production of the rest of man-
kind, no more than two were originally created. Nor
can I conceive it possible to deduce a contrary presump-
tive argument, from the length of time during which im-
mense portions of the earth must have thus remained
unpeopled. One of nature’s objects seems the existence
of as much life as possible, whether animal or vegetable,
throughout the globe. For this purpose, every species
of animal and vegetable possesses an unlimited power of
propagation, capable of filling the whole world, were op-
portunity afforded it. The opportunities of exertion are
indeed very scanty, compared with the power; one ve-
getable, one animal, stands in the way of another; even
the impediments to the increase of some, act through
them as impediments to others. The constant tendency
of the power of multiplication to exert itself seizes every
opportunity the moment it is presented, and thus nature
[Seite 407] constantly teems with life. The slow increase of man-
kind could not interfere with this apparent object of na-
ture; the deficiency of our race must have invariably
been fully compensated by the opportunities which it
afforded for the multiplication of other existences: for
that man alone was not designed to fill the earth is shown
by the vast tracts of land still but thinly peopled. The
infinitely rare opportunities afforded for the maturity of
the intellectual and moral powers, born with every human
being, may afford still greater surprise than the extent of
country unoccupied by man. After all, the originally
great length of life must have contributed so much to
man’s multiplication, that were food sufficiently supplied,
he might very speedily have covered the earth.

Analogical and direct facts lead us to conclude, that
none of the differences among mankind are so great as to
require the belief of their originality.

Animated beings have a general tendency to produce
offspring resembling themselves, in both mental and cor
poreal qualities.

‘“Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis;’
‘“Est in juvencis, est in equis patrum’
‘“Virtus: nec imbellem feroces’
‘“Progenerant aquilae columbam.”’*

An exception occasionally occurs, much more frequent-
ly indeed in the domestic than the wild state, – the off-
spring differs in some particular from the parents; and,
by the force of the general tendency, transmits to its off-
spring its own peculiarity. By selecting such examples,
a breed peculiar in colour, figure, the form of some one
[Seite 408] part, or in some mental quality, maybe produced. Thus,
by killing all the black individuals which appear among
our sheep, and breeding only from the white, our flocks
are white; while, by an opposite practice, pursued in
some countries, they are black: thus a ram, accidentally
produced on a farm in Connecticut, with elbow-shaped
fore-legs, and a great shortness and weakness of joint
indeed in all four extremities, was selected for propaga-
tion, and the αγχων breed, unable to climb over fences, is
now established:^* thus some breeds of hares have horns
like the roebuck: the Dorking fowl has two hind claws;
and fowls indeed are bred in every conceivable variety.^†
Individuals, distinguished from others by no greater dif-
ferences than those which thus spring up accidentally,
cannot be supposed to belong to a separate species. Upon
the comparison of these differences depends the analogi-
cal argument first employed by Blumenbach. Finding
the ferret (mustela furo) to differ from the pole cat
(putorius) by the redness of its eyes, he concludes it is
merely a variety of the same species, because instances
of this deviation are known to occur accidentally in other
animals; but he concludes the African elephant is of a
[Seite 409] species distinct from the Asiatic, because the invariable
difference of their molar teeth is of a description which
naturalists have never found accidental. Now there ex-
ist among mankind no differences greater than what hap-
pen occasionally in individual species of animals.

The colours of the animals around us, horses, cows,
dogs, cats, rabbits, fowls, are extremely various, black,
white, brown, grey, variegated.

The hair of the wild Siberian sheep is close in sum-
mer, but rough and curled in winter;^* sheep in Thibet
are covered with the finest wool, in Ethiopia with coarse
stiff hair;^† the bristles of the hog in Normandy are too
soft for the manufacture of brushes;^‡ goats, rabbits, and
cats of Angouri, in Anatolia, have very long hair, as
white as snow and as soft as silk.^§

The head of the domestic pig differs as much from that
of the wild animal, as the Negro from the European in
this respect;^ǁ so the head of the Neapolitan horse, deno-
minated ram’s head, on account of its shape, from that of
the Hungarian animal, remarkable for its shortness and
the extent of its lower jaw;^** the cranium of fowls at
Padua is dilated like a shell, and perforated by an im-
mense number of small holes;^†† cattle and sheep, in some
parts of our own country, have horns, in others not; in
Sicily, sheep have enormous horns:^‡‡ and in some in-
[Seite 410] stances, this animal has so many, as to have acquired the
epithet polyceratous.

The form of other parts is no less various. In Nor-
mandy, pigs have hind legs much longer than the fore;^*
at the Cape of Good Hope, cows have much shorter legs
than in England;^† the difference between the Arabian,
Syrian, and German horses is sufficiently known; the
hoofs of the pig may be undivided, bisulcous, or trisul-
cous.

These are regarded by naturalists as but accidental
varieties; yet they equal or surpass the varieties existing
among mankind. We are consequently led by analogy
to conclude, that the differences of nations are not origi-
nal, but acquired; and impose no necessity for believing
that more than one stock was at first created.

Direct facts harmonize with this conclusion. All races
run insensibly one into another, and therefore innumera-
ble intermediate examples occur, where the distinction
between two varieties is lost. Again, no peculiarity
exists in any variety, which does not show itself occa-
sionally in another; many instances of these facts have
been related in the notes to page 396. The difficulty of re-
garding the negro as of the same stock with ourselves
vanishes, on viewing these circumstances, and on reflect-
ing that he and ourselves are two extremes, one of which
may have sprung from the other, by means of several
intermediate deviations, although experience may not
justify the belief, that any single deviation could be of
sufficient magnitude. An instance, however, is related,
in the Philosophical Transactions, of a black family,
which lived where Europeans had never approached, and
[Seite 411] from time to time produced a white child.^* Lastly, all
the varieties breed together readily and in perpetuity,^†
– an assertion which cannot be made in regard to any
different species of animals.

The cause of the differences of our species has been
more or less sought for in climate, alone, or in conjunc-
tion with other external circumstances, by Aristotle, Hip-
pocrates, Cicero, Pliny, Plutarch, Galen, nearly all the
Greek and Roman historians, and poets, Montaigne,
Montesquieu, Buffon, Zimmerman, Blumenbach, Dr.
Smith, of America, &c. Lord Kaimes has denied the
power of these circumstances to produce the diversities
of either mind or body; and Hume has expressly written
an essay, to prove the insufficiency of climate with re-
spect to the varieties of national character. Now the in-
tensity of light unquestionably affects the colour of the
surface, although not to the degree of Ethiopian black-
ness; heat the texture and growth of the hair; and quan-
tity of nourishment the size. But the effects of these cir-
[Seite 412] cumstances are superficial, even on animals necessarily
less protected against their influence than man. The
skulls of foxes belonging to northern regions are not dif-
ferent from those of France or Egypt: the tusks of the
elephant, and the horns of the stag and rein deer, may
acquire a larger size when the food is more favourable
to the production of ivory or horn, but the number and
articulations of the bones, and the structure of the teeth,
remain unaltered.^* Nor are these changes any more
than those induced by mechanical means, as pressure,
division, &c. transmitted to the offspring: the child of
the most sunburnt rustic is born equally fair with other
children; even all the children among the Moors are
born white, and acquire the brown cast of their fathers
only if exposed to the sun;^† although the Jews have
most religiously practised the rite of circumcision from
the days of Abraham, their foreskin still remains to be
circumcised. Were it therefore true that all dark nations
are the inhabitants of hot climates, as the confined know-
ledge of the ancients justified them in believing, it would
still be untrue that the change effected, for instance, in
the colour of the parent’s skin, had descended to the off-
spring. But modern discovery has made us acquainted
with light nations, inhabiting the warmest regions, with
dark nations inhabiting the coldest, and with others of
various shades of colour, although in the same climate.^‡
[Seite 413] Nor are the varieties of mankind more connected with
the varieties of food. In the present state of our know-
ledge, it is impossible fully to account for them.

[Seite 414]

With civilization and barbarism, however, they appear
intimately connected. We should beforehand be inclined
to suppose that the most excellent developement of every
animated species would be effected where all its wants
were best supplied, its powers all duly called forth, and
all injurious or unpleasant circumstances least prevalent:
and vice versa. But experience teaches us that no change
can by any means be brought about in an individual,
and transmitted to the offspring: the causes of change in
a species must therefore operate, not by altering the pa-
rents, but by disposing them to produce an offspring more
or less different from themselves. Such is Mr. Hunter’s
[Seite 415] view of the question,^* and it is certainly confirmed by
every fact. Uncivilized nations exposed to the incle-
mency of the weather, supported by precarious and fre-
quently unwholesome food, and having none of the distin-
guishing energies of their nature called forth, are almost
universally dark coloured and ugly; while those who en-
joy the blessings of civilization, i.e. good food and cover-
ing, with mental cultivation and enjoyment, acquire in
the same proportion the Caucasian characteristics. The
different effects of different degrees of cultivation, says
Dr. Smith, ‘‘are most conspicuous in those countries in
which the laws have made the most complete and per-
manent division of ranks. What an immense difference
exists in Scotland between the chiefs and the common-
alty of the highland clans. If they had been separately
found in different countries, the philosophy of some
writers would have ranged them in different species. A
[Seite 416] similar distinction takes place between the nobility and
peasantry of France, Spain, of Italy, of Germany. It
is even more conspicuous in eastern nations, where a
wider difference exists between the highest and the low-
est classes in society. The naires or nobles of Calicut, in
the East Indies, have, with the usual ignorance and pre-
cipitancy of travellers, been pronounced a different race
from the populace; because the former, elevated by their
rank, and devoted only to martial studies and achieve-
ments, are distinguished by that manly beauty and ele-
vated stature, so frequently found with the profession of
arms; especially when united with nobility of descent;
the latter poor and laborious, and exposed to hardships,
without the spirit or the hope to better their condition,
are much more deformed and diminutive in their per-
sons, and in their complexion much more black. In
France, says Buffon, you may distinguish by their aspect
not only the nobility from the peasantry, but the supe-
rior orders of nobility from the inferior, these from citi-
zens, and citizens from peasants.’’ – The field slaves in
America, continues Dr. Smith, ‘‘are badly clothed, fed,
and lodged, and live in small huts on the plantations,
remote from the example and society of their superiors.
Living by themselves, they retain many of the customs
and manners of their ancestors. The domestic servants,
on the other hand, who are kept near the persons, or
employed in the family of their masters, are treated with
great lenity, their service is light, they are fed and
clothed like their superiors, they see their manners,
adopt their habits, and insensibly receive the same ideas
of elegance and beauty. The field slaves are in conse-
quence slow in changing the aspect and figure of Africa.
The domestic servants have advanced far before them in
[Seite 417] acquiring the agreeable and regular features, and the
expressive countenance of civilized society. The former
are frequently ill shaped, they preserve, in a great de-
gree, the African lips, and nose and hair. Their genius
is dull, and their countenance sleepy and stupid. The
latter are straight and well proportioned, their hair ex-
tended to three or four, sometimes even to six or eight
inches: the size and shape of their mouth handsome,
their features regular, their capacity good, and their
look animated.’’^*

Dr. Prichard has ‘‘been assured, by persons who have
resided in the West Indies, that a similar change is
very visible among the Negro slaves of the third and
fourth generation in those islands, and that the first ge-
neration differs considerably from the natives of Africa.’’^†

The South Sea Islanders, who appear to be all of one
family, vary according to their degree of cultivation.
The New Hollanders, for example, are savages, and
chiefly black; the New Hollanders are half civilized, and
chiefly tawny; the Friendly Islanders are more advanced,
and are not quite so dark; several are lighter than olive
colour, and hundreds of European faces are found among
them.

The people of Otaheite and the Society Isles are the
most civilized and the most beautiful: the higher orders
among them have a light complexion, and hair flowing
in ringlets; the lower orders, less cultivated, are less
pleasing.

‘“The same superiority,”’ says Captain King,^‡ ‘“which
[Seite 418] is observable in the Erees (nobles) throughout the other
islands, is found also here (Owyhee.) Those whom we
saw were, without exception, perfectly well formed;
whereas the lower sort, besides their general inferiority,
are subject to all the variety of make and figure that is
seen in the populace of other countries.”’

Climate, however, has not been shewn to have no ef-
fect: but its power, being greatly inferior to that of civi-
lization and barbarism, cannot strongly manifest itself,
when acting in opposition to these. In fact, a diminution
of the sun’s influence does dispose to the production of
light varieties: the inhabitants of hilly situations are,
caeteris paribus, fairer than the people below, and persons
of the same tribe and degree of civilization are whiter in
the northern parts of Europe and Asia, than their more
southern neighbours; whiteness, too, is very common in
the north, among animals, which, nearer the equator,
are variously coloured. A pair of brown mice, kept in
a dark place, generate a white offspring.

Perfection, in other words, the highest compatible point
of utility or agreeableness, or of both, is nature’s univer-
sal aim in her productions, but it is in general obtained
slowly, and the more so, in proportion to the excellence
or degree of the qualities to be perfected. Animals and
vegetables have to pass one period, before they burst into
birth, and another, before their full powers and propor-
tions are reached; and man, whose perfections are very
excellent, arrives at his acme very late.

It is in this respect with species as with individuals, –
their improvement is gradual. In conformity with these
observations, we must suppose that man was once far
below the excellence of which he is susceptible, – that
[Seite 419] this was to be acquired slowly; and that, in consequence,
the Caucasian variety did not once exist.

If we believe that he was created in perfection, we
must believe, that, after the fall, his nature experienced
the general change; that he became destitute and wretch-
ed, and destined to reach perfection by slow degrees.
That he was once black, is rendered extremely probable,
by the analogy of animals, among which Mr. Hunter
remarked, that the changes of colour were always from
the darker to the lighter tints.^*

It would appear also, from history, that the most an-
cient people of the earth, from whom Europeans are de-
scended, were genuine Ethiopians or Negroes.^†

[Seite 420]

The history of mankind supports the same inference,
as considerations a priori, and analogical and direct facts.
All the nations of the earth appear to have branched
forth from one quarter. Dr. Pritchard has traced them
with great learning and judgment, and as the subject has
[Seite 421] not been made by myself a matter of original research,
and is far too extensive to be handled here as it deserves,
I must refer to his work, which is both the most recent
and the best, contented with simply inserting his conclu-
[Seite 422] sion, which is the same as Bryant’s, although founded
on different principles.

‘“The countries, bounded on the east and west by the
Ganges and the Nile, on the north by the Caspian lake,
[Seite 423] and the mountainous ridges of Paropamisus and Imaus,
and on the south by the Erythraean sea, or Indian ocean,
appear to have been the region, in which mankind first
advanced to civilization. It is highly probable, that
these countries were the primitive abode of our species,
in which alone, therefore, it can properly be considered
as indigenous.’

‘“In the first ages, previous to the origin of the most
simple arts, while men were as yet too rude to acquire
their sustenance by hunting, (or, if we receive the scrip-
tural account of the deluge, before the woods were filled
with wild animals,) they apparently obtained their food
chiefly by fishing along the sea shores, or depended for a
still more precarious supply on the scanty fruits of the
earth. In this state, they would, of necessity, lead a
[Seite 424] wandering life, and extend themselves widely. Differ-
ent tribes of ichthyophagi, or of roaming savages, were
scattered on each side of the primitive region, wherever
an easy progress lay open to them, along the coast or
through the woods of Africa, and around the shores of
the Indian islands of New Guinea, and Australasia.
The descendants of these dispersed races are still found
in the same abodes, nearly in their original unimproved
condition, savages and negroes, such as we have seen
that the stock of their ancestors, the primeval inhabitants
of Egypt and India, were.’

‘“These were the most ancient colonies, which emi-
grated into the distant parts of the earth. Accordingly,
they exhibit no affinities with the central nations, in their
languages, manners, or superstitions. For they went
forth when language was as yet imperfectly formed, be-
fore manners had acquired any peculiar character, and
previous to the age of idolatry.’

‘“The condition of mankind, in their primeval seats,
improved. They became hunters, and afterwards shep-
herds. Sabaism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies,
now prevailed among them. Some tribes of hunters, and
perhaps of shepherds, ascended the chain of Paropamisus,
and spread themselves gradually over the high central
plains of Asia, on one side into Siberia and Scandinavia,
and on the other into Kamtschatka, and through the adja-
cent, and probably then connected, continent of America.
These are the Mongoles, and other similar races, whom we
have traced through Asia and the north of Europe, and
the primitive inhabitants of the New World. In the lan-
guages of these nations, though much diversified, and very
imperfect in structure, a certain degree of affinity maybe
clearly marked. In their superstitions, vestiges remain of
the primitive Sabaism, even in their more distant settle-
[Seite 425] ments. Their physical characters resemble. In other
particulars, proofs may be collected in many remote re-
gions, of the common origin of these races.’

‘“Meanwhile agriculture was invented in Asia, and
the division of labour connected with the institution of
casts, which seems to have extended through all the
primitive regions, gave a new character to human so-
ciety. The establishment of a governing or military
class, and of a sacerdotal class, gave birth to political
order. The priests mingling allegory and fable with the
early Sabaism, and with the relics of genuine theism and
true historical tradition, which had probably been pre-
served in a few families, formed a complex system of
mythology. The mysteries were invented. Philosophy
began to be cultivated, and a more perfect language was
formed.’

‘“The Celtae under their Druids, a branch of the east-
ern hierarchy, advanced into the furthest west, where
perhaps some vestiges of previous colonists may be
found. They carried with them the mysteries, the doc-
trine of metempsychosis, the rites of polytheism, the phi-
losophy, and the language of the east.’

‘“The Pelasgian and Thracian races established them-
selves in Asia Minor and passed the Hellespont into
Thrace. The former colonized Greece and Italy; the
latter passed to the northward of the Danube into the
Dacian or Getic country. Tribes of this nation wander-
ed at a later period through the forests of Germany,
where they multiplied and encroached upon the Celtae.
Lastly, the Medes, delighting in their herds of horses,
advanced through the Euxine borders into Scythia and
Sarmatia.’

[Seite 426]

‘“That all these nations, the Celtae, the Pelasgi, the
Goths, and the Sarmatae, were comparatively late colo-
nists from Asia, we may safely assert, when we consid-
er the strong affinities discoverable in their systems, in
their religious rites and doctrines, and in their dialects,
which are clearly branches of the Sanscrit and old Per-
sic, and when we remark that most of them may be
traced in history still preserved, from their primitive
settlements in the East.”’

Our inevitable conclusion thus coincides with the
Mosaic account – that the whole human race is the off-
spring of the same parents.

THE END.

Notes

[[v]]

Pref. to the Institut. Medic. Leyden. Fourth edition.

↵

†.

[[v]]

Pref. to the Prim. lin. Physiol. Gottingen. First edition.

↵

[Seite 1]

Thus, long ago, the author of the book, generally included among the
writings of Hippocrates, Epidemic, VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said ‘“Those things
which contain, are contained, or moved in us with force, are to be consider-
ed.”’ This celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr.
Kaau Boerhaave, entitled, ‘“Impetum faciens dictum Hippocrati per corpus
consentient’ L.B. 1745. 8 vo.

↵

[Seite 2]

The great preponderance of the fluids is strikingly exemplified in an entire,
but perfectly dry mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the Island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anatomical museum by the il-
lustrious Banks; and though all its viscera and muscles are preserved, does
not exceed 7 1.2 lbs. in weight.

↵

[Seite 3]

J. Hunter’s Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c. London, 1794,
4to.

↵

[Seite 4]

They divided the body into similar or homogeneous parts as the bones,
cartilages, muscles, tendons, &c.; and dissimilar, composed of the similar,
as the head, trunk, limbs, &c.

↵

†.

[Seite 4]

Physiologists have variously estimated the quantity of the blood in a well
formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Albeildgaard, make it scarcely more
than 8 pounds; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Hamberger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The
former are evidently nearer the truth.

↵

‡.

[Seite 4]

J. Martin Butt. De spontanea sanguinis separatione. Edinb. 1760, 8vo.
reprinted in Standifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J.H.L. Bader. Experimenta
circa sanguinem. Argent. 1788, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 4]

The elements of aeriform fluids of course exist in the blood; that they are
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed,
was clearly shewn in some experiments made by me during the year 1812,
upon other mamalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air infused
into the jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and if
the quantity was rather increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these
[Seite 5] experiments in the Medic. Biblioth. vol. i. 177. The illustrious Bichat ob-
served the same effects in his experiments. Journal de Saute, &c. de Bor-
deaux. T. 11. 61

↵

[Seite 6]

J. Bostock, in The Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, published by the
Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, vol. i. 1809. p. 46.

↵

[Seite 7]

G. Chr. Reichel, De Sanguine ejusque motu experimenta. Lips. 1767.
4to. p. 27, fig. 3, g.g.

↵

†.

[Seite 7]

Unwilling as I am to follow the example of those, who especially in mo-
dern times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the
word, oxygenized and carbonized may be advantageously substituted for arte-
rial and venous; because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called
veins, v.c. the pulmonary and umbilical, while, on the other hand, venous
blood is contained in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same man-
ner, the veins of the chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial, the arte-
ries venous, blood, to use these expressions in their common acceptation.

↵

‡.

[Seite 7]

Consult among others whom we shall recommend in the chapter on
respiration, Chr. Girtanner in the Journal de Physique, August 1790.

[Seite 8]

Fourcroy in the Annales de Chemie, T. vij.

Hossenfratz, ibidem. T. ix.

J. Ferd. h. Autenreith, Experimenta et observata de sanguine praesertim
venoso. Stuttg. 1792, 4to.

↵

[Seite 8]

By Will. C. Wells, Philos. Trans. 1797, the redness of the blood in gene-
ral is rather ascribed to the peculiar fabric of the globules, and its various de-
grees and changes simply to the reflection of light.

↵

†.

[Seite 8]

Such are those spurious membranes found exuded on the surface of in-
flamed viscera, v.c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura
after peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchiae after
croup; such also are those artificial ones called, after their inventor, Ruyschian,
and made by stirring fresh blood about with a stick.

↵

[Seite 10]

Berzelius discovers lactic acid free or combined in all animal fluids. It
was first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of
acetous acid with animal matter.

↵

†.

[Seite 10]

See Dr. Bostock’s papers in the first, second, and fourth volumes of
The Medico Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius in the third.

↵

[Seite 12]

Hier. Dav. Gaubius’ Spec. exhibens ideam generalem solidarum c. h. parti-
um. Lugd. Bat. 1725, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 12]

Abr. Kaau Boerhaave, on the cohesion of the solids in the animal body, in
the Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. T. iv. p. 343, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 12]

The parallel and reticulated bony fibres are most striking in the radiated
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in young heads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my museum, a preparation of this kind, where, in
the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones, the fibres are an inch or two in
length, distinct and delicate. The hardest parts, the bony and vitreous por-
tions of the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which in the zeolite, ma-
lachite, hematite, &c. all mineralogists call fibrous.

↵

[Seite 13]

Dav. Chr. Schobinger (Praes. Hallero) De telae Cellulosae in fabrica c. h.
dignitate, Gotting. 1748, 4to. Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ.
Anatom, circa nervos arterias adeuntes. Francof. 1810, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 13]

Casp. Fr. Wolff, in the Nov. Act. Petropol. T. vi. p. 259.

↵

[Seite 14]

I have treated this point at large in my work, De Generis humani varie-
tate nativa, p. 46, edit. 3.

↵

[Seite 16]

A host of authors on the vital powers will be found in Fr. Hildebrandt’s
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, p. 54, sq. edit. 2, 1809, to whom we may add E.
Bartel’s Systemat. Entwurf einer Allgemeinen Biologie. Francof. 1808, and J.
B.P.A. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique, Paris, 1809, 11 vols. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 17]

‘“Life formally is nothing more than the preservation of the body in
mixture, corruptible indeed, but without the occurrence of corruption.”’
Stahl.

‘“What we call life is opposite to putridity.”’ J. Junker

↵

[Seite 19]

That Haller and Theoph. de Bordeu, the chief writers on the mucous
tela, did not form a just conception of this vital power, will be evident from the
latter’s Recherches sur le Tissu Muqueux, Par. 1767, 8vo. and the dissertation
of the former on Irritability in the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique d’Yverdun.
T. xxv.

↵

†.

[Seite 19]

Haller De Partibus Corp. Hum. iritabilibus in the Nov. Comm. Soc. Reg.
Scient. Gotting. T. iv.

↵

‡.

[Seite 19]

I have spoken of these at large both in my treatise De Iridis Motu 1784,
and my programma De Vi Vitali Sanguini deneganda 1795.

↵

§.

[Seite 19]

On the vita propria of the absorbent vessels consult Seb. Justin. Brag-
mans, De Causa Absorptionis per Vasa Lymphatica. Ludg. Bat. 1795, 8vo.

[Seite 20]

On the peculiar vital properties of the arteries consult Chr. Kramp, Kritik
der Praktischen Arzneikunde. Lips. 1795, 8 vo.

Many of the phenomena now mentioned are ascribed by others to an or-
gasm, to use an old expression, struggling from the centre to the circumfe-
rence, and lately designated vital turgor.

↵

[Seite 20]

Fouquet in the Dictionarie Encyclopedique de Paris T. xv. Art. Sensibilité

↵

†.

[Seite 20]

Consult C. Fr.Kielmeyer Uber die Verhältnisse der organischen Krafte inder
Reihe der verschiedenen organisationen, 1793, 8vo H.F. Link Uber die Lebens-
kräfte in naturhistorischer Rücksicht. Rostoch. 1795, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 21]

See Abildgaard in the Acta Reg. Soc. Med. Havniens. T. 1.

↵

[Seite 22]

V.C. Dan. Bernouilli De Respiratione, Basil, 1721.

[Seite 23]

‘“Respiration supplies a very subtle air, which, when intimately mixed
with the blood, greatly condensed, conveyed to the moving fibres, and al-
lowed by the animal spirits to exert its powers, inflates, contracts and moves
the muscles, and thus promotes the circulation of fluids, and imparts motion
to mobile parts.”’

↵

[Seite 23]

Laur. Bellini De Sanguinis Missione, p. 165–193.

Sylvest. Douglas De Stimulis. Lugd. Bat. 1766.

↵

[Seite 24]

Montesquieu De l’Esprit des Lois. T. ii. p. 34. London, 1757,
8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 24]

Jo. Casp. Hirzel De Animi laeti et erecti efficacia in Corpore sano et aegro.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.

↵

‡.

[Seite 24]

Called Le Tact ou le Gout particulier de chaque Partie, by Theoph. de
Bordeu, in his Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes, p. 376. sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 24]

Sam. Farr on Animal Motion, 1771, 8vo. p. 141.

Jo. Mudge’s Cure for a recent catarrhous Cough. Edit. 2. 1779, 8vo. p.
238.

Gilb. Blane On Muscular Motion, 1788, 4to. p. 22.

J.L. Gautier De irritabilitatis Notione, &c. Hal. 1793, 8vo. p. 56.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 24]

J.H. Rahn De Causis Physicis Sympathiae. Exerc. 1. – vii. Figur. from
1786, 4to.

Sylloge selectiorum opusculor de mirabili sympathia quae partes inter. diversas
c. h. intercedit. Edited by J.C. Tr. Schlegel. Lips. 1787, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 25]

G. Egger (the author Lawr. Gasser) De consensu nevorum. Vindob. 1766,
8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 25]

J.G. Zinn’s Observations on the different Structure of the Human Eye
and that of Brutes. Diss. ii. 1757. in the Comment Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
antiquiores. T. 1.

↵

‡.

[Seite 25]

Consider the constant sympathy of heat between certain parts of some
animals, v.c. of the hairs with the fauces, in variegated rabbits, sheep,
dogs, &c. of the feathers with the covering of the bill and feet in varieties of
the domestic duck. That many such instances are not referable to the
influence of nerves, I contended in my Comm. de Motu iridis, p. 12, et seq.
and also in my work de Generis humani varietate nativa, p. 361. et seq.

↵

§.

[Seite 25]

Innumerable pathological phenomena will be found explained by this
sympathy in S. Th. Soemmerring’s De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Diss.
quae praemium retulit. Francof. 1795. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 27]

Hence after death, even in young subjects full of juices, the back, loins,
and buttocks, having for some time lost their vital tone, are, if the body is
supine, depressed and flattened by the superincumbent weight, which now
is not resisted: this appearance I regard among the indubitable signs of
death.

↵

†.

[Seite 27]

Treatise on the Blood, &c. Introduction.

↵

[Seite 28]

Anatomie Generale. T. i. p. 183, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 28]

Consult Whytt’s Observations on Nervous Diseases. Ch. i.

↵

[Seite 29]

Consult Alex. Chrichton’s Inquiry into the nature and origin of mental
derangement, comprehending a concise system of the Physiology and Pathology
of the human mind. Lond. 1798, 2 vols. 8vo. Imm. Kaut’s Authropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht. Könisb. 1798, 8vo. Chr. Meiner’s Untersuchungen
über die Denkkräfte und Willenskräfte des Menschen nach Anleitung der Er-
fahrung. Gött 1806, 2 vols. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 30]

The difference, analogy, and relation of memory and judgment, have
given rise to various controversies. Some celebrated psychologists have in-
cluded both under the word imagination taken in its most comprehensive
sense, and have divided it into two species: memory, representing for-
mer ideas, and the facultas fingendi, representing such ideas only as are
formed by abstraction. They again divide memory into sensitive (imagina-
tion in a stricter sense) and intellectual.

Their facultas fingendi, they also subdivide into intellectual (the more ex-
cellent,) and phantasy, obeying mechanical laws. Feder’s Grundsätze der
Logik und Metaphysik. Götting. 1794. p. 20.

↵

†.

[Seite 30]

Of this the highest prerogative of the human mind, by which man
exerts his dominion over other animals, and indeed over the whole creation,
I have fully treated in my book De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 32, ed. 3.

↵

[Seite 32]

Theod. G. Aug. Roose Uber die Krankheiten der Gesunden, Gotting,
1801, 8vo.

G. Chr. Klett, Tentamen evolvendi notionem de sanitate hominis, Wirceb.
1794, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 33]

Galen, quod animi mores corporis temperaturas sequantur.

St. J Van Geuns, De corporum habitudine animae huiusque virium indice ac
moderatrice. Harderv. 1789. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 33]

Galen, De sanitate tuenda, L. 1.

↵

‡.

[Seite 33]

W.F. Ad. Gerresheim, De sanitate cuivis homini propria. Ludg. Bat.
1764, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 33]

Lavater’s Physiognomische Fragmente. T. iv. p. 343.

W. Ant. Ficker’s Comment de temperamentis hominum quatenus ex fabrica
et structura corporis pendent Gott. 1791, 4to.

J.N. Hallé in the Mem. de la Soc. Médicale d’Emulat. T. iii. p. 342.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 33]

To the numerous arguments by which the moderns have overthrown the
doctrine of the ancients, and proved that the temperament depends on the
living solids, rather than on the nature of the blood, I may add the celebrated
example of the Hungarian sister twins, who, at the beginning of the last cen-
tury, were born united at the lower part of the back, and attained their twen-
ty-second year in this state. They were, as is well known, of very different
temperaments; although dissection discovered, that their sanguiferous sys-
tems anastomosed so considerably, that the blood of both must have been the
same.

↵

[Seite 34]

Kant, l. c. p. 257, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 34]

Feder in the Untersuchung über den menschlichen Willen. T. ii. p. 49.

↵

[Seite 35]

Galen De Consuetudine.

G E. Stahl. De consuetunis efficacia generli in actibus vitalibus. Hal.
1700, 4to.

H. Cullen, De Consuetudine. Edinb. 1780, 8vo.

C. Natorp, De vi consuetudinis. Gott. 1808, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 35]

See Platner’s Quaest. physiol. p. 31. Versuch einer Anthropologie. T. i.
p. 100, 222, and my own remarks on the bad foundation of this division, in
the preface to my Enchiridion Anat. Comparate, p. xi. sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 35]

J.J. Bernhard’s Versuch einer Vertheidigung der alten Eintheilung der
Functionen. und einer Classification des organisirten Körper, nach denselben,
Erf. 1804, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 36]

Treatise on Febrile diseases. Ch. iii. Sect. 3. First Edition, 1799 Paper
read to the Royal Med. Society of Edinburgh, 1791, or 1792, and inserted in its
Records. Essay on Opium, 1795. – Edinburgh Med. and Surgical Journal,
July, 1809, p. 301, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 36]

Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort.

↵

[Seite 37]

Bichat’s Antomie Generale, Tom. 1, cii. et. ciii.

↵

[Seite 39]

The following is Bichat’s table of the properties of the living body.

[Seite 40]

Although these are the general properties of the living frame, yet each
part has besides some pecularity, altogether inexplicable, not in the least,
I think, to be accounted for on Bichat’s supposition of each part possess-
ing a certain degree of organic sensibility in relation to its fluids. What
causes the vessels of muscle to produce muscle; of bone, bone; of mem-
brane, membrane; what causes the secreting vessels of the liver to form
bile, and of the testes semen, we know not. These circumstances may be
called by Blumenbach, after Bordeau, vitae propria; but it must be carefully
remembered that this expression simply denotes a fact, and affords no
explanation.

↵

[Seite 43]

In universum sane post omnia quae super hoc argumento sive me-
ditando sive experiundo hactenus elicere licuit, nulli humorum nostri
corporis genuina vis vitalis tribuenda videtur, si unice a genitali utriusque
sexus latice discesseris, utpote cui jam arte quam uterino cavo exceptus et
intime mixtus in foetus formationem abit, vitales inhaerere vires formativas,
praeter alia paterni vultus in nepotes propagata similitudo, aliaque id genus
phaenomena haud infitianda demonstrare videntur. Comment. Soc. Reg.
Societ. Gotiing. vol. ix. p. 12.

↵

†.

[Seite 43]

The doctrine of the life of the blood was maintained by Harvey
(Exercit. L. De generationis ordine, &c.) Glisson (De ventriculo et
intestinis) and Albinus (Blumenbach’s Commentat. l. c.) I am sur-
[Seite 44] prised that Moses should be adduced as authority for this opinion.
When he says (Leviticus, ch. xvii. 11, 14.) ‘“For the life of the flesh is
in the blood”’ – ‘“For it is the life of all flesh,”’ he can mean only that when
it is withdrawn life ceases, – that it is necessary to the life of animals. He
says, (v. 14.) ‘“the blood of it is for the life thereof.”’

↵

[Seite 44]

Consult Hunter’s Treatise on the Blood, &c. p. 1, ch. 1.

↵

[Seite 45]

See note (E) to Sect. 44.

↵

[Seite 46]

Parentibus liberi similes sunt non vultum modo et corporis formam, sed
animi indolem, et virtutes, et vitia. – Claudia gens diu Romae floruit impigra,
ferox, superba: Eadem illachrymabilem Tiberium, tristissimum Tyrannum
produxit: tandem in immanem Caligulem et Claudium, et Agrippanam, ip-
sumque demum Neronem, post sexcentos annos desitura. Gregory’s Con-
spectus Medicinae Theoret.

↵

[Seite 47]

That evil spirits had never more hand in causing insanity than indigestion
is clearly proved to every medical man in Farmer’s Essay on the Demoniacs
oj the New Testament.

↵

†.

[Seite 47]

The Analogy of Religion natural and revealed to the Constitution
and Course of Nature. By Joseph Butler, LL. D. Lord bishop of
Durham, p. 33.

↵

[Seite 48]

The great Paley’s sermon on the state after death contains the follow-
ing conclusions from various intimations in the New Testament ‘“First,
that (at the resurrection) we shall have bodies.’

‘2. That they will be so far different from our present bodies, as to be suit-
ed, by that difference, to the state and life into which they are to enter,
agreeably to that rule which prevails throughout universal nature, that the
body of every being is suited to its state, and that when it changes its state
it changes its body.’

‘3. That it is a question by which we need not be at all disturbed whether
the bodies with which we shall arise be new bodies, or the same bodies under
a new form; for,’

‘4. No alteration will hinder us from remaining the same, provided we
are sensible and conscious that we are so, any more than the changes which
our visible person undergoes even in this life, and which from infancy to
manhood are undoubtedly very great, hinder us from being the same, to
ourselves and in ourselves, and to all intents and purposes whatso-
ever.’

‘Lastly, That though from the imperfection of our faculties, we neither
are, nor without a, constant miracle upon our minds, could be made able
to comprehend the nature of our future bodies, yet we are assured that
the change will be infinitely beneficial; that our new bodies will be in-
finitely superior to those which we carry obout with us in our pre-
sent state.”’ Sermons on Several Subjects, by the late Rev. W. Paley, D.D.
p. 96.

↵

[Seite 49]

Among warm-blood animals, the egg, especially al the fourth and fifth
day of incubation, if placed under a simple microscope, such as the Lyone-
tian, is most proper to demonstrate the circulation.

Among frogs, the most proper is the equuleus of Lieberkühn, described
in the Mem. de l’Acad. de Berlin, 1745.

↵

[Seite 50]

For the various opinions respecting the number and differences of
the arterial coats consult among others Vinc. Malacarne Della Osservat. in
Chirurg Turin. T. 11. p. 103.

↵

†.

[Seite 50]

Fr. Ruysch, Respons. ad ep. problematicam, iii. Also his Thesaur. Anat.
iv. tab. 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 50]

B.S. Albinus, Annot. Academ. L. iv. tab. 5. fig. 1.

↵

[Seite 51]

See also J. Theod. van der Kemp, De Vita. Edinb. 1782, 8 vo. p. 51.

↵

†.

[Seite 51]

This is remarkably observable in the adult stag, by comparing the areae
of the external carotid and its branches, during the spring, before the horns
have attained their full growth, but are still covered with their downy inte-
guments, (called in our language, der Bast) with such as they are after this
covering has fallen off.

↵

‡.

[Seite 51]

Ant. Scarpa Sull’ Aneurisma. Pav. 1804, fol. cap. 4.

↵

[Seite 53]

W. Cowper’s Myotomia Reformata. (Postb.) Lond. 1724, Fol. Max.
Tab. xxxvi–xl.

↵

†.

[Seite 53]

Casp. Fr. Wolff on the origin of the large coronary vein, in the Act.
Acad scient. Petropol. 1777. P. i.

Petr. Tabarrani on the same subject, in the Atti di Siena. Vol. vi.

↵

[Seite 54]

Respecting these openings consult among others J. Abernethy, in the
Philos Trans. 1798, p. 103.

↵

†.

[Seite 54]

James Penada, in the Memorie Della Societa Italiana. T. xi. p, 555.

↵

‡.

[Seite 54]

Consult Achill. Meig’s Specimen ii. Observationum Botanicarum, &c.
Basil, 1776, 4to. p. 12. sq.

↵

[Seite 55]

Eustachius. Tab. viii. fig. 6. – tab. xvi. fig. 3. Santorini. Tab. Posth.
ix. fig. 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 55]

Eustachius. Tab. xvi. fig. 6.

↵

‡.

[Seite 55]

Eustachius. Tab xvi. fig. 4.

↵

§.

[Seite 55]

Eustachius. Tab. xvi. fig. 5. Morgagni. Advers. Anat. i. Tab. iv. fig.
3. Santorini, l. c.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 55]

Consult Hnnter, who treats very minutely of the mechanism of these
valves in his work On the Blood, &c. p. 159.

↵

**.

[Seite 55]

Leop. M.A. Caldani, Memorie lette nell’ Acad. di Padova, 1814.
p. 67.

↵

[Seite 56]

Casp. F. Wolff, in the Act. Acad. Scientiar. Petropol. for the year 1780,
sq. especially 1781, P. i. p. 211. sq. on the cartilaginous texture of the heart,
or of the cartilagineo-osseous fibres, and their distribution at the basis of
the heart.

↵

†.

[Seite 56]

Scarpa’s Tabulae Neurologicae ad Illust. Hist. Anat. Cardiac. Nervor.
Tab. iii. iv. v. vi.

↵

‡.

[Seite 56]

Ruysch. Thesaur. Anat. iv. Tab. iii. fig. 1, 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 56]

Brandis has proposed an ingenious hypothesis to explain the use of
so great an apparatus of coronary vessels. Versuch über die Lebenskraft,
p. 84.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 56]

Haller. Elementa Physiol. T. i. tab. 1.

Nicholls in the Philos. Trans. Vol. lii. P. 1. p. 272.

↵

**.

[Seite 56]

Littre in the Hist, de l’Academie des Sc. de Paris, 1782, p. 37. Baillie, in
the Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical and Chirurgi-
cal Knowledge. T. i. p. 91.

↵

[Seite 57]

Consul Ant. Portal’s Memoires sur la Nature & la Traitement de plu-
sieurs Maladies. T. ii. 1800. p. 281.

↵

[Seite 58]

My observations differ but little from those made by Heberden in Eng-
land. Med. Trans. vol. ii. p. 21, et seq.

↵

†.

[Seite 58]

J.H. Schonheyder De Resolutione et Impotentia motus Muscularis. Hafn.
1768, p. 15. With which work compare the observations of F. Gabr. Sul-
zer in the Naturgesch. des Hamsters, p. 169.

↵

[Seite 59]

Stenon in the Act. Haffniens. T. ii. p. 142.

Sometimes, though rarely, it happens that the right portion of the heart,
oppressed with too much blood, becomes, contrary to what usually takes
place, paralyzed before the left. This I have more than once observed on
opening living mammalia, particularly rabbits.

↵

†.

[Seite 59]

J.N. Weiss De Dextro Cordis Ventriculo post mortem Ampliori. Altorf.
1767, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 59]

Ant. Chaum. Sabatier, In Vivis Animalibus Ventriculorum Cordis eadem
Capacitas. Paris, 1772, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 59]

Sam. Aurivilius, De Vasorum Pulmonal & Cavitat. Cordis inaequali Am-
plitudine. Gotting. 1750, 4to.

↵

[Seite 61]

The experiments of Hales, in which the blood was received into very
long glass tubes fixed to the arteries of living animals, and measured with
respect to the length of its projection, are indeed beautiful, like every thing
done by this philosopher, who was by nature calculated for such disquisi-
tions. But if the force of the heart is to be estimated in this way, we must
take into account the pressure of the column of blood contained in the tube
and gravitating upon the left ventricle. The result of Hales’ calculations was,
that the blood being projected from the human carotid seven feet and a half,
and the surface of the left ventricle being fifteen square inches, a column of
blood, weighing 51 lb. 5oz. was incumbent upon the ventricle and overcome
by its systole. Statical Essays, vol. ii. p. 40. London, 1733, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 61]

Thus, to say nothing of the phenomena so frequently observed in the cold
blooded amphibia and fishes, I lately found the heart of the chick beat for
twelve hours, in an egg, on the fourth day of incubation.

↵

‡.

[Seite 61]

Consult Fontana, who treats of this prerogative of the heart minutely in
his Ricerche sopra la Fisica animale, and limits it too much. Haller answered
him in the Literary Index of Gottingen.

↵

[Seite 62]

Haller on the motion of the heart from stimulus, in the Comment. Soc.
Scient. Gottingens. Tom. i.

G.E. Remus, Experimenta circa, circulat. sanguin. instituta. Gotting, 1752,
p. 14, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 62]

On this dispute cousult R. Forster’s Quaestion. select. Physiol. Ludg. Bat.
1774, 4to.

J.B.J. Behrend’s Dissert, qua demonstratur cor nervis carere. Mogunt.
1792, 4to. and on the other side, J. Munnik’s Observationes variae, Groning.
1805, 4to Lucae, l. c. p. 37. p. ii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 62]

And how much more so when the heart is diseased, is shown in Caleb
Hill Parry’s Inquiry into the Symptoms and Causes of the Syncope Anginosa,
commonly called Angina Pectoris. p. 114, Bath. 1799, 8vo. p. 114.

↵

[Seite 63]

Andr. Wilson’s Inquiry into the moving powers employed in the Circula-
tion of the blood. Lond. 1774, 8vo. p. 35, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 63]

Sec. v.c. C.W. Curtius, De monstro humane cum infante gemello, Ludg.
Bat. 1762, 4to, p. 39. W. Cooper, in the Philos. Transac. vol. lxv. p. 316.
Haller’s Opera Minora. T. iii. p. 33, C. Chr. Klein’s Descriptio Monstrorum
quorundam, Stuttg. 1793, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 63]

Walter Verschuir, De arteriar. et venar. vi irritabili; ejusque in vasis ex-
cessu; et inde oriunda sanguinis directione abnormi. Groning. 1766, 4to.

Rich. Dennison, Diss. arterias omnes et venarum partem irritabilitate prae-
ditas esse. Edinb. 1775, 8vo.

Chr. Kramp, De vi vitali arteiarum. Argent. 1785, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 64]

Observe for instance, in Walter’s Tabulae nervor. thorac. et abdominis,
the right hepatic, Tab. ii. O. Tab. iii. l. – the splenic, tab. ii. P. Tab. iii. m.
tab. iv. o. – The superior mesenteric, Tab. ii Q. Tab. iii. s. – the inferior me-
senteric, Tab. ii. T. – and many others. Compare Soemmerring de c. h.
fabrica. T. iv. p. 362.

↵

†.

[Seite 64]

Haller De Nervor. in arterias imperio. Gotting. 1744, 4to. Lucae, l. c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 64]

Th. Kirkland’s Inquiry into the present state of Medical Surgery. London,
1783, 8vo. vol. i. p. 306, sq.

↵

[Seite 65]

Physiological Essays, containing an inquiry into the causes which promote
the circulation of the fluids in the very small vessels of animals, &c. &c. Second
Edition, Edinb. 1761, 12mo.

H. v. d. Bosch, über das Muskelvermögen der Haargefüssgen. Monast.
1786, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 65]

What is commonly, but improperly, called the venous pulsation, observa-
ble on opening living animals and in some morbid affections, and also under
a violent effort, does not correspond with the action of the heart, but with
respiration; since if an expiration is unusually deep and lenthgened, and
the reflux of the blood to the lungs thus impeded, the juglar vein swells as
far as the brain, the subclavian as far as the basilic, and the inferior cava as
far as the crural.

↵

[Seite 66]

G. E. Stahl, De vena portae porta malorum. Halae. 1698, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 66]

Lister, De humoribus, p. 25.

↵

[Seite 67]

A Treatise on the Blood, &c. by John Hunter, p. 146. Note.

↵

†.

[Seite 67]

The Muscular Motions of the Human Body, by John Barclay, M.D.
p. 567.

↵

[Seite 68]

Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1815.

↵

†.

[Seite 68]

An Inquiry into the Causes of the Motion of the Blood, by James Carson,
M.D. 1815.

↵

[Seite 71]

Anatomie Generale, T. ii.

↵

†.

[Seite 71]

Animal Chemistry, p. 25.

↵

[Seite 72]

An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Varieties of the
Arterial Pulse, &c. by Caleb Hillier Parry, M.D. F.R.S. 1816.

↵

[Seite 73]

Soemmerring und Reisseisen, über die Structur, die Verrichtung und den
Gebbrauch der Lungen. Zwey Preischriften. Berol, 1808. 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 73]

Respecting all the organs concerned in respiration, consult Corn. J. Van
Der Bosch’s Anatomia Systematis Respirationi Inservientis Pathologica. Har-
lem, 1801, 4to. p. 1–44.

↵

[Seite 74]

Keil indulging his luxuriant iatro-mathematical genius, assigned more
than 1744,000,000 cells to each lung.

↵

†.

[Seite 74]

Lieberkühn, with equal exaggeration, made the surface of the cells equal
to 1500 square feet.

↵

‡.

[Seite 74]

Eustachius. Tab. xxvii. fig. 13.

↵

[Seite 75]

Mascagni. Histor. vasor. lymphatic. Tab. xx.

↵

†.

[Seite 75]

Ibid. Tab. xxi.

↵

‡.

[Seite 75]

Consult Portal in the Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris. 1780

↵

§.

[Seite 75]

J.G. Amstein (Praes. Oetinger) De usu et actione musculor. intercostal.
[Seite 76] Tubing. 1769, 4to. Theod. Fr. Trendelenburg, Jun. De sterni costarumque
in respiratione vera genuinaque motus ratione. Gotting, 1779, 4to. Bordenave
and Sabatier, in the Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris, 1778.

↵

[Seite 76]

Haller, Icon. Anat. fascic. 1, Tab. 1.

B.S. Albinus. Tab. musculor. Tab. xiv. fig. 5, 6, 7.

J.G. Röderer, De arcubus tendineis muscul. progr. 1. Gotting 1760.
4to.

Santorini, Tab. Posth. x. fig. 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 76]

De Anatomicis Administrationibus, L. viii. cap. 8. The whole book is
full of experients on respiration.

↵

‡.

[Seite 76]

Ephr. Krüger. De nervo phrenico. Lips. 1759, reprinted in Sandifort’s
Thesaurus Tom. iii.

Walter’s Tab. nervor. thorac. et abdominis, Tab. 1, fig. 1, n. 1.

↵

[Seite 77]

The antiquity of the notion that air is the pabulum vitae, is seen in the
book de Flatibus, usually ascribed to Hippocrates. The author regards the
aliment as threefold – victuals, drink, and air: but the latter he calls vital,
because we cannot dispense with a perpetual supply of it, without danger to
life

↵

†.

[Seite 77]

Consult Harvey’s Dispute upon the necessary renovation of the aerial
uccus alibilis, with the celebrated Astronomical Professor, J. Greaves,
[Seite 78] in the latter’s Description of the Pyramids of Egypt, p. 101, sq. Lond. 1646,
8vo. Also Edm. Halley’s immortal popular Discourse concerning the Means
of furnishing Air at the bottom of the Sea in any ordinary Depth. Phil. Trans,
vol. xxix. No. 349, p. 492, sq.

↵

[Seite 78]

Fr. Stromeyer, Grundriss der Theoretischen Chemie, P. ii. p 619.

↵

†.

[Seite 78]

Consult, for instance, Abilgaard in the Nordisch. Archiv. fur Naturkunde,
&c. T. 1. P. i. and ii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 78]

Consult, besides, Priestley and others, especially C. II. Peaff, ib. P. iv.
P. ii.

↵

§.

[Seite 78]

To discover how frequently an animal could breathe the same
[Seite 79] portion of air, I took three dogs equal in size and strength; and to the tra-
chea of the first, by means of a tube, I tied a bladder, containing about 20 cu-
bic inches of oxygen gas. He died in 14 minutes.

With the second, the bladder was filled with atmospheric air. He died in
6 minutes.

With the third, I employed the carbonized air expired by the second dog.
He died in 4 minutes.

Upon afterwards examining the air of the bladder, it gave the common
signs of carbonic acid gas. The instruments which 1 employed are described
and illustrated by a plate in the Medic. Biblioth. Vol. 1. p. 174. et. seq.
tab. 1.

↵

[Seite 79]

J.A. De Luc. Idées sur la Météorologie, tom. ii. p. 67. 229.

↵

†.

[Seite 79]

Rob. Menzies, De Respiratione. Edinb. 1790, 8vo.

H. G. Rouppe on the same subject. Lugd. Batav. 1791, 4to.

J. Bostock’s Versuch über das Athemolen. übers. von. A.F. Nolde. Erf.
1809. 8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 79]

J. Andr. Scherer. Beweis dass. J. Mayow, vor 100. Jahren den Grund Zur
Antiphlogistischen Chemie und Physiologie gelegt hat, p. 104. Edm. Godwyn’s
Connexion of Life with Respiration. Lond. 1788, 8vo. J. Hunter, On the
Blood, p. 68. J.A. Albers in the Beyträgen zur Anat. und Physiolog. der
Thiere. P. 1, p. 108.

↵

[Seite 80]

See J. Brugnatelli’s Elementi di Chimica. T. 1. p. 155. T. Fr. Gmelin,
De Acidorum origine ex aëre vitali adhuc dubia in the Comment. Soc. Reg. Sc.
Gotting. T. xiii.

↵

[Seite 81]

It bears the epithet Hookian, because it was most adorned by Rob.
Hooke. See Th. Sprat’s History of the Royal Society. Lon. 1667, 4to. p. 232.
But it was before instituted and very much praised for its beauty by Vesali-
us. De c. h. Fabrica. p. 824.

↵

†.

[Seite 81]

Wm. Harvey De circulat. sanguin. ad T. Riolan, p. 258. Glasgov. 1751,
12mo. and especially his Exerc. de genere Animalium, p. 263. London, 1651,
4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 81]

See Theod. G. Aug. Roose Uber das Ersticken neugebohrner Kinder. in his
Physiologisch. Untersuchugen. Brunsw. 1796, 8vo. J.D. Herholdt De vita im-
primis foetus humani, ejusque morte sub partu, Havn. 1802, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 81]

Consult, for example, Petr. T. Daoustenc De Respiratione. Lugd. 1743, 4to.
p. 34, sq. Rob. Whytt on the Vital and other involuntary Motions of Animals, p.
222. Edinb. 1751, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 85]

On Respiration.

↵

†.

[Seite 85]

Toxicologie Generale.

↵

‡.

[Seite 85]

Annals of Medicine and Surgery, vol. i. p. 155.

↵

§.

[Seite 85]

[Fußnotentext auf Seite 85 und Fußnotenverweis auf Seite 86]Philos. Trans. 1808. and 1809.

↵

[Seite 86]

Animal Chemistry.

↵

†.

[Seite 86]

Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, 1814.
Dissert. Inaugur. &c. Edinb. 1814.

↵

[Seite 87]

Th. Young in The Philos. Trans. 1800 P. 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 87]

Jan. Marg. Busch De Mechanismo Organi vocis hujusque Functione.
Groning. 1770. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 87]

Soemmerring’s Icones Organorum Gustus et Vocis. Francof. 1808. fol.

↵

§.

[Seite 87]

B.S. Albinus’ Tab. Muscul. Tab. X. fig. 1–15. Tab. XI. fig. 45–48.
Tab. XII. fig. 1–7.

↵

[Seite 88]

Kratzenstein viewed the glottis and larynx as a kind of drum, with its
head bisected. Tentamen de Natura et Charactere Sonorum Litterarum Vo-
calium. Pretop. 1781. 4to. I would, in some sense, compare it to an Eolian
harp, particularly one of the description found by Labillardiére in Amboyna.
Voyage à la Recherche de la Perouse. T. i. p. 326.

↵

†.

[Seite 88]

See some experiments made at Gottingen with the view of settling
this controversy, in J.G. Runge’s Dissertation De Voce Ejusque Or-
[Seite 89] ganis. L.B. 1753. 4to. Also consult Jos. Ballanti, in the Commentar. In-
stituti Bonon. T. vi. Vicq-d’Azyr in the Mem. de l’Acad. des. Sc. de Paris.
A. 1779.

↵

[Seite 89]

Respecting this celebrated experiment, anciently made by Galen, con-
sult among others W. Courten, in the Philos Trans. N. 335. Morgagni.
Ep. Anatom. xii. No. 20. P.P. Molinelli, in the Comment. Institut. Bonon.
Tom. iii. J. Haighton, in the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London.
T. iii.

↵

†.

[Seite 89]

The larynx, even among the most ferocious people, is capable of imi-
tating the sounds of animals.

Consult Nic. Wisten, Noord en oost – Tartarye ed. 2. Amst 1705. vol. 1.
p. 165, respecting the southern inhabitants of New Guinea, called Papus.
And. J. Adair, in his History of the American Indians, p. 309, respecting the
Chotkah tribe of North America.

↵

[Seite 90]

I have in my hands the testimony of most respectable travellers, in re-
gard, for instance, to the inhabitants of Ethiopia, Greenland, Canada, Cali-
fornia, Kamtschatka, &c. and therefore wonder at the assertion of Rous-
seau, that singing is not natural to man. Dictionn. de Musique T. i. p. 170,
Genev. 1781. 12mo.

↵

†.

[Seite 90]

See Rich. Payne Knight’s Analytical Essay on the Greek Alphabet.
Lond, 1791, 4to. p. 3.

↵

[Seite 91]

Consult F. Mercur. ab. Helmont’s Alphabeti vere Naturalis Hebraici
Delineatio. Sulzbac. 1657. 12mo.

Joach. Jungii Doxascopiae Physicae Minores (1662) 4to. Append. Sec-
tion i. P. ii. fol. G. ii. g. 3.

J. Wallis’ Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae, cui praefigitur de loquela s. sono-
rum omnium loquelarium formatione tract, grammatico-physicus. Ed. 6. Lond.
1765. 8vo.

Gottl. Conr. Chr. Storr. De Formatione Loquelae. Tubing. 1781. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 91]

K.G. Anton, Uber Sprache in Rücksicht auf Geschichte der Menschheit.
Görlitz. 1799. 8vo.

Er. Darwin’s Temple of Nature. Addit. Notes, p. 112.

↵

‡.

[Seite 91]

His Surdus Loquens. Amst. 1692. 8vo. With the Dissert. de Loquela.
lb. 1700.

↵

§.

[Seite 91]

Respecting their formation, consult Chr. Theoph. Kratzenstein’s Tenta-
men, recommended above.

↵

[Seite 92]

Fr. Lupichius De Risu, Basil, 1738. 4to. Traité des Causes Physi-
ques et Morales du rire. Amst. 1788. 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 92]

J. Melch. Fr. Albrecht (Praes. Haller.) Experimenta in vivis Animalibus
circa tussis organa exploranda instituta. Gotting. 1751. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 92]

Marc. Beat. L.J. Porta De Sternutatione. Basil, 1755. 4to.

↵

[Seite 93]

C.J. Sig. Thiel De Singulter. Gotting. 1761. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 93]

J.F. Schreiber De Fletu. L.B. 1723. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 93]

Dav.c. Imm Berdot. De suspirio. Basil. 1756. 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 93]

Just. Godofr. Günz (Praeside Walthero) De Oscitatione. Lips. 1738. 4to.

↵

[Seite 94]

Experiences sur le Principe de la Vie. Par M. Le Gallois.

↵

†.

[Seite 94]

These observations of M. Majendie’s are contradictory to those of M.
Le Gallois.

↵

[Seite 95]

Precis Elémaentaire de Physiologie, par. F. Majendie. T. 1. p. 216. seq.

↵

[Seite 96]

W.B. Johnson’s History of Animal Chemistry. Vol. iii. p. 79.

↵

†.

[Seite 96]

The torpid state of some animal, during winter, is of course an ex-
ception to this. Most of the functions cease or languish considerably, and
the animal heat is reduced nearly to coolness. This well-known circum-
stance prevents me from acceding to the opinion of the very acute J. Hunter,
– that the animals which we call warm blooded, should rather be called
animals of a permanent heat under all temperatures. On the Blood, p 15.

↵

‡.

[Seite 96]

J.B. Van Mons in the Journal de Physique. T. lxviii. 1809, p. 121.

↵

[Seite 97]

Philos. Trans. vol. i. P. ii. 1758. Arn. Dantze had previously made the
observation in regard to brutes. Exper. Calorem Animalem Spectantia. Ludg.
Bat. 1754, 4to. Also Benjamin Franklin’s Experiments and Observations on
Electricity. Lond. 1769, 4to. p. 365.

↵

†.

[Seite 97]

Duhamel and Tillet, in the Mem. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris, 1704.

Blagden and Dobson. Philos. Trans. 1765.

↵

‡.

[Seite 97]

The heat of the weather, even in Europe, occasionally exceeds our natu-
ral temperature. This was the case on the third of Aug. 1783, at noon
when I was on the Lucern Alps, in company with the excellent Schnyder de
Wirtensee. The thermometer in the shade stood above 100° Fahr. and when
applied to the body, invariably sunk to 97°.

↵

[Seite 98]

See Lichtenberg’s Animadversions upon this part of Crawford’s Theory,
in his notes to Erxleben’s Anfangsgr. der Naturlehre. p. 447. ed. vi.

↵

†.

[Seite 98]

Hence the constant coldness of those wretched beings who labour under
the blue disease, which arises from a mal-conformation of the heart. Some-
times the septa of the heart are imperfect, sometimes the aorta arises with
the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, as in the tortoise. In such
instances, the chemical changes cannot take place in the lungs. Among
innumerable instances of this lamentable disease, suffice it to quote J. Aber-
nethy’s Surgical and Physiological Essays. P. ii. p. 158, and Fr. Tieaemann.
Zoologic. T. i p. 177.

↵

‡.

[Seite 98]

I have formerly treated of the influence of the nervous system upon ani-
mal heat, in my Specimen Physiologiae Comparatae Inter Animantia Calidi &
Frigidi Sanguinis, p. 23.

See the same confirmed by many arguments in Magn. Ström’s Theoria In-
flammationis Doctrinae de Calore Animali Superstructa. Havn. 1795, 8vo. p.
30, sq. and by the much lamented Roose, in the Journal der Erfindungen, &c.
T. v. p. 17.

Consult also Dupuytrem in the Analyse des Travaux de l’Institut. 1807,
p. 16.

↵

[Seite 99]

See Crawford in the Philos. Trans. vol. lxxi. p. ii.

↵

†.

[Seite 99]

G. Pickel’s Experimenta Physico-Medica de Electricitate et Calore Ani-
mali. Wirceb. 1788, 8vo. p. 91. sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 99]

C. Ferd. Becker De Effectibus Caloris et Frigoris Externi in c. h. Gott.
1802, 4to. and Wm. Fr. Baur On the same subject, ib. eod. (both honoured
with the Royal Prize.) Mich. Skjelderup. Dissert. Sistens Vim Frigoris in-
citantem. Hafn. 1803, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 99]

J. Chr. Goeschen. (Praes. Ph. Fr. Meckel) Pulmonum cum Cute
[Seite 100] Commercium. Hal. 1789. 8vo. But especially J.D. Brandis. Pathologie
Hamb. 1808, p. 316, sq.

↵

[Seite 100]

See, for instance, Tacconi in the Comment. Instit. Bononiens. Vol. vi.
p. 74.

↵

[Seite 103]

Philos. Trans. 1814.

↵

†.

[Seite 103]

Philos. Trans. 1812.

↵

‡.

[Seite 103]

Crawford on Animal Heat. P. 387, sq.

↵

[Seite 104]

L. c. p. 388.

↵

†.

[Seite 104]

Dr. Davy, Philos. Trans. 1814.

↵

[Seite 105]

Al. Monro Primus. Oratio de Cuticula Humana. Opera. English Edi-
tion. Edinb. 1781, 4to. p. 54, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 105]

Among others, consult J. Mitchell, in the Philos. Trans. Vol. xliii p.
111.

↵

[Seite 106]

Abr. Kaau, Perspiratio Dicta. Hippocrati, p. 7.

Lieberkuhn, De Fabrica Villor. Intestin. Tenuium, p. 16.

Cruikshank’s Expts. on the Insensible Perspiration, p. 5.

Rudolph, Reisebemerkungen. T. i. p. 29, 140.

Jens. W. Neergaard, Vergleichende Anat. der Verdauungswerkzeuge, p. 21,
& alibi.

↵

†.

[Seite 106]

The very dense epidermis of some immense animals consists of vertical
fibres, which, in arrangement, somewhat resemble the structure of the
Boletus igniarius. Its internal surface is porous and penetrated by the fi-
laments, in appearance silken, of the subjacent corium. This is remarka-
bly exemplified in a preparation now before me, taken from the skin of the
balaena mysticetus. The human cuticle, in certain diseased states, exhibits
the same appearance as in the Englishman called the Porcupine Man, who
laboured under a cuticular complaint which he transmitted to his children
and grand-children. Vide W.G. Tilesius’ Beschreibung und Abbildung der
beiden sogenannten Stachelschwein-Menschen (Porcupine Men.) Altenb. 1802,
fol.

The innumerable polyedrical papillae and horny warts which I witnessed
upon every part of the skin of these brothers, excepting the head, the palms
of the hands and the soles of the feet, bore some resemblance to the skin of
the elephant, especially about the vertex and forehead of the animal.

[Seite 107]

Similar also are corns, and the brawny cuticle of the feet, in those who
walk barefooted. Vide Carlisle on the Production and Nature of Corns in
the Med. Facts and Observations. Vol. vii. p. 29.

↵

[Seite 107]

W. Hunter, in the Med. Observations and Inquiries, vol. ii. p. 52, sq. tab.
i. fig. 1, 2. The conjecture of this eminent man, that the fibrils excrete
the perspirable matter, is, I think, improbable.

↵

†.

[Seite 107]

Hence I have found the Epidermis of Albinos separate easily by the
heat of the sun; whereas in negroes, it scarcely does so on the application
of a blister. C.F. Mitchell, l. c. p. 108.

↵

[Seite 108]

B.S. Albinus De sede & Causa Coloris Aethiopum et Caeteror. Homi-
num. Lugd. Batav. 1737, 4to. fig. 1.

Sam. Th. Soemmerring Uber die körperl. Verschiedenh. des Negers vom
Europäer. Ed. 2. p. 46. sq.

Some even of the moderns have assigned many laminae, and even diffe-
rent kinds of laminae, to the reticulum; as Lieutaud in his Estais Anato-
miques, p. 103. ed. 1766; and Cruikshank, l. c. p. 43, 99.

Others make it organic. Vide Mich, Skjelderup, l. c. p. 93.

↵

†.

[Seite 108]

Jo. Nic. Pechlin, De Habitu et Colore Aethiopum, qui Vulgo et Nigritae.
L. Kilon. 1677, 8vo. Camper’s oration on the same subject will be found in
bis kleiner Schriften Vol. i. P. 1. p. 24–49.

↵

[Seite 109]

I have given this opinion at some length in my work, De Gen. Human.
Varietate Nativa, p. 122, sq. ed. 3. Some eminent chemists accord with me,
among whom suffice it to mention the celebrated Davy, in the Journals of the
Royal Institution, vol. ii. p. 30. ‘“In the rete mucosum of the African, the
carbon becomes the predominant principle; hence the blackness of the ne-
gro.”’ W.B. Johnson, l. c. vol. ii. p. 229.

↵

[Seite 110]

Chr. Gottl. Ludwig, De Humore Cutem Inungente. Lips. 1748, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 110]

Lyonet, Lettre à M. Le Cat. p. 12.

↵

‡.

[Seite 110]

Jo. Ph. Withoff, De pilo Humano, Duisb. 1750, 4to. Compare the Com-
mentar. Socient. Gotting. Vol. ii.

Job. Baster, Verhandel. der Maatsch. te Haarlem, T. xiv. p. 382

↵

§.

[Seite 110]

De Generis Human. Variet. Nativ. p. 29.

↵

[Seite 111]

Galen, Ars Medicinalis, p. 211–235. M. Ant. Ulm. Uterus Muliebris
p. 128, et alibi. Lavater, Fragmente, T. iv. p. 112.

↵

†.

[Seite 111]

I suspect that the bulb is intended for support rather than for nourish-
ment, from this circumstance, that the locks of hairs sometimes found in
melicera and steatomata of the omentum and ovarium, some of which I have
[Seite 112] now before me, are usually destitute of bulbs, because they are not fixed, but
lie naked in the honey-like fatty matter.

↵

[Seite 112]

Duverney, Ouvres Anatomiques, Vol. i. Tab. xvi. fig. 7, 9–14. Tab. xvij.
fig. 3, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 112]

B.S. Albinus, Annotat. Academ. L. vj. Tab. iij. fig. 45.

↵

‡.

[Seite 112]

Hence the danger of contagion from hairs, to which miasmata very tena-
ciously adhere for a great length of time. Vide Cartwright’s Journal of
Transactions on the Coast of Labrador, vol. i. p. 273. vol. ii. p. 424.

↵

§.

[Seite 112]

Ars Sanctor. Sanctorii, De Statica Medicina Aphorismor. sanctionibus vij.
Comprehensa. Venet. 1634, 16to.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 112]

C. de Milly and Lavoisier, Memoires l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris,
[Seite 113] 1777, p. 221, sq. 360, sq. J. Ingenhouz, Expts. upon Vegetables. Lond. 1779,
8vo. p. 132, sq. J.H. Voight. Versuch einer neuen Theorie des Fevers, p. 157,
sq.

↵

[Seite 113]

W. Basche, on the Morbid Effects of Carbonic Acid Gaz, on Healthy Ani-
mals, Philadel. 1794, 8vo. p. 46.

↵

†.

[Seite 113]

Abernethy, l. c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 113]

Fr. L. Andr. Koeler, De Odore per Cutem spirante in statu sano ac mor-
boso, Gotting. 1794, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 113]

The balance employed by Sanctorius, to estimate the loss of perspired
matter, is described in his Comm. in Primam Fen Primi L. Canon. Avicennae.
Venet. 1646, 4to. p. 781.

Another much more simple and better adapted for the purpose, is describ-
ed by Jo. Andr. Segner, de Libra, qua sui quisque corporis pondus explorare
posset, Gotting. 1740, 4to. J.A. Klindworth, an excellent Gottingen instru-
ment-maker, at my instigation, altered this, and rendered it more convenient
and accurate.

↵

[Seite 114]

Lavosier and Seguin (Memoires de l’Academie des Sciences, 1790, p. 610)
enclosed the body in a silk bag varnished with elastic gum, having a small
opening carefully cemented around the mouth, so that by weighing the body
previously and subsequently to the experiment, they were able to ascertain
exactly what had been lost by vapour, and by subtracting from this loss the
weight of the perspired contents of the bag, they also ascertained how much
of this had passed off by the lungs. From repeated trials they found the
mean pulmonary discharge in twenty-four hours amounted to 15 oz. and the
cutaneous to 1 lb. 14 oz. The quantity of carbon separated by the lungs
ought however to have been taken into the acconnt. If it amounts to 11 oz.
in twenty-four, which I cannot believe it does, there will be but 4 oz. of pul-
monary exhalation.

↵

†.

[Seite 114]

Cruikshanks on Insensible Perspiration, and Ellis’s Further inquiry on the
Changes produced in Atmospheric Air, &c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 114]

Medical Reports, &c.

↵

§.

[Seite 114]

Rollo, On Diabetes.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 114]

La Mediciné eclairée, &c. T. 3.

↵

[Seite 115]

Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. i.

↵

†.

[Seite 115]

Watson’s Chemica Essays. iii. 101.

↵

‡.

[Seite 115]

Medical Facts and Experiments.

↵

‡.

[Seite 115]

Medical Facts and Experiments.

↵

[Seite 116]

Eustachii, tab. xviii. fig. 2.

↵

†.

[Seite 116]

Diss. debasi eucephali. Gotting. 1778, 4to. p. 17. Also his work, already
quoted, upon the anatomy of the negro, 59, sq.

J Gotter. Ebel’s Observationes neurologicae ex anatome comparata. Traj.
ad.Viadr. 1788, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 117]

Eustachii, tab. xvii. xviii.

Halleri Icones anat. fasc. vi. tab. i. ii. iii.

Santorini, tab. posth. ii. iii.

↵

†.

[Seite 117]

J. Ladmiral’s Icones durae matris in concava et convexa superficie visae.
Amst. 1738, fasc. i. ii. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 117]

In the skulls of some mammalia, a remarkable lamina of bone pe-
netrates a duplicature of the tentorium, and supports it. Cheselden (Anat.
of the bones, c. 8.) supposes this bony tentorium to exist in ferae only; but
it is found in the equine genus, the cercopithecus paniscus, the delphinus
phocoena, &c. Its use is uncertain: that which is generally ascribed to it
(for instance, by Laur. Nihell de cerebro. Edinb. 1780, p. 4) of supporting
the cerebellum in those mammalia which leap considerably, is improbable,
because we find it in animals also of slow motion, as the bear, and not in the
ibex, which moves with the greatest velocity.

↵

§.

[Seite 117]

Vieussen’s Neurograph, univaersal, tab. xvii. fig. 1

Duverney’s Oeuvres anatom. vol. i. tab. iv.

[Seite 118]

Haller’s icones anat. fasc. i. tab. vi.

Walter De morbis peritonaei et apoplexia. Berol. 1785, 4to. tab. iii. iv.

Vicq. d’Azyr’s Planehes Anatomiques. xxxii. et xxxv.

↵

[Seite 118]

Ruyschii Respons. ad ep. problemat. nonam. Amst. 1670, tab. x.

↵

†.

[Seite 118]

B.S. Albini Annot. acad. L. 1. tab. ii. fig. 1. 5.

↵

‡.

[Seite 118]

S. Th. Sömmerring über das Organ der Seele. Region. 1796, 4to.
tab. i. ii.

↵

§.

[Seite 118]

The importance of this plexus is shewn in the dissection of maniacs, in
whom it alone is very frequently found diseased.

↵

[Seite 119]

De basi encephali, p. 13.

Compare Gennari De peculiari structura cerebri Parmae, 1782, 8vo. tab.
ii. iii.

↵

†.

[Seite 119]

Malpighi De cerebri cortice c. rel. de viseerum structura Exercit. Lond.
1699, 12mo.

Ruysch De cerebri corticali substantia ep. problemat. xii. Amst. 1699.
4 to.

Chr. Frid. Ludwig. De cinerea cerebri substantia. Lips. 1799, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 119]

Sömmerring De habitu vasorum cerebri in Denkschriften der Acad. der
Wiss. zu München. 1808, tab. i.

↵

§.

[Seite 119]

B.S. Albini Annat. Acad. L. 1. tab. ii. fig. 4. 5.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 119]

Consult Metzger’s Animadversiones ad doctrinam nervorum. Regiomont
1783, 4to.

↵

**.

[Seite 119]

T. Dan Schlichting first accurately described this phenomenon in the
Commerc. litter. Noric. 1744, p. 409, sq. and more largely in the Mém. pre-
sentés à l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris, T. 1. p. 113.

[Seite 120]

Haller discovered the cause of it by numerous dissections of living ani-
mals. See his pupil, J. Dit. Wolstorf’s Experimenta circa motum cerebri,
cerebelli, &c. Gotting. 1753.

Consult also after F. de la Mure, Larry’s Dissertations on the same point
in the Mem. Presents, T. iii. p. 277, sq. 344, sq. Also Portal on a similar
motion, observable in the spinal marrow. Mém. de la Nature de plusiers
Maladies. T. ii. p. 81.

↵

[Seite 120]

I once enjoyed an opportunity of very distinctly observing this motion
and making some experiments with respect to it, in a young man eighteen
years of age. When not five years old, he had fallen from an eminence and
fractured the frontal bone on the left side of the coronal suture: since which
time, there had been an immense hiatus, covered by merely a soft cicatrix
and the common integuments. The hiatus formed a hollow, deeper during
sleep, and varying according to the state of respiration: very deep if he re-
tained his breath, much more shallow, and even converted into a swelling,
by a long continued expiration. At the bottom of the hollow, I observed a
pulsation synchronous with the pulsation of the arterial system, such as
deceived Petriolus, Vandellus and other adversaries of Haller, confounding
it with that which depends upon respiration. – I may add, that this wound on
the left side of the head, had rendered the right arm and leg paralytic.

↵

†.

[Seite 120]

J.J. Huber De medulla spinali. Gotting. 1741, 4to. The plate is to
be found among Haller’s fascic. i. tab. ii.

Haller’s own plates of the same part are in the same fasciculus, vii. tab.
iv. v.

Monro (filius) On the Nervous System, tab. x. fig. 1.

↵

‡.

[Seite 120]

Consult the Anatomie et Physiologie du systeme Nerveux, &c. par F.J.
Gall et G. Spurzheim. T. 1. Paris, 1810, 4to.

↵

[Seite 121]

Reil De Structura Nervorum, Hal. 1796, fol.

Osiander in the Comm. Soc. Reg. sc. Gotting. T. xvi.

↵

†.

[Seite 121]

Rob. Martin’s oration De Proprietatibus Nervorum Generalioribus, pre-
fixed to his Instit. Neuroligicae.

↵

‡.

[Seite 121]

Haller on the sensible parts of the body in the Comment. Soc. sc. Got-
ting. T. i. and his discourse upon them in the Nov. Comment. Gotting.
T. iii.

Petre Castell’s Experim, quibus constitit varias h. c. partes sentiendi facul-
tate carere. Gotting. 1753, 4to. And three entire collections on the con-
troversies excited by the Gottingen publications throughout Europe.

Sull’ insensibilitate irritabilita, dissertazioni transportate da J.G.Y. Petrini
Rom. 1755, 4to.

Sulla insensitiva ed irritabilita Halleriana opuscoli raccolti da G.B. Fabri.
Bonon. 1757–59, iv. vol. 4to. And that which Haller himself published
under the title of Mémoires sur la Nature sensible et irritable des Parties du
corps humain. Lausanne, 1756–59. iv. vol. 12mo.

↵

§.

[Seite 121]

In the great variety and even contradiction of opinion, which, as
we shall presently mention, exists in respect to the feeling of tendons
and other parts when injured, I have always considered negative argu-
[Seite 122] ments of more weight than positive, because nothing is more fallacious
than the ideas of patients as to the seat of internal pains. To say nothing
of cases where amputated parts appear to the patient as still in possession
of feeling, it is well known that some have felt a fixed pain for a great length
of time, in parts where after death nothing uncommon was observable;
and that, on the other hand, in chronic diseases, pain is sometimes not
felt in the diseased part, but in another which is healthy and perhaps
very remote.

We may in this way much more easily explain syphilitic pains, for in-
stance, referred to the bones, than so many contradictory experiments, in
which I have seen the medulla roughly handled without causing the least
uneasiness.

↵

[Seite 122]

I am every day more convinced that much caution and practice
ajid repetition of the same experiment, in many different kinds of ani-
mals, are necessary in establishing the laws of physiology from dis-
sections of living animals. To adduce the example of the supposed
feeling of the medulla, I have found different results in many mam-
malia and birds. Many allowed the medulla to be destroyed without
evincing any symptom of pain; others were convulsed, and cried out
on the approach of the instrument. The latter might be agitated from
the dread of fresh torment, on seeing the knife; and the former, having
suffered great torture, might have been insensible to the less violent irri-
tation of the medulla, although it were endowed with nerves.

↵

[Seite 123]

Lassus has diligently collected the different opinions of writers on this
point. Sur les découvertes faites en Anatomie, p. 299, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 123]

Compare Mein. Sim. De Pui De homine dextro et sinistro. L.B. 1780,
8vo. p. 107, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 123]

v. Gall and Spurzheim, and Osiander. ll. cc.

↵

§.

[Seite 123]

Sömmerring in the Hessischen Beyträgen zur Gelehrsamkeit, P. i. et iv.

F.N. Nöthig. (praes. Sommerring) De decussatione nervorum optic.
Mogunt. 1786, 8vo.

J.F. Ackermann in the Biblioth. Medica, which I published, vol. iii. p. 337.
706.

Hor. Caldani, Opuscula Anat. Patav. 1803, 4to. p. 111.

J. and C. Wenzel. Prodromus eines Werkes über das Hirn. p. 11.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 123]

Consult Pfeffinger De structura Nervorum. Argent. 1782, 4to.

↵

**.

[Seite 123]

Wm. Battie De Principiis Animalibus. p. 126.

↵

††.

[Seite 123]

Comment. Instituti Bonoinens. T. iii. 1755, p. 282, sq. fig. 1, 2.

The observation of Mollinelli has been abundantly confirmed and further
illustrated by Felix Fontana and Al. Monro: the latter in his work so often
quoted, and the former in his treatise Sur le Vénin de la Viperè. Flor. 1781,
4to. vol. ii.

↵

[Seite 124]

Mém. de l’Acad. des Sc. de Berlin. Vol. ix. 1753.

↵

†.

[Seite 124]

Consult among others who treat professedly of the ganglia, J. Johnstone
in the Med Essays and Observ. Evesham, 1795, 8vo.

J. Gottl. Haase’s Dissertation. Leips. 1772, 4to.

T. Caverhill’s Treatise on Ganglions. Lond. 1772, 8vo.

Ant. Scarpa’s Anatom. Annotat. L. i. De nervor. Gangliis et Plexubus.
Matin. 1722, 4to.

G. Prochaska De structura nervorum. Vindob. 1780, 8vo. Al. Monro. l. c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 124]

See Reil in the Archiv für Physiologie. T. vii. p. 189.

↵

[Seite 125]

The Cartesian hypothesis appeared to receive some weight from the
dissection of maniacs, in whom the pineal gland was found full of calca-
reous substances. But more careful observation shewed, that, after the
twelfth year, it was generally filled with a pearly sand, in the healthiest
persons, though very seldom in animals Sömmering de lapillas vel prope
vel infra gland. pin. sitis, s. de acervulo cerebri. Mogunt. 1785. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 126]

The prerogative of this part was ably refuted by Zinn. Exp. circa
corpus callosum, cerebellum, duram meningem, in vivis animalibus instit.
Gott. 1749. 4to.

↵

[Seite 127]

See Michelitz’s Scrutinium Hypotheseos Spirituum Animalium. Prag.
1782, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 127]

Fr. Al. Von Humboldt über die gereizte Muskel und Nerven fafer. Posen.
1797, ii. vol. 8vo.

J. W. Ritter, Beweis dass ein beständiger Galvanismus den Lebensprocess im
Thierreiche begleite. Vinar. 1798, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 128]

J. Heineken, Ideen u. Beobachtungen den thierischen Magnetismus betres-
send. Brem. 1800. 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 128]

v. Humboldt and Heineken. ll. cc.

↵

‡.

[Seite 128]

Dav. Hartley’s Observat. on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expecta-
tions. Lond. 1749, 8vo. vol. i. p. 44.

↵

§.

[Seite 128]

Queries at the end of his Optics, Qu. 23, p. 355, Lond. 1789, 8vo.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 128]

Er. Darwin has carried these opinions of Hartley still farther. Zoono-
mia, T. i.

↵

[Seite 129]

Bichat Traité des Membranes.

↵

[Seite 130]

Anatomie et Physiologie du Systeme nerveux, par Gall et Spurzheim, and
Physiognomical System by Spurzheim.

↵

[Seite 131]

Experiments, &c. by A.P. Wilson Philip, M.D. and Wm. Clift, Philos.
Trans. 1815.

↵

†.

[Seite 131]

Le Gallois, Sur le Principe de la Vie, and Wilson Philip, l. c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 131]

Wilson Philip, l. c. Probably by excessive stimulus, as the voluntary
muscles are afterwards insensible to stimuli, although after a mere division
of their nerves, they retain their excitability.

↵

[Seite 132]

Le Gallois, l. c.

↵

[Seite 133]

J. De Gorter’s Exercitationes Medicae, iv. Amst. 1737, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 133]

Consult Rol. Martin in the Schwed Abhandl. Vol. xxxix. 1777.

G. Bew in the Memoirs of a Society of Manchester, Vol. i. p. 159.

Ch. Hutton’s Mathematical Dictionary, Vol. i. p. 214.

↵

[Seite 134]

F. de Riet, De Organo Tactus, L.B. 1743, 4to. reprinted in Haller’s An-
atomical Collection, T. iv.

↵

†.

[Seite 134]

Dav. Corn. de Courcelles’ Icones Musculor. Capitis, Tab. i. f. 2, 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 134]

B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Academ. L. iii. tab. iv. fig. 1, 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 134]

Ruysch’s Thesaur. Anat. iii. tab. iv. f. i. Thes. vii. tab. ii. fig. 5.

B.S. Albinus, l. c. L. vi. Tab. ii. fig. 3, 4.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 134]

Grew in the Philos. Trans. n. 159.

↵

¶.

[Seite 134]

B.S. Albinus. Annotat. Acad. L. ii. tab. vii. f. 4. 5. 6.

↵

**.

[Seite 134]

Namely simiae, papiones, cercopitheci and lemures the apices of whose
fingers in their four hands are very soft and marked, as in the human subject,
with spiral lines.

Physiologists have disputed whether the sense of touch is bestowed on
any besides man and the quadrumana. In determining this controversy
we must recollect what was formerly said (81) concerning the differ-
ence of constitution according to the mode of living. On one hand, I would
[Seite 135] grant to both parties, that the snowy hands of a delicate girl must enjoy a
much more exquisite sense of touch, than what I called the fingers of ani-
mals. But, on the other hand, I have frequently seen simiae and papiones pos-
sessing much softer fingers, and using these fingers to explore surfaces
much more dexterously, than many barbarous nations and innumerable per-
sons among the lower orders of Europeans, whose hands have become har-
dened from labour.

↵

[Seite 135]

B.S. Albinus De Habitu et Colore Aethiopum, fig. 3.

↵

[Seite 136]

Grew’s Anatomy of Plants, p. 284, sq.

Petr. Luchtmans De Saporibus et Gustu. L.B. 1758. 4to. p. 58, sqq.

J. Gottl. Leidenfrost De sensu qui in faucibus est, ob eo qui in lin lingua exer-
citur, diverso. Duisb. 1771, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 136]

Sömmering’s Icones Organorum Humanorum Gustus. Francof. 1808, fol.

↵

‡.

[Seite 136]

In dogs and sheep with variously coloured skin, I have commonly found
the reticulum of the tongue and fauces also of various colours.

↵

[Seite 137]

Consult Just. Schrader’s Observat. et Histor. from Harvey’s book De
Generation Animalium, p. 186.

↵

†.

[Seite 137]

Morgagni’s Adversar. Anat. Prima. Tab. i.

↵

‡.

[Seite 137]

Ruysch’s Thesaur. Anat. 1. tab. iv. fig. 6.

B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. i. tab. i. f. 6–11.

↵

§.

[Seite 137]

Consult Haller’s excellent description of the tongue of a living man, in
the Diction. Encyclypedique. Yverdon edition. Vol. xxii. p. 28.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 137]

J.F. Meckel De Quinto pare Nervorum Cerebri. Gotting. 1748. 4to. p.
97. fig. 1. n. 80.

↵

**.

[Seite 137]

J.F.W. Meckel De Nono pare Nervorum Cerebri. Gotting. 1777, 4to.

↵

††.

[Seite 137]

See Haller’s Icon. Anatom. fasc. ii. tab. 1. letter g.

Monro on the Nervous System. Tab. xxiv.

↵

‡‡.

[Seite 137]

Bellini. Gustus Organum novisiime deprehensum. Bonon. 1665. 12mo.

↵

[Seite 139]

Conr. Vict. Schneider De Osse Cribriformi et Sensu ac Organo Odora-
tus. Witteb. 1655, 12mo.

This classical work forms an epoch in physiological history, not only be-
cause it is the first accurate treatise on the function of smell, but because it
put an end to the visionary doctrine of the organ of smell being the emunc-
tory of the brain.

↵

†.

[Seite 139]

Sömmerring’s Icones Organorum Humanorum Olfactus, Francof. 1810,
fol.

↵

‡.

[Seite 139]

Haller’s Icones. Anat. fasc. iv. tab. ii.

Duverney’s Oeuvres Anatom. Vol. i. tab. xiv.

Santorini’s Tab. Posthum, iv.

↵

[Seite 140]

In my Prolus. de Sinibus Frontal. Gotting. 1779. 4to. I have brought
forward many arguments from osteogony, comparative anatomy, and patho-
logical phenomena, to prove that these sinuses contribute indeed to the smell,
but little or nothing to voice and language, as was believed by many phy-
siologists.

↵

†.

[Seite 140]

Metzger Nervorum Primi Paris Historia. Argent. 1766, 4to. reprint-
ed in Sandifort’s Thesaurus. Vol. iii.

Scarpa, Anatomic Annotat. L. ii. tab. i. ii.

↵

[Seite 141]

This is shewn by pathological dissection and comparative anatomy.
Thus in Loder’s Observ. Tumoris Scirrhosi in Basi Cranii Reperti. Jen.
1779, 4to. is a case of anosmia, following a compression of the first pair by a
scirrhus. We are taught, by comparative anatomy, that in the most saga-
cious mammalia, v.c. elephants, bears, dogs, bisulcus ruminants, hedgehogs,
&c. the horizontal plate of the cribriform bone is very large, and perforated
by an infinity of small canals, each of which contains a filament of the olfac-
tory nerve.

↵

†.

[Seite 141]

While animals of the most acute smell have the nasal organs most ex-
tensively evolved, precisely the same holds in regard to some barbarous na-
tions. For instance, in the head of the North American Indian, (a leader of
his nation, and executed at Philadelphia about fifty years since), which I
have given in the First Decade of my Collection of the Crania of different Na-
tions, illustrated by nine plates, the internal nares are of an extraordinary size,
so that the middle conchae, for instance, are inflated into immense bullae;
and the sinuses, first described by Santorini, which are contained in them, I
never, in any other instance, found so large.

The nearest to these, in point of magnitude, are the internal nares of the
Ethiopians, from among whom I have seven heads now before me, very diffe-
rent from each other, but each possessing a nasal organ, much larger than we
find it described by Sömmerring to be in that nation, über die körperl. Vers-
chiedenh des Negers, &c. p. 22.

[Seite 142]

These anatomical observations accord with the accounts given by most re-
spectable travellers concerning the wonderful acuteness of smell possessed
by these savages.

Respecting the North American Indians, consult among others Urlsperger.
Nachr. von der Grossbritann. Colonie Salzburg. Emigranten in America. Vol.
i. p. 862.

Respecting the Ethiopians, the Journal des Scavans, 1667, p. 60.

↵

[Seite 142]

See Alibert on the Medical power of Odors, in the Mem. de la Soc. Me-
dicale. T. i. p. 44.

↵

†.

[Seite 142]

Emile. T. i. p. 367.

↵

‡.

[Seite 142]

Respecting the power of smell over the disposition and the propensities,
consult Benj. Rush, in the Medical Inquiries and Observations. Vol. ii. p. 34.

↵

[Seite 143]

Sömmerring. Abildung des Menschlichen Hörorgans. Francof. 1806,
fol.

↵

†.

[Seite 143]

B.S. Albinus. Annotat. Academ. L. vi. tab. iv.

↵

‡.

[Seite 143]

J. Rhodius ad Scribon. Largum. p. 44, sq.

J.Alb. Fabricius De Hominibus ortu non differentibus. Opuscul. p. 441.

Ch. Collignon’s Miscellaneous Works. Camb. 1786, 4to. p. 25, sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 143]

Consult J. Haygarth in the Med. Obs. and Inquires, vol. iv. p. 198, sq.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 143]

The existence of a fourth bone (called Lenticular) commonly believed
from the time of Franc. Sylvius, I have disproved at length in my Osteology,
p, 155. et seq. edit. 2. It is wanting in the greater number of perfect ex-
amples from adults.

↵

[Seite 144]

Saunder’s Anatomy of the human ear. Lond. 1801, fol. vol. i. ii.

↵

†.

[Seite 144]

Scarpa De Structura Fenestrae Rotundae, &c. Mutin. 1772, 8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 144]

Comparative anatomy renders it most probable that the Eustachian tube
is subservient to the action of the membrana tympani. It is found in all red-
blooded animals which possess a membrana tympani; but is wanting in fishes
which are destisute of this membrane. The different opinions respecting its
use may be found in Keil’s Archiv. für die Physiol. T. ii. p. 18. iii. p. 165. iv.
p. 105. viii. p. 67. ix. p. 320.

↵

[Seite 145]

Scarpa’s Disquisitiones Anatomicae de Auditu et Olfactu. Tab. iv. fig.
5. tab. vii. fig. 5.

↵

†.

[Seite 145]

Cotunni De Aqueductibus auris Humanae. Neap. 1760, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 145]

Ph. Fr. Meckel De Labyrinthi auris Contentis. Argen. 1777, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 145]

Fallopius’ Observ. Anat. p. 27, sq. Venet. 1561, 8vo.

↵

¶.

[Seite 145]

Brendelii Analecta de Concha auris Humanae. Gotting. 1747, 4to.

The same, De Auditu in Apice Conchae, ib. eod. 4to.

↵

**.

[Seite 145]

Consult Zinn’s Observ. Botan. Gotting. 1753, 4to. p. 31, sq.

Scarpa l. c. tab. viii. fig. 1. 2.

↵

[Seite 146]

B.S. Albini Tabulae Muscul. tab. xi. fig. 29.

↵

†.

[Seite 146]

Eustach. De Auditus Organ. p. 157.

Caldani. Institut. Physiol. 245, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 146]

T. Fr. Meckel De Quinto pare Nervorum Cerebri. fig. 1. x. 71.

Leop. M.A. Caldani on the Office of the chorda tympani, in the Saggi
dell’ Acad. di Padova, T. ii.

↵

§.

[Seite 146]

Cotunni. l. c. §. lxxxviii. Marherr’s Proaelect. in Boerhaavii Inst. Vol.
iii. p. 343.

↵

[Seite 147]

Sömmerring. Abbildungen des Menschlichen Auges. Francfort,
1801, fol.

↵

†.

[Seite 147]

Ad. Jul. Rose Be Morbis Corneae ex Fabrica ejus Declaratis. Lips.
1767, 4to.

G.H. Gerson De Forma Corneae Deque Singularis Visus Phaenomeno.
Gotting. 1810, 4to.

↵

[Seite 148]

C. Mundini in the Comm. Instit. Bononiens. T. vii. p. 29, II. F. El-
saesser (praes. G.C. Ch. Storr) De pigmento Oculi Nigro. Tubing. 1800,
8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 148]

B.S. Albinus. Annotat. Academ. L. iii. p. 59, sq. L. iv. p. 75, sq. L.
v. p. 66, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 148]

Walter De Venis Oculi, &c. Berol. 1778, 4to. tab. 1. fig. 2. tab. ii.
fig. 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 148]

The extremely beautiful blood-vessels of the retina were first dis-
covered by T. Mery to be visible in a living cat plunged into water.
Mem. de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris, avant 1699, T. x. p. 656; and 1704,
p. 265.

The radiated surface of the retina in the hare is most beautifully dis-
played by Zinn, in an admirable plate. Comm. Soc. Scient. Gotting.
T. iv. a. 1754, tab. viii. fig. 3.

By Fontana, in the rabbit. Sur. le venin de la vipere, vol. ii. tab. v
fig. 12.

↵

¶.

[Seite 148]

A plate accurately representing the courses of these branches will
be found in the Oeuvres de Mariotte. p. 527, fig. 1.

↵

**.

[Seite 148]

Sömmerring De Foramine centrali limbo luteo cincto retinae hu-
mane: in the Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gottingens. T. xiii. Ph.
Ph. Michaelis in the Journal der Erfindungen in der Natur und Arz-
neywiss, p. xv.

↵

††.

[Seite 148]

As I have discovered this central aperture in the eye of no animal
besides man, except the quadrumana, the axes of whose eyes are, like
[Seite 149] the human, parallel to each other, I think its use connected with this
parallel direction of the eyes, and have endeavoured to explain the con-
nection at large, in my Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie, p. 547. et
seq.

As, on the one hand, this direction of the eyes renders one object visi-
ble to both at the same time, and therefore more clearly visible; so, on
the other, this foramen prevents the inconvenience of too intense a
light, if it is probable that it expands and dilates a little, and thus re-
moves the principal focus from the very sensible centre of the retina.

↵

[Seite 149]

Comment. Soc. Scient. Gotting. tom. iv. p. 199.

↵

†.

[Seite 149]

On the remarkable mutual relation of the arteries and nerves of the
internal parts of the eye, and especially of the iris, see Diet. G. Kieser
De Anamorphosi Oculi. Gotting. 1804, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 149]

This beautiful membrane was first discovered by Francis Sandys,
a celebrated maker of anatomical preparations, and first described and
[Seite 150] exhibited in a plate by Ever. J. Wachendorf, Commerc. Litter. Nor. 1740.
Hebd. 18.

↵

[Seite 150]

The ciliary canal, discovered by Fel. Fontana (sur le venin de la vipere,
vol. ii. tab. vii. fig. 8, 9, 10,) and afterwards described more accurately by
Adolph. Murray, (nov. actor. Upsaliens. vol. iii.) runs, in bisulcous animals,
along this thick edge.

↵

†.

[Seite 150]

Consult, among others, Brandis in his Pathologie. p. 253.

↵

[Seite 151]

Th. Young in the Philos. Trans. 1793, fol. xx. fig. 2, 3.

Dav. Hosack, ib. 1794, tab. xvii. fig. 4.

J.C. Reil De lentis crystallinae structura fibrosa. Hal. 1794, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 151]

H. Meibomius’ De vasis Palpebrarum novis ep. Helmst. 1666, 4to.

↵

[Seite 152]

B.S. Albinus’ Annot. Acad. L. iii. tab. iii. fig. 4.

↵

†.

[Seite 152]

I. Chr. Rosenmüller. Organa Lachrymaliun Partiumque Externarum
Oculi Humani Descriptio Anatomica. Lips. 1797, 4to.

↵

[Seite 153]

See Nev. Maskelyne’s Attempt to explain a Difficulty in the Theory of
Vision, depending on the different Refrangibility of Light. Philos. Trans.
Vol. lxxix. p. 256.

↵

†.

[Seite 153]

See J. II. Voight in the Magazin fur Physik und Naturgeschichte. T.
v. P. iii. p. 143.

↵

[Seite 154]

Zinn De Motu Uveae, 1757, in the Comment. Societ. Scient. Got-
ting. T. i.

Fel. Fontana Dei Moti dell’ Iride. Lucca. 1765, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 154]

For other explanations consult Troxler in Himly’s Ophthalmol. Bib
lioth. T. i. P. ii. p. 21.

↵

[Seite 155]

I have spoken of Albinos at large, in my work De Generis Humani
Varietate Nativa, ed. 3. p. 274, and in my dissertation De Oculis Leu-
caethiopum.

↵

†.

[Seite 155]

H.W. Math. Olbers De Oculi Mutationibus Internis. Gotting.
1780. 4to.

Ever. Home in the Philos. Trans. 1795, p. 1.

↵

‡.

[Seite 155]

Comment. Societ. Scient. Gottingens. T. vii. p. 62. fig. 11. f. g. h.

↵

[Seite 156]

I say the human eye; for in some animals now before me, the
seal and porcupine, for instance, the true and imaginary axis are the
same, the optic nerve lying exactly opposite the centre of the cornea and
pupil.

↵

†.

[Seite 156]

Troxler speaks of this at large. l. c. T. ii. P. ii. p. i.

↵

‡.

[Seite 156]

In Optica Quaedam Boerhaavii et Halleri Commentatur Abr. Gotth.
Kaestner. Lips. 1785, 8vo. p. 7.

↵

§.

[Seite 156]

See Giov. Bartolozzi sopra una cieca nata guarita. Veron. 1781, 8vo.
p. 99. sq.

↵

[Seite 157]

W.C. Wells’s Essay upon single Vision with two eyes. Lond. 1792,
8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 157]

Consult Lambert sur la partie photometrique de l’art du peintre in the
Mem. de l'Acad. des Sciences de Berlin, 1768, p. 80, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 157]

Tob. Mayer’s Experimenta circa visus aciem, in the Commentar. Soc.
Scient. Gottingen, T. iv.

↵

§.

[Seite 157]

De la Hire. accidens de la vue, p. 375.

↵

[Seite 158]

Gassendi’s vita Peireskii, p. 175, sq. Hague, 1655, 4to.

Franklin’s Letters on Philosophical Subjects, at the end of his Expts.
on Electricity. Lond. 1769, 4to. p. 469, sq.

Rob. War. Darwin’s Experimenta nova de spectris s. imaginibus ocula-
ribus, quae objectis lucidioribus antea visis, in oculo clauso vel averso per-
cipiuntur. Lugd. Bat. 1785, 4to.

Er. Darwin’s Zoonomia, T. i.

C. Himly in the Biblioth. Ophthalmolog. T. i. P. ii. p. i.

↵

†.

[Seite 158]

The object of this firm application of the tarsi to the eye must be the
exclusion of foreign matters from the orbit.

↵

[Seite 160]

Précis Elementaire de Physiologie, T. i. p. 61, sq.

↵

[Seite 162]

Consult Winslow in the Mém. de l’Ac. des Sciences de Paris, 1739.

↵

†.

[Seite 162]

These are partly voluntary in some warm-blooded animals, as is shewn
in birds when setting, which, if deprived of their eggs, are well known
to lay others in succession.

↵

‡.

[Seite 162]

Cheyne’s Treatise on Nervous Diseases, p. 307, sq.

↵

[Seite 163]

See Sam. Lath. Mitchill On the gaseous oxyd of azote, &c. New
York, 1795, 12mo. p. 26.

Also Leop Caldani in the Memore della accademia di Mantova. T. i.
1795, p. 118.

↵

†.

[Seite 163]

See the Rapport des Commissaires chargés par le Roy de l’examen du
magnétisme animal, written by J. Sylv. Bailly, a man worthy of a better
fate. Paris, 1784, 4to. p. 16.

↵

‡.

[Seite 163]

Sec v.c. T. Bartholin in the Act. Hafniens, 1676, vol. iv. p. 191.

↵

[Seite 164]

A person playing on the harp, dancing, and singing, at the same
time, exercises about three hundred muscles at once. G. Ent’s animad.
in Thrustoni diatribam, p. 130.

↵

[Seite 165]

See A.P. Wilson in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, 1809.

↵

[Seite 166]

For instance, in Elephantiasis. Consult Ph. Gabr. Hensler, Vom
Abendländischen Aussatze im Mittelalter, p. 316. Accurately describ-
ed examples of similar changes in other affections, may be found in
Hedendaagsche Letter-Oefeningen, T. iv. P. ii. p. 45, and in the Mémoires
de Mathematique, &c. presentés à l’Academie des Sciences de Paris,
T. vii. p. 301.

↵

†.

[Seite 166]

See Thouret in the Journal de Physique, T. xxxviii. p. 255.

G. Sm. Gibbes in the Philos. Trans. 1794, p. 169.

↵

[Seite 167]

See Ad. Murray, De Fascia Lata. Upsal. 1777, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 167]

See Fourcroy in the Mémoires de l’Academie des Sciences de Paris,
1785, p. 392, and 1786, p. 38.

↵

‡.

[Seite 167]

Albinus, Annotat. Academ. L. iv. Tab. v. f. 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 167]

I thus distinguish it, not because the luminary of the Gottingen
school first discovered it, for he repeatedly bestowed praises upon the
opinions entertained with regard to it by his predecessors, from the time
of Glisson; but because he first investigated it as it deserved, illustrated
and enlarged upon it by numerous living dissections, and demonstrated
the great power and influence of the doctrine thus remodelled, upon the
animal economy. I have also another reason, viz. to distinguish it from
the irritability of the truly meritorious Gaubius, who applied the same
term to the morbid sensibility of the living solid.

↵

[Seite 168]

See Haller on the irritable parts in the Commentar. Soc. Sc. Gotting.
T. ii. and in the Nov. Commentar. Gotting. T. iv.

Among innumerable other writers on the same point, suffice it to quote
the following:

Zimmerman, De irritabilitate. Gott. 1751, 4to.

Oeder on the same. Hafn. 1752, 4to.

J. Eberh. Audrex on the same. (Praes. Ph. Fr. Gmelin.) Tubing.
1758, 4to.

Some others have been already mentioned, as well as three entire Col-
lections of Writers, (p. 182.)

↵

[Seite 169]

To this point chiefly belong the celebrated disputes respecting the
influence of nerves upon the motion of the heart, and the modus operandi
of opium upon the heart and nerves.

Consult, besides other authors already quoted,

Rob. Whytt’s Essay on the vital and other involuntary motions of ani-
mals. Edinb. 1751, 8vo. and more at large in his works, ib. 1768,
4to.

J. Aug. Unzer, erste Gründe einer Physiologie der eigentlichen thieris-
chen natur thierischer Korper. Leipsig. 1771, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 171]

J. H. v. Brunn’s Experimenta Circa Ligaturas Nervorum in vivis Ani-
malibus Instituta. Gotting. 1753, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 171]

v. J. Stewart, He Systematis Nervosi Officiis. Edinb. 8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 171]

C.H. Pfaff, über Thierische Elektricitiit und Reizbarkeit. Leipsig.
1795, 8vo. p. 263.

↵

§.

[Seite 171]

Stenon’s Elementor. Myologiae spec. Florent, 1667, 4to. p. 86.

↵

¶.

[Seite 171]

See Courten in the Philos. Trans. No. 335, p. 500, and Haller in the
Comment. Soc. Sc. Gotting. T. iv. p. 295.

↵

[Seite 173]

Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc, de Paris, 1720.

↵

[Seite 174]

P.J. Barthez. Nouvelle Mechanque des Mouvemens de l’Homme, et des
Animaux. Carcass. 1798. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 174]

Hence, of all animals which I have dissected, the mole is supplied
with the most remarkable apparatus of sesamoid bones; its anterior pal-
mated feet, with which it digs, have many of these bones, which greatly
facilitate the action of the brachial muscles.

↵

‡.

[Seite 174]

Gilb. Blane on Muscular Motion, p. 51.

↵

[Seite 175]

I have treated on this point at large, in the Medic. Biblioth. Vol. ii.
p. 407.

↵

[Seite 176]

Le Gallois, Sur le Principe de la Vie.

↵

†.

[Seite 176]

Bichat, Récherches Physiologiques.

↵

[Seite 177]

Consult, among authors hereafter to be recommended, Er. Darwin.
Zoomania. T. i. Sect. xviii.

↵

†.

[Seite 177]

De Panw has some singular observations upon it in his Recherches
sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois. T. ii. p. 159.

↵

[Seite 178]

Although the lethargic winter torpor of the Alpine marmot, the
cricetum, and many other brute mammalia, differs importantly from
the sleep now spoken of; modern observations respecting this torpor
have shewn, that, in their phenomena and remote causes, both correspond
and mutually elucidate each other. Consult, for instance, Sulzer. Natur-
geschichte des Hamsters, p. 162.

Spallanzani, Sur la Respiration. Geneva. 1803, 8vo.

Mangili, and C. Ul. Von Salis in the latter’s and Steinmüler’s Alpina.
T. iv. 1809.

Cuvier’s Analyse des Travaux de la Classe Physique de l’Institut.
1807.

↵

†.

[Seite 178]

Those who wish to know and compare other opinions upon the
causes of sleep, may consult M. De Grimaud’s Mémoire sur la Nutrition.
Petersb. 1789. 4to. p 194.

[Seite 179]

Arn. Wienholt in the Heilkraft des thierischen Magnetismus. T. ii.
p. 439.

H. Nudow. Versuch einer Theorie des Schlafs. Ratisbon, 1791, 8vo.

Steph. Gallini at the end of his Saggio d’Osservazioni Sui Nuovi Pro-
gressi Della Fisica del Corpo Umano. Padua, 1792, 8vo.

Manduit in Fourcroy in the Médecine Eclairée, &c. T. iv. p. 273.

T. Chr. Reil Functiones Organo Animae Peculiares. Hal. 1794, 8vo. p.
108.

L.H. Chr. Niemeyer Materialien zur Erregunstheorie. Gotting. 1800,
8vo. p. 71.

Troxler. Versuche in der Organischen Physik, p. 435

Brandis Pathologie, p. 534.

↵

[Seite 179]

Observ. on Man. Vol. i. p. 48.

↵

[Seite 180]

Consult Kant. Critik der Urtheilskraft p. 298. and Anthropologic.
p. 80.

↵

†.

[Seite 180]

v. F. Xav. Mezler von der Schwarzgallichten Constitution, p. 80.

↵

‡.

[Seite 180]

v. Locke’s Essay concerning Human Understanding. Vol. i. p. 74.
Lond. 1726. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 181]

See for instance what Hollmann has related of himself in this par-
ticular. Pneumatolog. Psycholog. et Theol. Natural. Gotting. 1780, 8vo.
p. 196.

↵

†.

[Seite 181]

Beattie’s Dissertations Moral and Critical. Lond. 1783, 4to. p.
217.

↵

‡.

[Seite 181]

G. Gottl. Richter De Statu Mixto somni et Vigiliae qua Dormientes multa
Vigilantium munera obeunt. Gotting. 1756, 4to.

Wienholt, l. c. Vol. iii. P. i. p. 10.

↵

[Seite 182]

As arterial blood when at rest acquires the venous character, it is evi-
dent that in congestion of blood, by which is meant an unusual quantity
of blood in a part, not moving with its usual freedom, the part affected
has not its proper supply of arterial blood. Hence congestion in the
head must, from this cause alone, produce drowsiness.

↵

†.

[Seite 182]

The phenomena of torpid animals are precisely analogous to those
of common sleep. The sensibility and all the functions are lessened, the
temperature is low, the circulation slow, respiration almost or quite im-
perceptible, and digestion suspended. This torpidity is produced by
a deficiency of external excitants, usually by cold and want of food, and
in the language of Brown, is a state of direct debility, while our ordinary
sleep is one of indirect debility. No structural peculiarity is discoverable,
which enables certain animals to live through torpidity. See Dr. Reeve
On Torpidity.

Some animals become torpid on being deprived of moisture. I put a
garden snail into a dry closet without food a year and a half ago; it
became torpid and has remained so ever since, except whenever I have
chosen to moisten it: – a few drops of water revive it at any time. Moist-
ure has revived some animalcules after a torpidity of twenty-seven years.
Spallanzani. Opuscules Physiques.

↵

[Seite 184]

Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind. Vol. 1.

↵

[Seite 186]

Consult among innumerable writers on long fasting, James Barthol.
Beccarius in the Commentar. instituti Bononiens, T. ii. p. i. and Flor.
J. Voltelen’s memorab. apositiae septennis hist. L.B. 1777, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 186]

See G. Baker in the Med. Transact. published by the Coll. of Physicians
in London, vol. ii. p. 265, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 186]

J.W. Neergaard’s vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie der Ver-
dauungswerkzenge der Saügethiere und Vögel. Berlin, 1806, p. 244.

↵

§.

[Seite 186]

Gassendi’s Letter to J. Bapt. v. Helmont. Opera. Florence, 1727,
fol. T. vi. p. 17. Al. Monro, Senr. in his Essay on Comparative Anatomy,
p. 17.

↵

¶.

[Seite 186]

J. Wallis in the Philos. Trans. No. 269.

↵

[Seite 187]

Sur l’origine de l’inegalité parmi les hommes. p. 196, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 187]

De l’homme. T. ii. p. 17.

↵

‡.

[Seite 187]

The opinion of Broussonet is singular. He thinks the human mo-
lares closely resemble the teeth of herbivorous animals, and at the same
time regards the incisores and canini as allied to those of the carnivorous
tribes: and, after comparing the number of the molares with that of the
other teeth, concludes that the quantity of vegetable food intended for
man is to the quantity of animal food as 20 to 12.

But on this calculation it follows, that infants, who have four molares
only in each jaw, are destined to consume a larger portion of animal food
than adults, since the proportion of' the molares to the other teeth is in
them as 8 to 12.

↵

[Seite 188]

Consult my very attached friend Heyne’s Opuscula Academ. vol. i.
p. 366, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 188]

Adanson in the Mém. de l’acad. des Sc. de Paris, 1778, p. 26.

↵

‡.

[Seite 188]

Fil. Salv. Gily’s Suggio di storia Americana, vol. iv. p. 120.

↵

§.

[Seite 188]

Gius. Ant. Pujati’s Reflessioni sul vitto Pitagorico. Feltri. 1751,
4to.

↵

[Seite 189]

(De Klingstaedt) Mém. sur les Samojeds et les Lappons. 1762, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 189]

Curtis in the Philos. Transact, vol. lxiv. P. ii. p. 381, 383.

↵

‡.

[Seite 189]

T. Winter in Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations of the English nation,
vol. iii. p. 751.

↵

[Seite 193]

I say generally: for, omitting particular examples of their obtuse-
ness, I may remark that, in the skulls of most mummies, I have found
the crown of the incisores thick and obtuse. And since the more
remarkable for this variety have resembled in their general figure and
appearance, the singular and never-to-be-mistaken physiognomy of the
ancient Egyptians, observable in the idols, sarcophagi, and images of
ancient Egypt, it is probable that this peculiar form of the teeth, whe-
ther owing to diet or whatever else, was peculiar to the ancient Egyp-
tians, so that it may be regarded as a natural mark or even character-
istic by which true ancient mummies may be distinguished from those
of late formation.

I have written at large on this subject in the Philos. Trans. 1794, P. ii,
p. 184.

↵

[Seite 194]

J. Barth. Siebold’s Historia Systematis Salivalis. Jen. 1797, 4to.
with plates.

↵

†.

[Seite 194]

Pringle, on the Diseases of the Army. Append. p. xlviii. l. lxi
sq. Lond. 1765, 4to.

↵

[Seite 195]

See De Courcelle’s Icones Musculorum Capitis, Tab. i. g. h.

↵

†.

[Seite 195]

Stenon’s Observationes Anatomicae, p. 20.

↵

‡.

[Seite 195]

De Courcelles, l. c. Tab. ii. t.t.

↵

§.

[Seite 195]

Wharton’s Adenographia, p. 120.

↵

¶.

[Seite 195]

De Courcelle’s tab. v. g.g.g.

↵

**.

[Seite 195]

Rivinus De Dyspepsia. Lips. 1678, 4to.

Aug. Fr. Walther, De Lingua Humana, ib. 1724, 4to.

↵

††.

[Seite 195]

Nuck’s Sialographia, p. 29, sq.

↵

‡‡.

[Seite 195]

De Courcelles, l. c. Tab. iv. e.e.e.

↵

[Seite 196]

Fr. Bern. Albinus, De Deglutitione. L.B. 1740, 4to.

P.J. Sandifort’s Deglutitionis Mechanismus. L.B. 1805, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 196]

Eustachius. Tab. xlii. fig. 4, 6.

Santorini, Tab. Posthum. vi. fig. 1.

B.S. Albinus, Tab. Musculor, xii. fig. 23, 24.

↵

‡.

[Seite 196]

J.C. Rosenmüller’s Icones Chirurgico-Anatomicae. Fasc. i. Vinar.
1805, fol.

↵

§.

[Seite 196]

Littre in the Mém. de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris, 1718, tab. xv.

↵

[Seite 197]

Santorini’s Tab. Posthum. iv.–vi. fig. 2. – and vii.

B.S. Albinus’ Tab. Musculor. xii. fig. 11, 27, 28.

↵

†.

[Seite 197]

B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. iii. Tab. iii. fig. 1, n.

↵

‡.

[Seite 197]

See Matth. Van. Geuns in the Verhandelingen van de Maatsch.
te Haarlem. T. xii. p. 9, sq.

Jan. Bleuland’s Observ. de structura oesophagi. L.B. 1785, 4to.

↵

[Seite 199]

Eustachius, tab. x. fig. 1, 2, 3. Ruysch’s Thes. Anat. ii. Tab. v. fig.
1. Santorini’s Tab. Posth. xi.

↵

†.

[Seite 199]

Vesalius, De c. h. Fabrica, L. v. fig. 14,15.

↵

‡.

[Seite 199]

Id. l. c. fig. 2.

↵

[Seite 200]

Besides Haller, consult Bertinus in the Mém. de l’Acad. des Sc. de
Paris, 1761.

↵

†.

[Seite 200]

Ruysch, Thes. Anat. ii. Tab. v. fig. 2, 3, 4.

↵

‡.

[Seite 200]

See G. Fordyce, on the Digestion of Food, p 12, 59, 191

↵

[Seite 201]

Walter’s Tab. Nervor. Thorac. et Abdom. tab. iv.

↵

†.

[Seite 201]

J.H. Rahn. Mirum inter Caput et Viscera Abdominis Commercium.
Gotting. 1771, 4to.

Dit. Vegens, De Sympathia inter Ventriculum et Caput. L.B. 1784,
4to.

Wrisberg, in the Commentat. Societ. Scientiar. Gotting. T. xvi.

↵

‡.

[Seite 201]

Ed. Stevens, De Alimentarum Concoctione. Edinb. 1777, 8vo.

Laz. Spallanzani, Dissertazioni di Fisica Animale e Vegetabile, Modena,
1780, 8vo. Vol. 1.

↵

§.

[Seite 201]

See Veratti, in the Comment. Instituti Bononiens. Tom. vi.

↵

[Seite 202]

Even the stomach itself when deprived of vitality has been found
acted upon, and as it were, digested by it. See John Hunter, on digestion
of the stomach after death. Philos. Trans. Vol. lxii.

↵

†.

[Seite 202]

Ign. Doellinger. Grundiss der Naturlehre des menschlichen Organis-
mus. p. 88.

↵

‡.

[Seite 202]

Wepfer. Cicutae Aquaticae Historia et Noxx; in innumerable
places.

↵

[Seite 203]

J. Walaeus, De Motu Chyli, p. 534. L.B. 1651, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 203]

H. Palm. Levelling. Disserst. sistens Pylorum. &c. Argent, 1764,
4to. Reprinted in Sandifort’s Thes. Vol. iii.

↵

[Seite 205]

Laur. Claussen, De Intestini Duodeni situ et nexu Lips. 1757, 4to.
Reprinted in Sandifort’s Thes. Vol. iii. And the same celebrated Leyden
Professor’s Tabulae Intestini Duodeni. L.B. 1780, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 205]

De Chyli a faecibus secretione. L.B. 1659, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 205]

Des succi Pancreatici Natura et Usu. ib. 1664, 12mo.

↵

§.

[Seite 205]

Pro Veteri Medicina, ib. 1670, 12mo.

↵

¶.

[Seite 205]

De Purgantium Medicamentorum Facultatibus, ib. 1672, 8vo.

↵

**.

[Seite 205]

Observationum Anatomicarum Collegii privati Amsteladamens. P. ii.
in quibus praecipue de piscium pancreate ejusque succo agitur. Ams. 1673,
12mo.

↵

††.

[Seite 205]

Experimenta nova circa pancreas. Amst. 1683, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 206]

Santorini’s Tab. Posth, xiii. fig. 1.

↵

[Seite 207]

Eustachii. tab. xi. fig. 3. 4. Ruysch. Thes. Anat. ix. tab. iv. San-
torini. Tab. Posth. xi.

↵

†.

[Seite 207]

J. Bleuland’s Icon hepatis foetus octimestris. Traj. ad Rhen. 1789. 4to.

F.L.B. Ebeling De Pulmonum cum hepate Antagonismo. Goett.
1806, 8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 207]

In which, however, Autenreith discovers two substances; the one
medullary and the other cortical. Archiv. für die Physiol. T. vii. p.
299.

↵

§.

[Seite 207]

Walter. tab. iv.

↵

¶.

[Seite 207]

Maur. v. Reverhorst. De motu, bilis circulari ejusque morbis, tab. i.
fig. 1, 2.

[Seite 208]

Ruych’s Ep. problemat. v. tab. vi.

Werner and Feller’s Descriptio vasor. lacteor. atque lymphaticor. Fas-
cic. i. tab. iii. et iv. although Fr. Aug. Walter finds fault with these
plates. Annot. Academic. p. 191, sq.

Mascagni, tab. xvii. xviii.

↵

[Seite 208]

Haller’s Icones Anat. Fascic. ii. tab. iii.

↵

†.

[Seite 208]

Glisson’s Anatomia Hepatis. p. 305. sq. 1659.

↵

‡.

[Seite 208]

Venarum Arteriarumque dissectione. p. 109. Opera. Basil. 1562
cl. i.

↵

[Seite 209]

Nest. Maximeow. Ambodick De Hepate. Argent. 1775, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 209]

De viscerum structura. p. ii. Lond. 1669.

↵

‡.

[Seite 209]

This has lately found an advocate in Rich. Powel. On the Bile and
its Diseases. Lond. 1801, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 210]

In cows and other brutes there are peculiar hepato-cystic ducts, which
convey the bile directly from the liver to the gall-bladder. Observ. anat.
coll. privati Amstel. P. 1. Ams. 1667, 12mo. p. 16, fig. 7. Also, Perrault’s
Essays de Physique. T. i. p 339, tab. ii.

Some have inconsiderately allowed them also in the the human sub-
ject: v.c. De Haen in his Ratio med. cont. P. 11. p. 46, et seq. tab. x.
fig. 1.

Also Pitschell in his Anat, und chirurg. Anmerk. Dresd. 1784. 8vo.
tab. i.

Consult among many, R. Forsten’s Quoest. select. physiolog. Lugd. Ba-
tav. 1774. 4to. p. 22.

↵

†.

[Seite 210]

Ruysch’s Epist. problem. quinta. Tab. v. fig. 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 210]

Vicq-d’Azyr, in his Oeuvres. T. v. p. 343.

↵

[Seite 211]

Casp. Fr. Wolff in the Act. Acad. Scient. Petropol. 1779. l. ii.

↵

†.

[Seite 211]

Caldesi’s Osservaz. intorno alle Tartarughe. Tab ii. fig. 10; but
especially Wolff, lately recommended, l. c. P. i. tab. vi. Also, Fr. Aug.
Walter, l. c. tab. i.

↵

‡.

[Seite 211]

Caldani’s Institut Physiolog. p. 364, sq. Patav. 1778, 8vo

↵

§.

[Seite 211]

Reverhorst, l. c. tab. ii. fig. 4.

Ruysch. l. c. tab. v. fig. 4.

Werner and Feller, l. c. tab. ii. fig. 5.

Mascagni, tab. xviii.

↵

[Seite 212]

On the variety of colour in the bile, consult Bordenave’s Analyse de
la Bile, in the Mém. Présentés, &c. T. vii. p. 611. 617.

↵

†.

[Seite 212]

Joachim Ramrn De alcalina bilis natura. Jen. 1786, 4to.

J. Fr. Straehl Be bilis natura. Gotting. 1787, 8vo.

W.M. Richter’s Experimenta circa bilis naturam. Erlang. 1788,
4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 212]

Thenard in the Mémoires de la Societé d’Arcueil. T. i.

↵

§.

[Seite 212]

Experimenta ad veriorem cysticae bilis indolem explorandam capta. Sect. i.
Gotting. 1764, 4to.

↵

[Seite 213]

It will be sufficient to quote a few of a large number.

Spielman He natura bilis. Argent. 1767, 4to.

Ger. Gysb. ten. Haaf De bile cystica. L.B. 1772, 4to.

G. Chr. Utendörfer’s Experim. de bile. Argent. 1774, 4to.

Dav. Willink’s Consideratio bilis. L.B. 1770, 8vo.

Seb. Goldwitz Neue Vers zu einer wahren Physiol. der Galle. Bam-
berg. 1785, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 213]

Marherr’s Prelect, in Boerhavii institut. Vol. i. p. 463, 478,
1785.

↵

‡.

[Seite 213]

Chr. L. Werner’s (Praes Autenrieth) Experimenta circa modum. quo
chymus in chylum mutatur. Tubing. 1800, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 213]

C. Fordyce On the digestion of food, p. 70.

↵

[Seite 214]

Philos. Trans. Vol. 83.

↵

†.

[Seite 214]

Medico-Chirurgic. Trans. Vol. 5, p. 174.

↵

‡.

[Seite 214]

Animal Chemistry, p. 65.

↵

§.

[Seite 214]

Med. Chirurg. Trans. Vol. 3, p. 241.

↵

[Seite 215]

Dr. Prout. Annals of Med. & Surg. Vol. 1. p. 143.

↵

[Seite 216]

Ch. Drelincourt, the younger, has carefully collected and concisely
related whatever was known up to his time, respecting the spleen, De
lienosis, at the end of his father’s Opuscula. Boerhaave’s edition. p.
710. sq.

Also Chr. Lud. Roloff De fabrica et functione lienis. Frf. ad Viadr.
1750, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 216]

Walter, tab. iii. G.

Mascagni, tab. xiv. P.

↵

‡.

[Seite 216]

See Sandifort in the Natuur en genees-kundige Bibl. Vol. ii. p.
345, sq.

↵

[Seite 217]

Lobstein’s Dissertation, nonnulla de Liene sistens. Argent. 774. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 217]

The singular and rather paradoxical opinions of Hewson, without
doubt, a very superior man, respecting the functions of the spleen,
whose lymphatic vessels he regards as excretory ducts, may be found in
his posthumous work entitled Experimental Inquiries. Third edition.
London, 1777. 8vo. C. ii. S. xlv. sq. xcv. sq.

↵

[Seite 218]

J.H. Schulze De splene canibus exciso. Hol. 1735, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 218]

Vinc. Malacarne in the Memorie della Soc. italiana. T. viii. P. 1. p.
233.

A. Moreschi Del vero e primario uso della milza. Milan. 1803, 8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 218]

Ever. Home in the Philos. Trans. 1808.

↵

[Seite 219]

For instance, the size of the spleen in those warm blooded animals
which never drink, or in bisulcous animals whose spleen adheres to
the ruminant stomach receiving the crude food only, but never the
drink, which is prevented from entering it by the well-known mecha-
nism of a semicanal running from the oesophagus to the omasum.

↵

†.

[Seite 219]

Of the Spleen, its description and history, uses and diseases, par-
ticularly the vapors with their remedy. Being a lecture read at the
Royal College of Physicians, London, 1722. By Wm. Stukely, M.D.
C.M.L. and S.R.S. folio. Considering the spleen to consist ‘“entirely
of complications and inoculations of arteries, veins, nerves, and a mus-
cular net-work of fibrillae, he supposed it propelled the blood from its
own vessels into those of the stomach, when this organ required a larger
supply during digestion’, p. 37.

Dr. Haighton (Lectures at Guy’s Hospital), and Mr. Saumarez, (New
System of Physiology) explain its operation in a very different manner.
When the stomach is full, the compression experienced by the spleen
impedes its circulation, and the blood makes its way the more copiously
into the arteries of the stomach and liver.

↵

[Seite 220]

Eustachius, tab. ix.

Haller’s Icones, anat. fasc. i. tab. iv. K.M. and the Appendix Colica,
which he himself investigated in 1740. ib. R.

Rob. Steph. Henry’s Descript. omenti c. icone nova. Hafn. 1748, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 220]

Eustachius, tab. x. fig. 1. G.H.

Haller. l. c. Q.

↵

[Seite 221]

I have lately seen similar appendices on the peritonaeal covering of
an uterus unimpregnated, but which had formerly been pregnant.

↵

†.

[Seite 221]

Walter, tab. ii. m.m.m.

↵

‡.

[Seite 221]

Bidloo. Anatomia. hum. corporis. tab. xxxix. fig. 6. C.C.C.D.D.D.

↵

[Seite 222]

V. Chaussier in the Mémoires de l’Acad. de Dijon, 1784, Semestr. ii.
p. 95.

↵

[Seite 223]

Chr. Bernh. Albinus. Specimen anat. exhibens novam tenuium hominis
intestinor descriptionem. L.B. 1724. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 224]

B.S. Albinus Annotat. Acad. L. ii. tab. iv. fig. 1,2.

↵

†.

[Seite 224]

Eustachius, tab. xxvii. fig. 2. 4.

↵

‡.

[Seite 224]

B.S. Albinus Dissert. de arteriis et venis intestin. hominis, with
coloured plates. L.B. 1736, 4to. Also his Annotat. acad. L. iii. tab.
i. ii.

↵

§.

[Seite 224]

Kerkring’s Spicilegium anatomicum, tab. xiv. fig. 1, 2.

↵

¶.

[Seite 224]

He estimated their number, in the small intestines of an adult, to be
about 500,000.

↵

**.

[Seite 224]

De fabrica et actione villorum intestinor. tenuium hominis, L.B.
1745, 4to.

[Seite 225]

J. Bleuland’s Descriptio vasculorum intestinorum tenuium hominis Ultraj.
1797. 4to.

R.A. Hedwig’s Disquisitio ampullarum Lieberkühnii, Lips. 4to.

C.A. Rudolph’s Anatomisch-physiologische Abhandlungen. Berlin. 1802.
8vo. p. 39.

↵

[Seite 225]

J. Conr. a Brunn’s Glandule duodeni pancreas secundarium, Frf. 1715.
4to. fig. 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 225]

J. Conr. Peyer De Glandulis intestinorum. Scafhuf. 1677. 8vo. espe-
cially fig. 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 225]

Lieberkühn. l. c. p. 17, tab. iii.

↵

§.

[Seite 225]

The celebrated Rudolph thinks differently, l. c. p. 212.

↵

[Seite 226]

These intestinal aphthae exactly resemble those tubercles, which
Sheldon (whom we shall presently quote) exhibits as small ampullae
full of chyle. Tab. i.

↵

†.

[Seite 226]

De purgantium medicamentor. facultat. p. 509, tab. iv.

↵

‡.

[Seite 226]

Benj. Schwartz De vomitu et motu intestinorum. L.B. 1745, 4to.

J. Foelix De motu peristaltico intestinorum. Trevir. 1750, 4to.

↵

[Seite 227]

Consult the excellent observations and experiments of A.E. Ferd.
Emmert, in the Archiv. für die Physiologie. T. viii. p. 145.

↵

†.

[Seite 227]

We have formerly (387) remarked, that the bilious colour of the
faeces arose from the excrementitious part of the bile. In the jejunum,
the bile being undecomposed and mixed with the equable pulp in the
intestines, and consequently diffused and diluted, cannot exhibit its
true colour. But after its separation into two parts, the excrementitious
portion, mixed with the precipitated faeces, and, as it were, again con-
centrated, now discovers its original colour, and imparts it to the
faeces.

C.F. Wolff (in the Act. Petropolit. 1779, P. ii. p. 245,) entertains
a different opinion in regard to the cause of the bilious colour of the
faeces contained in the ileum. He conceives that an addition of bile
occurs near the extremity of the jejunum, by exhaling from the gall
bladder and penetrating this part of the intestine and its contents. –
This bile differing, perhaps, in its nature, from the bile of the cho-
ledochus, and not being mixed with the faeces as the latter is with the
chyme, retains its colour through all the remaining tract of the intes-
tines and continues pure bile.

But, besides our being able easily to explain why this colour is not
observable before the decomposition of the chyme and bile, it is ex-
tremely doubtful whether, during life and health, any exhalation can
occur from the gall bladder and penetrate the intestine. For in subjects
recent and scarcely cold, the intestines are but slightly tinctured with
bile, although they are dyed with it very deeply and extensively after a
lapse of some hours or days, i.e. after the coats of the gall bladder have
lost their tone and become incapable of preventing the transudation of
their contents.

↵

[Seite 228]

Haller De valvula coli. Gotting. 1742. 4to. reprinted in his Oper.
minor. T. i. p. 580, sq.

T. Mich. Röderer De valvula coli. Argent. 1768. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 228]

The various opinions respecting the discoverer of this remarkable
valve are well known. Haller’s Elementa, t. vii. P. 1. page 142, may be
consulted on this point.

In the mean time, I am certain that long before the period at which
its discovery is in general dated, it was accurately known to that im-
mortal anatomist Gabr. Fallopius. In our university library there is a
manuscript of Fallopius, containing, among other things, his anatomy
of the monkey, in which is an account of the structure and use of
the valve of the colon, delivered in a public demonstration at Padua,
Feb. 2, 1553, in the following words: ‘“The use of the caecum in the
monkey, is to prevent the regurgitation of the food during progression
on all fours. This is proved by the circumstance of water or air thrown
into the rectum, reaching the caecum, but not passing beyond the large
intestines. But, if thrown in from above, it passes into them. The
reason is this, – at the insertion of the ileum are two folds, which are
compressed by inflation and repletion, as occurs in the heart, and pre-
vent retrogression; wherefore, in man, clysters cannot pass and be re-
jected through the mouth, unless in a weak and diseased state of the
intestines.”’

↵

[Seite 229]

A view of a recent and entire valve is exhibited by B.S. Albinus
in his Annotat. Academ. L. iii. tab. v. fig. 1. and overcharged by inflation
and drying, in Santorini’s Posthumous Tables, xiv. fig. 12.

↵

†.

[Seite 229]

Lieberkühn. De valvula coli et usu processus vermicularis. L.B.
1739. 4to.

J. Vosse De intestino caeco ejusque appendice vermiformi. Gotting,
1749. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 229]

Eustachius. tab. x. fig. 2. 4. 5.

↵

[Seite 230]

All these parts may be seen as they exist in each sex, in Santorini’s
Posth. Tables, xvi. and xvii.

↵

[Seite 231]

A very copious list of writers upon the absorbents will be found in
Sömmering’s work De morbis vasorum absorbentium corporis humani.
Francof. 1795. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 232]

Philos. Trans. No. 143, compared with No. 275.

↵

†.

[Seite 232]

Boerhaave and Ruysch’s De fabrica glandularum opusculum. L.B.
22. 4to. p. 81.

↵

[Seite 233]

Mascagni, Tab. xvi.

↵

†.

[Seite 233]

See Nuck’s De Inventis novis ep. Anatomica, p. 146, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 233]

v. J. Rezia’s Specim. Observat. Anatomicar. et Puthologicar. Ticini.
1784. 8vo. p. 18.

↵

[Seite 234]

Werner and Feller, l. c. p. 12, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 234]

There is a beautiful experiment, which seems, at first sight, to favor
the existence of these secret passages, and for which I am in-
debted to the eminent L.M.A. Caldani. In a lamb or kid, after
hearty feeding, a ligature is placed upon the vein corresponding with
our left subclavian, and another, particularly tight, upon the mesen-
tery, at its origin near the lumbar vertebrae. The lacteals and lympha-
tics, between the ligatures, become very evident; and likewise the lym-
phatics ascending from the hind legs. At first, the lacteals between
the intestines and constricted mesentary swell, but they soon subside
and disappear.

But this singular phenomenon appears to me not owing so much to
any clandestine passages for the chyle, as to a retrograde motion of the
chyle into the intestines; the valves, under these circumstances, not
offering sufficient opposition. Vide B.N. Gottl. Schreger’s Fragmenta
Anatomica et Physiologica. Fasc. 1. Lips. 1791, 4to. p. 26.

Flor. Caldani, in his Riflessioni sopra alcuni punti di un nuovo sistema
de’ vasi assorbenti, &c. Padua. 1792 8vo. p. 58.

And his uncle, commended above, L.M.A. Caldani, in his Com-
mentary to be found in the Memorie lette nell’ Acad. di Padova. 1804,
4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 234]

Sheldon, l. c. Tab. v.

↵

[Seite 235]

See Haller’s Observationes de ductu thoracico in theatro Gottingens fac-
tae. Gotting. 1741, 4to.

B.S. Albinus’ Tabula vasis chyliferi, L.B. 1757, large folio. Mascagni.
tab. xix.

↵

†.

[Seite 235]

v. J.C. Bohl’s viae lacteae, c. h. historia naturalis. Regiom. 1741,
4to.

Sömmering in the Commentat. Soc. Scient. Gottingens, T. xiii. p. iii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 235]

v. Haller’s Opera Minora. Vol. 1, Tab. xii.

↵

§.

[Seite 235]

Consult among others already and hereafter quoted, J.F. Meckel,
De vasis lymphaticis glandulisque conglobatis. Berol. 1757. 4to. And the
celebrated Al. Monro, filius, De venis lymphaticis valvulosis, ib. at the same
time. 8vo.

↵

[Seite 236]

W. Hunter’s Medical Commentaries, P. i. p. 5. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 236]

Mascagni, Tab. i. ii. iii.

T. Gottl. Haase, De vasis cutis et intestinorum absorbentibus, &c. Lips.
1786, fol. tab. i.

↵

[Seite 237]

On this remarkable difference consult T. Fr. Lucr. Albrecht’s
Commentatio (honoured with the Royal Prize) in qua proponitur re-
sensus eorum alimentor. et medicaminum quibus sive tubo alimentario
sint ingesta, sive communibus corporis integumentis applicata, ingres-
sus in systema vasor. sanguifer. aut concessus a natura, aut negatus sit.
Gotting. 1806, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 237]

Conr. Ger. Ontyd. (Praesidente Seb. Just. Brugmans) De Causa ab-
sorptionis per vasa lymphatica. Lug. Bat. 1795. 8vo. p. 45.

↵

[Seite 238]

Consult among others, Valer. Lud. Brera’s Anatripsologia, fourth
edition. Par. 1799. 11 vols. 8vo. A.J. Chrestien, De la methode iatro-
liptice. Montpell. 1803. 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 238]

Decade 1. of my collection of the crania of different nations, p. 27.

↵

‡.

[Seite 238]

If we consider the winding course which nature has provided for
the purpose of changing and assimilating the absorbed fluids previously
to their admixture with the blood; and, on the other hand, the dreadful
symptoms, such as palpitation, convulsions, &c. which ensue upon the
artificial infusion of a minute portion of any mild fluid into the blood,
we shall be thoroughly convinced that no absorption of heterogeneous
fluid takes place by the veins, excepting that of the blood itself (v.c. in
the erection of some parts, in the placenta, &c.) and that those absorp-
tions which Haller endeavours to prove to be accomplished by the veins,
do really take place by means of the lymphatic system. De c. h. Funct.
V. i. p. 281 & seq.

↵

[Seite 239]

Nuck’s Adenographia Curiosa. L.B. 1696, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 241]

Especially, according to the opinion of Cuvier, in the conversion
of the chyle into the lymphatic or fibrous part of the blood. Leçons d’
Anatomie Comparée. T. i. p. 91. T. iv. p. 304. Thompson’s System of
Chemistry. V. iv. p. 497. Bostock’s work, recommended above, in the
chapter on Respiration.

↵

[Seite 243]

‘“Nutrition, in fact, appears to be a continued generation,”’ accord-
ing to the old observation of the very ingenious Ent. See his work,
already recommended, (290 note.)

↵

[Seite 244]

Th. Young De corporis humani viribus conservatricibus. Gotting.
1796, 8vo.

Fl. J. Van Maanen sui ipsius humana sui ipsius Conservatrice ac medi-
catrice. Harderv. 1801, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 244]

See the celebrated V.J. Bernoulli’s Diss. de Nutrit. Groning.
1669, 4to. He estimates the continual, though insensible, loss and repa-
ration of the solids so high, that the whole body may be said to be des-
troyed and renewed every three years.

↵

‡.

[Seite 244]

See J. Chr. Kemme. Beurtheilung eines Beweises vor die immateriali-
tät der seele aus der medicin. Halle. 1776, 8vo.

And his Zweifel und eriunerungen wider die lehre der aerzte von der
Ernährung der festen theile. Ibid. 1778, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 244]

Respecting this mutability of the bones, I have spoken at length in
my osteological work, ed. 2. p. 26, and elsewhere.

↵

[Seite 245]

Consult among others G.L. Koeler’s Experimenta circa regenera-
tionem ossium. Gotting. 1786, 8vo.

Alex. Herm. Macdonald, De necrosi et callo. Edinb. 1799, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 245]

That the corium is not really reproduced, is probable, not only
from its perpetual cicatrices (for some contend that the matter of those
does not continue, but their form only, which is preserved by a per-
petual apposition of fresh particles in the room of the decayed and ab-
sorbed), but much more by the lines and figures which are made upon
the skin by the singular art of pricking it with a needle, (a process
denominated in the barbarous language of the Otaheiteans tatooing)
and imparting to the corium a blue or red colour, as permanent as the
cicatriculae, by means of charcoal powder, ashes, soot, the juices of
plants, or galls; on the other hand, the red hue imparted to the bones,
by means of madder, quickly disappears, as these parts undergo a con-
tinual renovation.

↵

[Seite 246]

Zwo abhandlungen über die nutritionskraft welche von der Acad.
der Wiss. in St. Petersburg den preiss getheilt erhalten haben. Petersburg,
1789, 4to.

De Grimaud Mém. sur la nutrition qui a obtenu l’aceessit. ib. same
year, 4to.

Steph. J.P. Housset, on the same subject (in the same school) in his
Mémoires physiologiques & d’hist. naturelle. Auxer. 1787, 8vo. T. 1.
p. 97.

↵

†.

[Seite 246]

J. Robertson. On the specific gravity of living men, in the Philos.
Trans. Vol. L. P. i. p. 30, sq.

↵

[Seite 248]

v. Fouquet on Secretion, in the Encyclopedical Lexicon of Paris.
T. xiv.

Fr. L. Kreysig De secretioribus. Spec. i. ii. Lips. 1794, sq. 4to.

↵

[Seite 250]

Physiologists have given different explanations of this mode of
secretion. Some assert that every fluid is formed by passing merely
through inorganic pores from the blood: others altogether deny the
existence of these pores. I think much of this is a verbal dispute. For,
on the one hand, I cannot imagine how inorganic pores can be sup-
posed to exist in an organized body, for we are not speaking of the
common interstices of matter, in physics denominated pores; and I am
persuaded that every opening in organized bodies is of an organic na-
ture, and possesses vital powers exactly correspondent. On the other
hand, these openings or pores in the coats of the vessels, are evidently
little different in function from the cylindrical ducts, through which
fluids are said to percolate in conglomerate glands and secreting viscera:
for this percolation depends less on the form of the organ than on its
vital powers.

Vid. Schreger’s Fragmenta.

P. Lupi’s Nova per poros inorganicos secretionum theoria refutata, &c.
Romae, 1793, ii. Vol. 8vo.

Kreysig’s Specimen Secundum, formerly mentioned.

↵

†.

[Seite 250]

Sam. Hendy, On Glandular Secretion. Lond. 1775, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 251]

In works repeatedly quoted, and also in his Diss. de glandulis con-
globatis. Lond. 1689, 4to.

But consult especially his Opera Posthuma. ib. 1697. fol. and published
likewise elsewhere.

↵

†.

[Seite 251]

Al. Schumlansky De structa ronum. Argent. 1782, 4to. tab. ii.

↵

[Seite 252]

Compare, for instance, the form of the kidnies in mammalia with the
true conglomerate glands which supply their place in birds; or the pan-
creas of warm-blooded animals with the pyloric appendices, which, al-
though varying in appearance, in different fish secrete a fluid very similar
to the pancreatic.

↵

[Seite 254]

This appellation Berzelius gives to the fibrin, albumen, and colour-
ing matter of the blood.

↵

[Seite 256]

General Views of the Composition of Animal Fluids, by J. Berzelius,
M.D. Medico-Chirurgic. Trans. Vol. iii. p. 234.

↵

[Seite 257]

W. Xav. Jansen’s Pinguedinis Animalis Consideratio Physiologica et
Pathologica. Lugd. Bat. 1784, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 257]

J.D. Brandis’ Comm, (rewarded with the Royal Prize) de oleor. un-
guinosor. natura. Gotting. 1785, 4to. p. 13.

↵

‡.

[Seite 257]

Joach. J. Ithadcs De ferro sanguinis hum. cliisquc liquiilis animalium.
ibid. 1753, 4to. ch. 4.

Dav. H. Knape (Praeside Segnero) De acido pinguedinis animalis. ibid.
1754, 4to.

Laur. Crell. Chemisches Journal. 1778. P. i. p. 102.

↵

[Seite 258]

Hence it is clear how many exceptions must be made to the assertion
of the celebrated Fourcroy, – that fat is an oily matter, formed at the
extremities of arteries, and at the greatest distance from the centre of
motion and animal heat. See his Philosophie Chimique, p. 112.

↵

†.

[Seite 258]

I found it more remarkable in the body of a female of the species
simia eynomolgus, from which, by means of cold, I was able to remove it
entire.

↵

[Seite 259]

P. Lyonet conjectures with probability, that insects destitute of blood
derive their chief nourishment from the fat in which they abound. Tr.
anat. de la Chenille qui rouge le bois de Saule, p. 428, 483, et seq. praef p.
xiii.

↵

†.

[Seite 259]

See Fourcroy, l. c.

↵

[Seite 261]

See Al. Schumlansky, l. c.

↵

†.

[Seite 261]

See Ger. Blase’s Renum monstrosorum exempla, at the end of Bellini
de structura et usu renum. Amstel. 1665, 12mo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 261]

Eustachius’ tabulae, 1–5, which belong to his classical work, De re-
nibus; bound up in this eminent man’s Opusc. anatom. Venet. 1564, 4to.
same edition. tab. xii.

↵

[Seite 262]

These secreting ducts appear to have imposed upon Ferrein as a
new description of vessels, which he called neuro-lymphatic, or white
tubes, and of which he imagined the whole parenchyma of the viscera
to be composed. He affirmed that they were of such tenuity, that their
length in each kidney of an adult man was equal to 1000 orgyae, or 5
leucae.

↵

†.

[Seite 262]

Eustachius. tab. xi. fig. 10.

↵

[Seite 263]

See Nuck’s Adenographia, fig. 32, 34, 35. Leop. M. Ant. Caldani, in
the Saggi dell’ accad. di Padova. T. ii. p. 2.

↵

†.

[Seite 263]

Duverney’s Oeuvres anatomiques. Vol. ii. tab. i.–iv.

↵

‡.

[Seite 263]

Santorini’s posthumous tables, xv.

↵

§.

[Seite 263]

Flor. Caldani’s Opus. anat. Patav. 1805, 4to. p. 5.

↵

[Seite 264]

See Hallé in the Mem. de la Soc. de Médec. Vol. iii. p. 469, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 264]

The specific quality of some ingesta manifest themselves in the
urine so suddenly, even while blood drawn from a vein discovers no
sign of their presence, that physiologists have thought that, besides the
common channels, there must be some private ways running directly
from the alimentary canal to the kidnies. See v.c. Grimaud Sur la
nutrition, p. 115. Darwin’s Zoonomia, vol. i. § 29. and Home, in the
Philos. Transact. 1808.

↵

‡.

[Seite 264]

See Fr. Stromeyer’s Theoret. chemie. p. 609.

↵

§.

[Seite 264]

Consult on the analysis of the urine, among others, Berthollet, in the
Mem. dc l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris, 1780, p. 10.

[Seite 265]

Th. Lauth (praes. Spielman) De analysi urinae et acido phosphoreo. Ar-
gent. 1781, 4to.

H. Fr. Link’s Commentatio (honoured with the Royal Prize) de analysi
urinae et origine calculi. Gotting. 1788, 4to.

Fourcroy, in the Annales de chimie. T. vii. p. 180. and T. xvi. p.
113.

C. Fr. Gaertner’s Observata quaedam circa urinae naturam. Tubing
1796, 4to.

↵

[Seite 267]

Melch. Sebiz, De differentiis corporis virilis et muliebris, Argent,
1629, 4to.

F. Thierry E. praeter genitalia sexus inter se discrepant, Paris, 1750,
4 to.

Dictionn. Encycloped. (Ebrodun edit.) vol. xviii. art. Femme, and Vol.
xlii. art. Viril.

J. Fidel Ackermann De discrimine sexuum praeter genitalia, Mogunt.
1788, 8vo.

The same Writer’s Historia ichnographia infantis androgyni. Jen. 1805,
fol. p. 61, seq.

P. Roussel. Systeme physique et morale de la femme, ed. 2, Paris, 1803,
8vo.

Ad. F. Nolt Diss. sistens momenta quaedam circa sexus differentiam. Got-
ting. 1788, 8vo.

J. Lud. Moreau de la Sarthe, Histoire naturelle de la femme, Paris, 1802,
3 vols. 8vo.

Autenreith in the Archiv. für die Physiol. T. vii. page 3, sq.

↵

[Seite 268]

Langguth, Embryo, 3 1/2 mensium qua faciem externam, Viteb. 1751,
4to.

James Parsons, Philos. Transact. Vol. xlvii p. 143.

Morgagni, De sedibus et causis morborum. xlviii. p. 10.

↵

†.

[Seite 268]

This I lately found confirmed in twin abortions of different sexes
and of about sixteen weeks formation, in which, although they were
most beautifully and correctly formed, the difference of the genitals
was not at first discoverable. In every other respect, in the general
figure, physiognomy, the dimensions of the loins, &c. they were per-
fectly similar.

↵

‡.

[Seite 268]

Examine besides the Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion.
Nurirnb. 1528, fol. of our great countryman Alb. Dürer, the two
celebrated male and female figures painted by Titian or one of his
school, in Vesalius’s Epitome suor. libror. d. c. h. anatome. Basil, 1542,
fol.

The three delineated by that excellent Artist, Ger. Laidresse, in Bid-
loo, tab. i. ii. iii. and Girardet’s drawings in the Cours complet d’Ana-
tomie gravé par A.E. Gautier et expliqué par M. Jadelot. Nantz. 1773,
fol. max.

↵

[Seite 269]

I have described these differences more fully throughout the sceleton
in my Osteological work, p. 87, sq. ed. 2.

Compare Soemmerring’s Tabula sceleti faeminei. Francof. 1796, fol.
with the male figure in B.S. Albinus’s Tubulae sceleti. tab 1.

↵

[Seite 270]

Hence genuine and indubitable cases of long abstinence from food,
have generally occurred in females. (F.)

See, among many others, Fl. James Voltelen, Diatr. Memorabilem sep-
tennis apositae historiam exhibens. Lugd. Bat. 1777, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 270]

Philos. Trans. Vol. 89.

↵

[Seite 271]

J. Hunter’s Observations on certain parts of the animal economy, p. 55.

↵

†.

[Seite 271]

Comparative Anatomy, Bones of the Mammalia.

↵

‡.

[Seite 271]

‘“The title of vestiges is given in comparative anatomy to parts with-
out use in the animal in which they are seen, and which only shew the
uniform plan followed by nature in the formation of animals.”’

An elementary summary of Physiology, by F. Majendie, translated by a
member of the Med. Chirurg. Society, T. I. p. 64.

↵

[Seite 272]

Philos. Trans. 1809.

↵

[Seite 273]

Mémoire sur le beau Physique.

↵

†.

[Seite 273]

Anatomie descriptive, par. Xav. Bichat. T.V.

↵

‡.

[Seite 273]

Journal de Medecine. Brumaire An. xiii.

↵

[Seite 274]

Haller’s Progr. de herniis congenitis, reprinted in his opusc. patholog.
p. 311, sq. vol. iii. Opera minora.

↵

[Seite 277]

J.E. Neubauer De tunicis vaginalibus testis et funiculi spermatici.
Giess. 1767, 4 to.

F.L. Eichhorn De hydrocele, Gotting. 1809, 4to.

↵

[Seite 278]

Alex. Monro fil. De testibus et de semine in variis animalibus. Edinb,
1755, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 278]

B.S. Albinus. Annotat. Acad. L. ii. tab. vii. fig. 1, 2, 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 278]

Vide Grew. Museum of the Royal Society, p. 7.

↵

§.

[Seite 278]

The celebrated Sömmerring was so successful as to inject all the ves-
sels composing the testis, and the entire head of the epididymis with mer-
cury. See his Uber die körperl. Versch. des negers vom Europäer, p. 38.

↵

[Seite 279]

Haller He viis seminis in the Philos. Trans. No. 494, fig. 1. g.g.

↵

†.

[Seite 279]

De Graaf De Viror. organis generationi inservientibus. Tab. iv. fig.
1. 2.

↵

‡.

[Seite 279]

Vide Alex. Monro fil. Observations anatomical and physiological. Edinb.
1758, 8vo. tab. i.e. E.E.F.G.H.

↵

§.

[Seite 279]

B.S. Albinus. Annotat. Acad. L. ii. tab. iii. fig. 1.

↵

¶.

[Seite 279]

B.S. Albinus. l. o. L. iv. tab. iii. fig. 1. 2. 3.

↵

[Seite 280]

See besides the figures by Graaf, Haller, Albinus and Monro, espe-
cially the beautiful one by Fl. Caldani in his Opusc. Anat. p. 17.

↵

†.

[Seite 280]

The opinion of Herodotus respecting the black semen of Ethiopians,
refuted in ancient times by Aristotle, has, to my surprise, been taken up
in modern times by Le Cat, de Pauw, Wagler, &c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 280]

F.B. Ossiander asserts, ‘“that fresh semen emitted under certain
circumstances, is occasionally phosphorescent.”’ De causa insertionis pla-
centae in uteri orificium. Gotting. 1792, 4to. p. 16.

↵

§.

[Seite 280]

Vide Fr. Schrader, De microscopior. usu in nat. sc. et anatome. Got-
ting. 1681, 8vo. p. 34.

↵

¶.

[Seite 280]

W. Fr. v. Gleichen, Uber die Saamen und Infusionsthierchen, Nurimb.
1778, 4to. tab. i. fig. 1.

↵

**.

[Seite 280]

Consult especially Laz. Spallanzani, both in his Opuscoli di fisica
animale e vegetabile. Milan. 1776, 8vo. vol. ii. and in his Dissertazioni,
&c. ibid. 1780, 8vo. vol. ii.

↵

[Seite 281]

A parodoxical opinion was formerly entertained by some, that the
semen is not discharged from the vesiculae seminales but from the vasa
deferentia, and that the fluid of the vesicles is not truly spermatic and
derived from the testis, but of quite another kind, secreted in peculiar
glands belonging to the vesicles. This has gained some advocates
among the moderns. J. Hunter, On certain parts of the Animal Economy,
p. 27. J.A. Chaptal, in the Journal de Physique. Febr. 1787, p. 101.
It has been refuted by Söemmerring, in the third volume of the Bibliothe-
ca Medica, which I edited, vol. iii. p. 87. (H.)

↵

[Seite 282]

Chr. R. Jaenisch, De pollutione nocturna. Gotting. 1795, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 282]

I willingly grant that barbarous nations, of a phlegmatic tempera-
ment and copulating promiscuously, do not require this excretion; but I
must contend, that it is a perfectly natural relief, in a young man, single,
sanguineous, full of juices, with a strong imagination, and living high,
although enjoying the completest health.

↵

‡.

[Seite 282]

Morgagni’s Adversar. Anat. iv. fig. 1. 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 282]

J. Ladmiral, Effigies penis humani. L.B. 1741, 4to.

↵

[Seite 283]

Ruysch. Observat. anat. chirurg. Centur. page 99, fig. 75–82. and
Ep. problemat. xv. fig. 2. 4. 6. 7.

T.H. Thaut. De virgae virilis statu sano et morboso. Wirceb. 1808, 4to.
fig. 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 283]

Morgagni. Adversar. anat. 1 tab. iv. fig. 4. 1. k.

↵

‡.

[Seite 283]

This smegma in young men, especially when heated, is well
known to accumulate readily and form an acrimonious caseous coagu-
lum. The inhabitants of warm climates are particularly subject to this
inconvenience, and the chief use of circumcision appears to be the pre-
vention of this accumulation. We know that for this reason Christians
in the scorching climate of Senegambia occasionally cut off the prepu-
tium, and that uncircumcised Europeans residing in the East, frequently
suffer great inconvenience. Guido de Cauliaco, the celebrated restorer
of surgery in his day, who flourished in the middle of the fourteenth
century, said that circumcision was useful to many besides Jews and
Saracens, ‘“Because there is no accumulation of sordes at the root of the
gland, nor irritation of it.”’ Chirurg. Tr. vi. doctr. ii. p. m. 111.

↵

[Seite 284]

Vide Theod. G. Aug. Rooze, Physiologische Untersuchungen. Brunsw.
1796, 8vo. page 17.

↵

†.

[Seite 284]

A phenomenon worthy of remark, from the light which it throws on
this function in general, is the erection so frequently observed in those
who are being executed, and especially in those who are being strangled.
Consult after Garmann’s farrago (de Miraculis Mortuorum, i. xi. 7. sq.)
Morgagni, De sed. et caus. morb. xix. 19, et sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 284]

See Camper. Demonstration, anat. pathologic. L. ii. tab. iii. fig. 1.

↵

§.

[Seite 284]

Gysb. Beudt, De fabrica et usu viscerum uropoieticorum. L.B. 1774,
4to. reprinted in Haller’s Collect, disput. anat. T. iii. tab. iii.

↵

**.

[Seite 284]

Carpus in Mundinum, page 190, b. et 310.

↵

[Seite 285]

For which reason Zeno, the father of the Stoic philosophy, called
the loss of semen the loss of part of the animating principle. (M.)

↵

†.

[Seite 285]

L’Anatomie des corps humains. Demonstration quatrième. Sect. 1.

↵

[Seite 286]

Hunter, A description of the situation of the testis in the foetus, with its
descent, into the scrotum. Obs. 13.

↵

†.

[Seite 286]

Bichat’s Anatomie descriptive. T. ii. p. 234.

↵

[Seite 287]

A Description of the situation of the testis in the foetus, with its descent
into the scrotum. Obs. 6.

↵

[Seite 288]

Bichat’s Anat. Descrip. T. ij. p. 176.

↵

†.

[Seite 288]

Elementa Physiologiae. T. vij. p. 420.

↵

[Seite 289]

De Re Rustica. ii. 5.

↵

†.

[Seite 289]

See Cabrol, Philostrate, Scaliger De subtilitate, and Martin Schurig’s
Spermatol. Quoted in Very’s Histoire naturelle de l’Homme.

↵

[Seite 292]

Opuscules de Phisique animate et vegetable, par M. L’Abbé Spallan-
zani, traduits de l’Italien, par Jean Senebier. T. ii. Observations et Ex-
periences sur les Petits Vers Spermatiques de l’Homme et des Animaux.

↵

[Seite 293]

Annales de Chemie. T. x.

↵

[Seite 294]

Elemens de Physiologie. Chapitre x.

↵

[Seite 295]

Winslow, Ruysh, Duverney, and others, quoted by Haller.

↵

[Seite 297]

Hunter, Observations on the glands situated between the rectum and blad-
der, called vesiculae seminales. Obs. 45.

↵

[Seite 298]

Vide Haller in the Comment. Soc. Scient. Gotting. vol. i. p. 12,
sq. Plates are given by Gautier in his Observ. sur l’Hist. Nat. 1752,
4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 298]

In warm climates it too is liable to accumulation and acrimony,
and has hence given occasion to the custom of female circumcision in
many hot parts of Africa and Asia. Carst. Niebuhr has given a re-
presentation of the genitals of a circumcised Arabian female, eighteen
years of age, whom he himself was singularly fortunate in examining
during life, when on his oriental tour. Beschreib. von Arabien. p. 77.
and Osiander’s Denkwürdigkeiten für die Heilkunde, &c. vol. ii. tab. vi.
fig. 1.

↵

[Seite 299]

Their number has likewise been found various. Vide Neubauer
De triplici nympharum ordine. Jenae, 1774, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 299]

I allude to the singular ventral skin of the Hottentot women.
Wilh. Ten. Rhyne, from personal inspection long ago, considered it as
enormous pendulous nymphae. De promontorio b. spei. p. 33. I have
treated this point at large in my work, De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. 242.
ed. 3. Steller relates something similar in regard to the Kamtschat-
kan women. Beschr. v.c. Lande Kamtschatka. P. 300. (A)

↵

‡.

[Seite 299]

I find the opening of the urethra surrounded with very beautiful
cutaneous cilia of this kind, in a remarkable specimen of the genitals in
a woman upwards of eighty years of age. The hymen is entire, and all
the other parts most perfectly, and, as it were, elaborately formed.
They are preserved in my museum, and my friend and colleague, Osi-
ander, has represented them in a plate. Libro Citato. Tab. v.

↵

§.

[Seite 299]

See Jo. James Huber’s plates of the uterus, among those of Haller.
fasc. 1. tab. 2. fig. 1. g.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 299]

Ibid. fig. 1. b.b. – fig. 5. d.

↵

¶.

[Seite 299]

Such also are the two foramina, very frequently observed in living
women, by J. Dryander, at the extremity of the vagina. Nic. Massa’s
Epistol. Medicin. t. 1. p. 123. b.

↵

[Seite 300]

John Wm. Tolberg, De Varietate Hymenum. Hal. 1791, 4to.
Osiander, l. c. tab. 1. – vij.

↵

†.

[Seite 300]

Eusiachius. Tab. xiv. fig. 1. x.x.

Santorini. Tab. Posth. xvij. 1. 1.

↵

‡.

[Seite 300]

Huber, De Vaginae Uteri Structura Rugosa, necnon de Hyeme, Gotting.
1742, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 300]

Vide Haller’s Icones Anat. fasc. ij. tab. vj. fig. 1. 2.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 300]

Roederer Icones Uteri Humani. tab. vij. fig. 2. 3. 4.

↵

¶.

[Seite 300]

J. Gotter. Weisse (Praes. Rud. Boehmer) De Structura Uteri non
musculosa, sed celluloso Vasculosa. Vitemb. 1784, 4to.

J.G. Walter Was ist Geburtshülfe. Berlin. 1808, 8vo. p. 54.

↵

[Seite 301]

Id. De Morbis Peritonaei. tab. i. ii.

↵

†.

[Seite 301]

Mascagni, tab. xiv.

↵

‡.

[Seite 301]

Walter’s Tab. Nerv. Thorac. et Abdom. tab. 1. J.F. Osiander’s
Commentatio premio Regio ornata, qua edisseritur uterum nervos habere.
Goett. 1808, 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 301]

Ferrein in the Mémoires de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris. 1741, p. 375.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 301]

Mascagni. l. c. p. 4.

↵

¶.

[Seite 301]

See v.c. Sue in the Mem. présentés, vol. v.

L. Calza. in the Atti dell’ Acad. di Padova. T. 1. ii.

↵

**.

[Seite 301]

Walter. Betracht. über die Geburstheile des weibl. Geschl. p.
25, sq.

Chr H. Ribke. über die Structur der Gebührmutter. Berl. 1793. 8vo.
but chiefly J.F. Lobstein, Magasin Encyclopedique redigé par Millin.
vol. xlix. 1803. T. 1. p. 357, sq.

↵

[Seite 302]

I have treated of these points at large in my programma De vi vitali
sanguini deneganda, &c. Gott. 1795, 4to. p. 15, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 302]

Fallopius. Observ. Anat. 197.

↵

‡.

[Seite 302]

Steno was the first who asserted that the testes of women were
analogous to an ovarium, 1667. Elementor. Myologiae Specimen, p.
117, sqq.

↵

[Seite 303]

Respecting this problematical fluid, see Carpus in Mundinum,
p. cxcviii. sqq. and cccviij.

Harvey, De Generatione Animal. p. 95.

De Graaf, De Mulierum Organis, p. 194.

↵

†.

[Seite 303]

Le Vaillant, Voyage dans l’Interieur d’Afrique, Dr. Somerville, Med.
Chr. Trans. 1816.

↵

[Seite 304]

Decamerone, vol. 1.

↵

[Seite 305]

Discovered by Weitbrecht, and first accurately observed by Dr.
Hunter.

↵

[Seite 307]

Most writers upon Natural History, and among the rest Buffon,
allow the existence of menstruation in other animals, especially in the
simiae. But, after carefully observing the females of the species of
simiae mentioned by him, (v.c. of the simia sylvanus and cynomo gus,
the papio maimon, &c.) for a number of years, I easily discovered that
these supposed catamenia in some did not occur at all, and in others of
the very same species were merely a vague and sparing uterine he-
morrhage, observing no regular period.

↵

†.

[Seite 307]

There is hardly occasion, at present, to refute the unfounded asser-
tion, that in some nations, particularly on the continent of America, the
women do not menstruate. This opinion appears to have originated
from the circumstance of the Europeans, who visited those countries,
and saw innumerable women nearly naked, never finding any menstrual
stains upon them. For this there might be two reasons. First, the
American women are, by a happy prejudice, regarded as infectious
while menstruating, and remove from society, to the advantage of their
[Seite 308] health, into solitary huts. Again, their extreme cleanliness, and the
modest position in which they place their limbs, would prevent any
vestige of the catamenia from being observable, as Adr. Van Berkel
expressly states in his Reisen nach Rio de Berbice und Surinam, p. 46.

↵

[Seite 309]

See, for example, Morgagni’s Adv. Anat. 1. tab. iii. M.M.M.

↵

†.

[Seite 309]

L.H. Chr. Niemeyer, De menstruationis fine et usu. Gott. 1796,
8vo.

↵

‡.

[Seite 309]

J. Fr. Osiander, on the contrary, argues on the side of the veins.
Diss. de fluxu menstruo atque uteri prolapsu. Gott. 1808, 4to.
p. 14.

↵

§.

[Seite 309]

Among other writings, Abr. D’Orville’s Disquisitio causae menstrui
fluxus (Praes. Hallero) may be consulted by those who feel interested
with this enquiry. Also, Gisb. Verz. Muilman. An ex celebrata
hactenus opinione de plethora universali vel particulari vera fluxus menstrui
causa explicari posstt? L.B. 1772, 4to. And Theod. Traug. Jaehkel.
(Praes. Krause) Aetiol. fluxus menst. Lips. 1784, 4to.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 309]

The universal plethoric orgasm, as it was termed, which some
formerly regarded as the cause of menstruation, has been long since
refuted by more enlightened physiologists. To the arguments of the
latter, I may be permitted to add the instance of the celebrated Hungarian
sisters, who, from monstrous formation, were united together (63 Note).
Although the same blood flowed in each, on account of the union of the
abdominal blood vessels at the loins, they differed frequently, both in
the period and the quantity of their menstruation.

↵

[Seite 311]

Unless the observation, first made by Wargentin, in Sweden, that
there is a greater proportion of births in September, which corresponds
with the preceding December, be considered as relative to this point.
Vide Swensk. Vetensk. Acad. Hadlingar, 1767, vol. xxviii. p. 249 et seq.

↵

†.

[Seite 311]

Of the various circumstances of this act, I have spoken in my work
De gen. hum. variet. nat. p. 17 et sq. ed. 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 311]

v. the two instances seen by Ruysch, of uteri immediately after
impregnation. The one of a common woman, murdered by her para-
mour immediately after connection. Adversar. Anat. Medico Chirurg.
[Seite 312] Dec. i. tab. ii. fig. 3. The other of a married woman, impregnated
a few hours previously, and killed in the act of adultery by her husband.
Thesaur. Anat. vi. p. 23 et seq. tab. v. fig. 1.

↵

[Seite 312]

If we consider the impetus with which the semen is emitted, and,
as it were, swallowed by the uterus, and how small a quantity is proved,
by experiments on animals, to be sufficient for impregnation, we shall
be able to explain those well established cases of conception, where
the hymen was imperforate –cases brought forwards in support of the
existence of a seminal aura.

↵

†.

[Seite 312]

See J. Chph. Kuhleman s’s Observat. circa negot. generat. in ovib.
factae. Gotting. 1753, 4to. c. f. ae.

↵

‡.

[Seite 312]

See W. Hunter’s Anatomy of the gravid uterus. Tab. xv. fig. 5.
tab. xxxix. fig. 3. tab. xxxi. fig. 3.

↵

§.

[Seite 312]

It is a celebrated question, of great importance, both in physiology
and forensic medicine, and much agitated in late years, whether a
corpus luteum is the consequence of a fruitful coition alone, and there-
fore an infallible sign of conception, or whether it can occur indepen-
dently of coition, and may therefore exist in virgins. I trust that I
have settled this dispute according to the truth, and have shown the
[Seite 313] conditions under which it may occasionally take place even in virgins.
Specimen physiologiae comparatae inter animantia calidi sanguinis vivipara et
ovipara, in the Commentat. Soc. Reg. Scientiar. Gotting. vol. ix. p. 109
et seq.

↵

[Seite 313]

That different conceptions may occur from the repetition of coition
after very short intervals, is proved by the instances of adulterous
women, who have brought forth twins resembling different fathers in
the colour of their skin: viz. of black women who have brought forth
a black and a mulatto, and of European women who have brought forth
a white and a mulatto. (B.)

↵

†.

[Seite 313]

Ad. El. Siebold, De diagnosi conceptionis et graviditatis saepe dubia.
Wirceb. 1798, 4to.

Gm. Theoph. Kelch. De symptomatibus et signis graviditatis earumque
causis. Regiom. 1794, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 313]

Aretaeus Cappadox (De Causis et Sig. Morb. Diuturn. l. 11. c. ii.
p. 64 et seq. Boerhaave’s edition) seems the first who gave a true ac-
count of the origin of this membrane, the more accurate knowledge of
which we owe to Wm. Hunter.

After the revival of anatomy, Fallopius restored the knowledge of it.
Observ. Anat. p. 207. ‘“The chorion is either the chorion simply so
called, or the spongy, tomentous, fungous, filamentous, the reticulated of
the moderns, the involucrum membranaceum of Albinus.”’ Ruysch, so
far as my knowledge extends, gave the first plate of it. Thes. Anat.
v. tab. i. fig. 1. F.B.C.G.

↵

[Seite 314]

W. Hunter, l. c. tab. xxxiv. fig. 3–6.

↵

†.

[Seite 314]

See B.S. Albinus’ Annot. Acad. L. i. tab. iii. fig. 1. e.

W. Hunter, l. c. tab. xxxiii. fig. 1–4.

↵

‡.

[Seite 314]

Respecting the membranes of the ovulum, and their connection
with the uterus and embryo, vide J.F. Lobstein, Uber die Ernührung
des foetus. Halle. 1804. 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 314]

The Membrana. media of Rouhault, Haller, &c. For the various
synonyms and homonyms of the membranes of the ovum, consult Hal-
ler’s Elem. Physiol. Vol. viii. P. 1. p. 194. sq. and Tabarran’s letter
to Bartoloni, in the Atti di Siena. T. vi. p. 224. sq.

↵

[Seite 315]

See Hunter’s figures (imaginary indeed) l. c. tab. xxxiv. fig. 9.
8. 7.

↵

†.

[Seite 315]

Paul. Scheel, at the end of his Commentat. de liquoris amnii asperae
arteriae foetuum human. natur. et usu. Hafn. 1799, 8vo.

C.H. D’Zondi. Supplementa ad anat. et physiolog. potissimum com-
paratum. Lips. 1806, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 315]

Steph. J. Van Geuns, De natura et utilitate liquoris amnii. Ultraj.
1793, 4to.

↵

[Seite 316]

I trust no one will adduce, in objection, accounts of foetuses
destitute of umbilical vessels, who has read those accounts with any
attention.

↵

†.

[Seite 316]

There is no occasion in our times to refute the false remarks and
figures given by Mauriceau, Kerckring, and others, of foetuses, one or
a few days old.

The reasons of my fixing upon this term, I have explained at large
in the Medicin. Bibliothek. vol. ii. p. 673, sq. How remarkably this
was afterwards confirmed by fact, will be found in the same work, vol.
iii. p. 727.

Those who have not an opportunity of inspecting the fragile primor-
dia of our race may consult the excellent plates in Ruysch’s Thesaur.
Anat. vi. tab. ij. fig. 2. 3. 4. 5. 8. 10. Thesaur. x. tab. iii. fig. 1.

Also B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. i. tab. v. fig. 4. 5.

[Seite 317]

Trew in the Commerc. Litter. Noric. 1739. tab. iii. fig. 4. 5.

Abr. Vater’s Mus. anatom. propr. tab. viij. fig. 2. 4. &c.

And, Instar Omnium, Soemmering’s Icones Embryon Humanor.
Francof. ad Moen. 1799. fol.

↵

†.

[Seite 316]

There is no occasion in our times to refute the false remarks and
figures given by Mauriceau, Kerckring, and others, of foetuses, one or
a few days old.

Also B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. i. tab. v. fig. 4. 5.

[Seite 318]

Trew in the Commerc. Litter. Noric. 1739. tab. iii. fig. 4. 5.

Abr. Vater’s Mus. anatom. propr. tab. viij. fig. 2. 4. &c.

And, Instar Omnium, Soemmering’s Icones Embryon Humanor.
Francof. ad Moen. 1799. fol.

↵

[Seite 317]

This proportion is not very constant, and there is some national
variety in this respect. (C.)

Egede expressly mentions the infrequency of twins among the Green-
landers, in his Descr. du Grönland, p. 112.

Their remarkable frequency among the people of Chili is asserted by
Molina, in his Saggio sur la Storia Naturale del Chili, p. 333.

↵

†.

[Seite 317]

See Denman’s Engravings, tending to illustrate generation and parturi-
tion. Lond. 1787. fol. tab. ix.

Twins are very rarely contained in a common amnion. Vide J. de
Puyt, in the Verhandel. der Zeeuwsch Genootsch. te Ulissingen. T. ix. p.
423, sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 317]

W. Noortwyk. Uteri Humani Gravidi Anatome, tab. iii. fig. 5.
6. 7.

↵

[Seite 318]

Hoboken. Anatome secundin. human. repetita. p. 522, sq. fig. 38.
39. 40.

This structure is further displayed in the arterial branches of the pla-
centa by Aug. Chr. Reuss, in the Nov. Observ. circa Structur. Vasor. in
Placenta Humana. Tubing. 1784, 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 318]

J. Noreen De Uracho. Gotting. 1749, 4to.

Ph. Ad. Boehmer on the same, at the end of his Anatome ovi hum.
foecund, sed deformis. Hal. 1763, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 318]

Vide Fabr. ab Aquapendente. De Formato Foetu. tab. xii. xiii.
xiv. xvii. fig. 27. xxv.

↵

§.

[Seite 318]

Vide the Commentat. Soc. Reg. Sc. Gottingens. vol. ix. p. 128. fig. 1.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 318]

Among the moderns who have compared it to this, is J.F. Lob-
stein, l. c. über die Ernährung des Foetus. C.H. D’Zondi. Supplem.
ad Anat. et Physiol.

↵

[Seite 319]

The opinions both respecting the natural constancy of the vesicula
umbilicalis, and its analogy to the tunica erythroides, I originally, as far
as I know, proposed upwards of twenty years since, in the first edition
of these Institutions (1787), and in my Specimen Physiologiae Comparatae
(1788), formerly quoted.

The connection of this vesicle with the intestinal canal of the embryo,
and indeed with the appendix vermiformis of the caecum, is shewn by
Laur. Oken in his, and Diet. G. Kieser’s Beytr. zur Vergleichenden
Zoologie, &c. Fasc. 1. ii. Bamberg, 1806, sq.

See likewise Kieser’s Ursprung des Darmkanals aus der Vesicula Umbi-
licalis, dargestellt im Menschlichen Embryo. Goett. 1810, 4to.

But, on the contrary, Fr. Meckel shews it to be united with the di-
verticulum of the small intestines (Diverticulum Littrianum) in his
Beytr. zur vergleichenden Anatomie. Vol. 1. Fasc. 1. Lips. 1808, p. 93;
and more fully in Reil and Autenreith’s Archiv für die Physiologie. Vol.
ix. p. 421.

Consult, among others, W. Hunter, Anatomical Description of the
Human Gravid Uterus (a posthumous work, edited by Matthew Baillie).
Lond. 1794, 4to. p. 40, sq.

B.N.G. Schreger’s letter to Soemmering, De functione placentae
uterinae. Erlang. 1799, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 321]

v. W. Hunter. Anat. Uteri Gravidi, tab. xvi.

↵

†.

[Seite 321]

Ibid. tab. xviii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 321]

v. B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. i. ii. tab. iii. fig. 2.

↵

§.

[Seite 321]

Arantius’ book De Humano Foetu. p. 5, sq. 1579. Compare B.S.
Albinus’ Tab. Uteri Gravidi, ii.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 321]

Among other works, consult J. Burns’s Anatomy of the Gravid Ute-
rus. Glasgow. 1799, 8vo. a work carefully and faithfully executed.

↵

[Seite 322]

v. Doeveren. Specim. Observ. Academ. p. 104, sq.

↵

[Seite 323]

On the various appearances of the decidua during the latter half of
[Seite 324] pregnancy, consult W. Hunter. Anat. of the gravid uterus, tab. xxiv.
fig. 3, 4. tab. xxix. fig. 4, 5. comparing with these, tab. xxix. fig. 2.

↵

[Seite 324]

This weight and volume are remarkably large in proportion to the
mother, if compared with those of the offspring of many other mam-
malia. But, notwithstanding this, woman is so far from producing the
largest foetus, in this respect, among the mammalia, that she is far sur
passed by some, especially of the bisulca.

↵

[Seite 325]

Boerhaave. Proelectiones Academicae, with Haller’s notes, T. vi.
p. 113. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 325]

Experiments, &c. by W. Cruikshank. Philos. Trans. 1797.

↵

‡.

[Seite 325]

A new system of Physiology, &c. by R. Saumarez, vol. i. p. 337.

↵

§.

[Seite 325]

Harvey. De Generatione, p. 228, &c.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 325]

Regn. De Graaf. T. 1. 310.

↵

¶.

[Seite 325]

Verheyn, Sup. Anat. tra. 5. cap. 3.

↵

**.

[Seite 325]

Galen, De semine. 1. i. c. 2.

↵

††.

[Seite 325]

Ruysch. Thes. Anat. p. 90. tab. vi. fig. i.

↵

‡‡.

[Seite 325]

Boerhaave’s Praelect. Acad. Haller’s note to p. 182. t. 6.

↵

§§.

[Seite 325]

Haller. Elementa Physiol. T. 8. p. 22.

↵

[Seite 326]

Saumarez. l. c. p. 429.

↵

†.

[Seite 326]

Account of the structure of the Wombat, by Sir E. Home. Phil.
Trans. 1798.

↵

‡.

[Seite 326]

Mr. Saumarez observed in two instances, when two hours and a
half only had elapsed after coition, and before corpora lutea were
formed, globular, pearl coloured bodies, as large as a pea’s head, which,
on being squeezed, burst, and discharged, to some distance, a very
subtle fluid. Dr. Haighton commonly met with them. Whether these
were semen, having undergone some change, is uncertain.

The well known instances of conception without the admission of
the male organ into the vagina, on account of the great strength of the
hymen, are sometimes cited against the opinion, that the semen passes
beyond the vagina. I can scarcely say with what weight, because the
most minute portion of semen is sufficient to impregnate. Spallan-
zani mixed three grains of frog’s semen with a pound and a half of
water, and, with this, fecundated nearly all the numerous posterity
contained in the threads taken from the female; and, after mixing
three grains with even twenty-two pounds of water, he fecundated
some. Dissertations, vol. 2. p, 191. English translation.

↵

[Seite 327]

Experimental Enquiry, &c. by John Haighton, M.D. Philos. Trans.
1797.

↵

†.

[Seite 327]

Haller. Elem. Physiol, and notes to Boerhaave, l. c.

↵

[Seite 328]

The divided end of the tube was found totally impervious. – The
experiment succeeded when one tube only was divided: the division of
both deprived the animal not only of fertility, but of sexual desire, and
even the division of one had this effect in some instances. – If the tube
was divided after coition, the result was the same, provided the opera-
tion was performed before the contents of the vesicles had entered it:
for if too much time had elapsed, the ova were transmitted to the uterus,
and grew to maturity.

↵

[Seite 329]

‘“That the semen first stimulates the vagina, os uteri, cavity of the
uterus, or all of them.’

‘By sympathy, the ovarian vesicles enlarge, project, and burst.’

‘By sympathy, the tubes incline to the ovaria, and, having embraced
them, convey the rudiments of the foetus into the uterus.’

‘By sympathy, the uterus makes the necessary preparations for perfect-
ing the formation and growth of the foetus, and,’

‘By sympathy, the breasts furnish milk for its support after birth.”’

There is reason, however, from one passage, to suppose that Dr.
Haighton believes the semen to exert all its direct effects upon the va-
gina. After dwelling upon the opinion opposite to his own, he says,
‘“The difficulties which were opposed to the conveyance of the semen
by the tubes were, as we should expect, intended to prepare the way
for a different explanation; therefore, physiologists, by a very natural
transition of thought, were led to suppose that the presence of semen
in the vagina alone was sufficient to account for impregnation;”’ and he
immediately proceeds to his experiments.

↵

†.

[Seite 329]

The state of the ovaria of women, who have died under strong
sexual passion, has been found similar to that of rabbits during heat.
In the body of a young woman, eighteen years of age, who had been
brought up in a convent, and had every appearance of being a virgin,
Valisneri found five or six vesicles protruding in one ovarium, and the
corresponding Fallopian tube redder and longer than usual, as he had
[Seite 330] frequently observed in animals during heat. Bonnet gives the history
of a young lady, who died furiously in love with a man of low rank,
and whose ovaria were turgid with vesicles of great size. Blancaard,
Schurig, Brendelius, Santorini, and Drelincourt, mention analogous
facts. Haller’s notes to Boerhaave’s Praelect. Acad.

↵

[Seite 330]

See his note to paragraph 562.

↵

[Seite 331]

De Graaf and Valisneri met with the same results.

↵

†.

[Seite 331]

Lieutaud, Sandifort, Morgagni.

↵

‡.

[Seite 331]

Louis.

↵

§.

[Seite 331]

Ephemerid. Natur. Curios. Dec. 3. Ann. 7 and 8. Obs. 35. Cent.
9. Obs. 75. Philos. Trans. vol. 4. 1699.

↵

[Seite 332]

Sketches of the Medical Schools of Paris, by John Cross, p. 192.

↵

†.

[Seite 332]

Annales de Chimie. T. vii. p. 162.

↵

‡.

[Seite 332]

Animal Chemistry. Translation, p. 41, sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 332]

Recherches Phisiologiques, p. 271.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 332]

Anatomie Generale. T. ii. 344.

↵

¶.

[Seite 332]

Comparative Anatomy. Translated by Mr. Lawrence.

↵

[Seite 333]

See W. Fr. v. Gleichen, l. c.

↵

†.

[Seite 333]

v.c. The illustrious Haller, who plainly asserted, that all the
viscera, and even the bones of the future foetus, nearly fluid indeed, and
therefore invisible, were pre-formed, before conception, in the maternal
germ.

In support of this hypothesis, he argued chiefly from the continuity
of the membranes and blood-vessels between the incubated chick and
the yolk of the egg. Opera minora. T. ii. p. 418, sq.

But the more frequently I have demonstrated the phenomena of in-
cubation, in my Physiological Lectures, the less strength have I found
in this argument. Nor can I sufficiently wonder how this great physi-
ologist could so constantly reject, as almost absurd, the inosculation,
[Seite 334] properly so called, of the vessels of the chick with those of the yolk,
while, at the same time, he admitted and defended a perfectly similar
inosculation in the connection of the human ovulum with the gravid
uterus. Elem. Physiol. Lausanne, 1788, T. viii. P. 1. p. 94, comparing
p. 257.

↵

[Seite 334]

v. L.P. Zweifel gegen die Entwickelungstherie. – Aus der Französischen
Handschrift von G. Forster. Gotting. 1788, 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 334]

v. Kant’s remarks on these, in his Critik der Urtheilskraft, page
372.

↵

‡.

[Seite 334]

This defect I have shown at large in my Handbuch der Natur-
geschichte, page 15, sq 8vo. 1807.

↵

§.

[Seite 334]

Those who desire a fuller demonstration of this and other assertions,
but briefly noticed in the present section, I refer to the work, über den
Bildungstrieb, (third edit.) Gotting. 1791, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 335]

See Chr. Girtanner, über das Kantische Prinzip fur die Natur-
geschichte. Gotting. 1796, 8vo. p. 14, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 335]

Here allow me to make three remarks: –

1. I have used the expression, nisus formativus, merely to distinguish
it from the other orders of vital powers, and by no means to explain the
cause of generation, which I consider equally involved in Cimmerian
darkness as the cause of gravitation or attraction, which are merely
terms given to effects known, like the nisus formativus, a posteriori.

[Seite 336]

2. The word nisus I have adopted chiefly to express an energy truly
vital, and therefore to distinguish it, as clearly as possible, from powers
merely mechanical, by which some physiologists formerly endeavoured
to explain generation.

3. The point on which the whole of this doctrine respecting the nisus
formativus turns, and which is alone sufficient to distinguish it from the
vis plastica of the ancients, or the vis essentialis of the celebrated Wolff,
and similar hypotheses, is the union and intimate co-exertion of two distinct
principles in the evolution of the nature of organized bodies, – of the physico-
mechanical, with the purely teleological – principles which have
hitherto been adopted, but separately, by physiologists, in framing the-
ories of generation.

↵

[Seite 337]

Jos. G. Kölreuter. Dritte Fortsetz. der vorlāuf. Nachr. p. 51, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 337]

Tulpius. Observat. Med. L. iv.c. 55.

↵

[Seite 340]

J.J. Römer. Partus naturalis brevis expositio. Gotting. 1786, 8vo.

↵

[Seite 341]

I have recorded a remarkable instance of this kind in the Comment.
Soc. Scient. Gottingens. Vol. viii.

↵

†.

[Seite 341]

v. Camper’s Demonst. anat. pathol. L. 11. p. 9.

↵

[Seite 342]

v. Smellie’s Set of anatomical tables. tab. xi.–xv.

↵

†.

[Seite 342]

Although, even among my own countrywomen, the symptoms,
[Seite 343] described under these four stages, vary greatly in violence and propor-
tionate duration; nevertheless, however naturally they take place, they
universally, (excepting some extremely rare cases,) so far surpass, even
under the most favourable circumstances, the pains experienced by do-
mestic brutes in their labours, that, I trust, no one, who has frequently
witnessed labours in both, will seriously doubt the immense difference
between the two in this respect.

↵

[Seite 343]

B.S. Albinus’ Tab. uter. gravid. vij.

Wm. Hunter’s Anat. of the gravid uterus. Tab. x. fig. 3.

↵

†.

[Seite 343]

Nic. Massam, and all since his time, denominate this portion of
the womb, during, or shortly after, pregnancy, the cotyledons, from the
analogous appearance observable in the gravid uterus of sheep or goats,
in which similar cavities (acetabula) exist, receiving what are called
the glandular corpuscles of the chorion, corresponding with the foetal
portion of the human placenta.

Whatever was hollow, like an acetabulum, was called χοτυλη, by
the ancients. Vide J. Cammerarii, Comm, utriusque linguae, 256,
384.

↵

[Seite 345]

J. Anemaet De mirabili qua mammas inter et uterum intercedit sym-
pathia. L.B. 1784, 4to.

↵

[Seite 346]

Eustachius. Tab. xxvii. fig. 12.

Haller. Icon. Anat. fasc. vi. tab. i.

↵

†.

[Seite 346]

As G.R. Boehmer properly remarks. Be consensu uteri eum mam
mis causa lactis dubia. Lips. 1750, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 346]

A.B. Kölpin, De structura mammarum. Griphisw. 1765. 4to.

Athan. Joannidis, Physiologiae mammarum muliebrium specimen.
Hal. 1801. 4to.

↵

§.

[Seite 346]

v.c. Avolo’s two plates at the end of Santorini’s posthumous
works.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 346]

v. Mich. Girard, Tab. i. annexed to the same plates of San-
torini.

↵

[Seite 347]

J. Gottl. Walter’s Observ. Anat. p. 33. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 347]

Santorini’s Tab. posth. viii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 347]

Ruysch. Thes. i. tab. 4. fig. 4.

↵

§.

[Seite 347]

In pregnant women, especially during the first pregnancy, the nip-
ples are usually yellow. In the Samojede women, although virgins,
Klingstaedt asserts that they are quite black. Mém. sur les Samojedes
et les Lappons. p. 44.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 347]

B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. iii. tab. iv. fig. 3.

↵

¶.

[Seite 347]

Morgagni’s Advers. Anat. 1. tab. iv. fig. 2.

↵

**.

[Seite 347]

FI. J. Voltelen (Praes. Hahn), De lacte humano observationes che-
micae. L.B. 1775. 4to.

Parmentier and Deyeux, Précis d’Experiences et Observations sur les
[Seite 348] différentes espèces du lait. Argent. 1798. 8vo. Thenard, in the Annales de
Chimie. T. lix. p. 262.

↵

[Seite 348]

Marc. L. Williamoz, De sale lactis essentiali. L.B. 1756. 4to.

↵

†.

[Seite 348]

Senac. Tr. du coeur. Vol. ii. p. 276. ed. 2.

Fr. v. P. Griuthuisen. Untersuch. über den Unterschied zwschen
Eiter und Schleim durch das Microscop. Monach. 1809. 4to. p. 16.
fig. 15.

↵

‡.

[Seite 348]

Compare J. Theod. Van de Kasteele. Diss. de analogia inter lac
et sanguinem. L.B. 1780. 4to. and Alex. Wilson, on the analogy be-
tween milk and chyle, in his Observations relative to the influence of the
climate. p. 97. sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 348]

v. among a host of witnesses, Kölpin, in Pallas’, Neuen nordischen
Beyträgen. Vol. ii. p. 343.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 348]

Many arguments induce me to believe, that the lymph of the
absorbents is of much importance in the secretion of milk.

For instance, the swelling of the subaxillary glands, almost always
observable during the first months of pregnancy.

[Seite 349]

But especially the remarkable fact, that in advanced pregnancy, when,
from the womb compressing, through its size, the large and numerous
lumbar plexuses of lymphatics, the legs have swollen, this oedematous
tumour so completely disappears, immediately after labour, that the
calves of the legs hang almost flaccid, from the lymph finding no impe-
diment in the lumbar plexuses, and rushing upwards; and a more copious
secretion of milk instantly ensues upon the progress of the lymph.

The momentary thirst (330) experienced on applying the child to the
breast, from the absorption of fluid in the fauces, may be also men-
tioned.

↵

[Seite 349]

This is asserted to be very common in Russia. Comment. Acad. sc.
Petropolit. Vol. iii. p. 278. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 349]

I have spoken of this at large in the Hannoversich Magazin. 1787.
p. 753. sq.

↵

[Seite 350]

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. V. iii.

↵

[Seite 351]

See Cuvier’s Anatomie Comparée. – Generation.

↵

†.

[Seite 351]

Hîc plantas tenero abscindens de corpore matrum
Deposuit sulcis; hîe stirpes obruit arvo,
Quadrifidasque sudes, et acuto robore vallos:
Sylvarumque aliae pressos propaginis arcus
Expectant, et viva suâ plautaria terrâ.
Nil radicis egent aliae: summumque putator
Hand dubitat terrae referens mandare cacumen.
Quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu,
Truditur é sicco radix oleagina ligno.
Virgil. Georgica. Lib. ii.

↵

‡.

[Seite 351]

See Spallanzani’s admirable Observations et Experiences sur les Ani-
malcules. He found a small portion detach itself from the bodies of
some, the bodies of others split longitudinally, of others transversely, of
others both longitudinally and transversely, into four parts; and the
new animalcules soon acquired the size of the parent, and experienced
the same changes in their turn.

↵

[Seite 352]

It is singular, that some hermaphrodites do not impregnate them-
selves, but mutually impregnate, and are impregnated by, others; such
are the gasteropodous mollusca, and many worms.

↵

†.

[Seite 352]

Ladies were treated formerly more politely than at present. An
accidental pregnancy was often attributed to the warmth of imagina-
tion, the influence of demons, and many other circumstances, supposed
equally powerful as the deed of kind. Venette, in his Tableau de
l’Amour conjugal, has inserted an Arrêt Notable de la cour du Parlement
de Grenoble, which, upon the attestation of many matrones and sages,
femmes, and docteurs of the University of Montpellier, that women often
fall pregnant spontaneously, declares a lady, who had brought forth a
son, although her husband had been absent four years, to be a woman
of worth and honour, and the child to be the legitimate heir of Monsieur
the husband.

Virgil believed that mares were sometimes impregnated by the west
wind.

Vere magis (quia vere calor redit ossibus) illae
Ore omnes versae in Zephyrum, stant rupibus altis
 [Seite 353] Exceptantque leves animas: et saepe sine ullis
Conjugiis, vento gravidae (mirabile dictu)
Saxa per et scopulos et depressas convalles
Diffugiunt.
Georg. Lib. iii.

↵

[Seite 354]

Hunter, On a secretion in the crops of breeding pigeons for the nourish-
ment of their young. Observ. p. 235.

↵

[Seite 355]

On the subject of this section consult, among numerous others,
Trew, De differ, quibusdam inter hominem natum et nascendum interceden-
tibus. Norimb. 1736. 4to.

Andr. and Fr. Roesslein (brothers), De differentiis inter foetum et
adultum. ibid. 1783, 4to.

Ferd. G. Danz. Zergliederungskunde des ungebohrnen Kindes mit Anmerk.
von. S. Th. Soemmerring, Francof. 1792. 2 vols. 8vo.

Also Theod Hoogeveen, De foetus humani morbis. L.B. 1784. 8vo.
p. 28. sq.

J. Dan. Herholdt, De vita imprimis foetus humani. Havn. 1802. 8vo. p.
61. sq.

And Fr. Aug. Walter, Annotat. Academ. already quoted, p. 44. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 355]

Fourcroy. Annales de Chimie. T. vii. p. 162. sq.

↵

[Seite 356]

Compare Herm. Bernard De eo quo differt circuitus sanguinis foetus ab
illo hominis nati. Reprinted in Overkamp’s collection. T. i.

Jos. Wenc. Czikanck, De actuosa hominis nascituri vita s. circulat.
foetus ab hominis nati diversitate. Reprinted in Wasserberg’s collection.
T. iv.

Sabatier, at the end of his Tr. Complet. d’Anat. Vol. iii. p. 386. sq.
1781, and in the Memoires Mathemat. et Physiques de l’Institut. T. iii.
p 337. sq.

But especially J. Fr. Lobstein, in the Magasin Encyclopédique. 1803.
T. iii. Vol. li. p. 28 sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 356]

Arantius, De humano foetu libellus. 97.

Compare B.S. Albinus’s Explicatio tabular. Eustachii. p. 164. sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 356]

Haller, De valvula Eustachii. Gotting. 1738 4to.

↵

[Seite 357]

Eustachius, De vena sine pari. p. 289. Opuscula. tab. viii. fig. 6. tab.
xvi. fig. 3.

↵

†.

[Seite 357]

J.F. Lobstein, De valvula Eustachii. Aug. 1771. 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 357]

Haller, De foramine ovali et Eustachii valvula. Gotting. 1743.
fol. c. f. ae. and much more copiously in his Opera Minora. T. i.
p. 33. sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 357]

For an account of the opinion of C. Fr. Wolff, who regards the
foramen ovale as another mouth of the inferior cava, opening into the
left auricle, in the same manner as the mouth commonly known opens
into the right. Vide Nov. Comment. Acad. Scient. Petropol. t. xx.
1775.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 357]

H. Palm. Leveling, De valvula Eustachii et foramine ovali. Anglipol.
1780. 8vo. c. f. ae.

↵

[Seite 358]

B.S. Albinus’ Annot. Acad. L. ii. tab. vii. fig. 7.

↵

†.

[Seite 358]

v. Haller’s leones Anat. fasc. iv. tab. iii. vi.

↵

‡.

[Seite 358]

This is not tbe proper place for explaining the conditions under
which this occurs, and the cautions therefore requisite in giving an
opinion in a court of justice, founded on the examination of the lungs.

Among many other writings, the very important posthumous paper of
Wm. Hunter may be consulted, ia tiie Medical Observ. and Enquiries.
Vol vi. p. 234. sq.

↵

§.

[Seite 358]

Portal in the Mem. de l’Acad des Sc. de Paris. 1769. p. 555. sq.

Metzger, De pulmone dextro ante sinistrum respirante. Regiom.
1783 4to.

↵

[Seite 359]

B.S. Albinus’ Annotat. Acad. L. vi. tab. ii. fig. 7.

↵

[Seite 360]

Vide F. Mechel’s Abhandlungen aus der menschlichen u. verg-
leichenden Anatomie. Halle. 1806. 8vo. He makes it probable, that
these three organs contribute to the chemical functions of the nervous
and hepatic systems, and thus diminish the quantity of hydrogen and
carbon.

↵

†.

[Seite 360]

Cajet. Uttini, De glandulae thyroideae usu, in the Comment. instituti
Bononiens. Vol. vii. p. 15. sq.

↵

‡.

[Seite 360]

Haller’s Icones Anat. fasc. iii. tab. 3.

↵

§.

[Seite 360]

J. Ant. Schmidtmüller, über die Ausfuhrungsgunge der Schilddrüse.
Landshut. 1804. 8vo.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 360]

Aug. Lud. de Hugo, De glandulis in genere et speciatim de thymo.
Gotting. 1746. 4to. fig. 2.

Morand the younger, in the Mémoires de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris.
1759. tab. 22–24.

Vincent Malacarne, in the Memorie della Societa Italiana. T. viii.
1799. P. i. p. 239. sq.

Sam. Chr. Lucae, Anatomische Untersuchungen der Thymus. Francof.
1811. 4to.

↵

¶.

[Seite 360]

Haller’s Icones Anat. l. c.

↵

[Seite 361]

Hewson’s Experimental enquiries. P. iii. passim.

↵

†.

[Seite 361]

See Eustachius their discoverer. Tab. i. ii. iii. and tab. xii. fig. 1.
10. 12.

Haller’s Icones Anat. fusc. iii. tab. vi.

Malacarne, l. c.

↵

[Seite 362]

Elementa Physiologiae. T. 8.

↵

†.

[Seite 362]

See Mr. Bryce’s excellent paper on this subject in the Edinburgh
Med. & Surg. Journal, 1815, Jan.

↵

[Seite 363]

Vide Const. Anast. Philites De decremento seu de marasmo senili. Hal.
1808. 8vo.

↵

†.

[Seite 363]

Vide J. De Muralto, in the Ephemerides. N.C. Dec. ii. ann. i. p.
305.

Roume de St. Laurent, in Rozier’s Obs. et mém. s. la physique. Juillet.
1775, p. 53.

↵

‡.

[Seite 363]

Aristotle’s Hist. Animal. L. vi. cap. 3. Opera. Vol. ii. p. 326.

↵

[Seite 364]

Hence, as I have remarked in another place, (– Nova Litteraria
Goettingensia, a. 1808, p. 1386 –), human monsters are sometimes met
with, so strongly resembling the form of brutes, because the nisus for-
mativus, having been disturbed and obstructed from some cause or
other, could not reach the highest pitch of the human form, but rested
at a lower point and produced a bestial shape. On the contrary, I
have never once found among brutes a true example of monstrosity,
which, by a bound of the nisus formativus, bore any analogy to the hu-
man figure.

For fuller information in regard to the resemblance of the very early
human embryo to the larvae of reptiles, and in some measure to the
foetuses of quadruped mammalia, consult after Harvey De generat.
animal. p. 184, 235, sq. London, 1651, 4to. – Grew’s Cosmol. sacr. p. 37,
47. – Lister De humoribus. p. 444, and others, especially Autenreith, Ob-
servat. ad histor. embryon. facientium. P. i. Tubing, 1797, 4to. – Fr.
Meckel, both in the Auffütz zur menschl. u. vergleich. anat. p. 277, sq.
and in the Beyträg zur vergleich. anat. p. 63, and elsewhere, and Const.
Anast. Philites, l. c.

↵

†.

[Seite 364]

I say of human bone; for in the incubated chick, it commences much
later, – at the beginning of the ninth day, which corresponds with the
seventeenth week of human pregnancy.

Observations, therefore, made on the incubated chick, must not be
hastily applied to the formation of the human embryo, – an error com-
mitted by the great Haller himself, who clearly asserted that what he
had demonstrated in regard to the incubated chick, was equally applicable to
other classes of animals and to man himself .

This opinion gained so much ground subsequently, that some phy-
sicians who endeavoured to settle the forensic disputes respecting pre-
[Seite 365] mature labour, deduced their arguments from this hasty comparison of
the periods of this incubation with those of human pregnancy. Vide
v.c. Hug. Marreti’s Consultation au sujet d’un enfant, &c. Divion.
1768, 4to.

↵

[Seite 366]

Consult Tiedemann Uber die Entwickelung der seelenf ähigkeiten bey
Kindern, in the Hessisch. Beytr. Vol. ii. P. ii. iii.

↵

†.

[Seite 366]

Ger. Vrolik (praes. Brugmans) Diss. de homine ad statum gres-
cumque erectum per corporis fabricam dispositio. Ludg. Bat. 1795,
8vo.

↵

[Seite 367]

The fabulous report, even at this day prevalent, respecting the
want of beard among some American nations, I refuted by a host of
witnesses in the Gotting. Magaz. ann. ii. P. vi. p. 418 et seq. For I
have adduced instances from the whole of America, both of nations
who allow their beard to grow, at least, in part; and of others, who,
upon indubitable authority, pluck out their beard by peculiar instru-
ments, &c.

↵

†.

[Seite 367]

I have inserted in the Bibl. Medic. vol. i. p. 558 et seq. an account
[Seite 368] communicated to me by G.E. ab Haller, of procreation in a Swiss girl
only nine years of age.

↵

[Seite 368]

For man has no peculiar privileges of not experiencing the effects of
climate in common with other organized bodies, which are commonly
known to arrive at their growth much later, caeteris paribus, in cold than
in warm climates.

As to the giants of Patagonia and the dwarfs of Madagascar, men-
tioned by Commerson, I have reduced the exaggerated accounts of the
former to a true statement, and have shewn that the latter are diseased
Cretins, in my Treatise De gen. hum. var nativ. p. 253, 260. ed. 3.

↵

†.

[Seite 368]

J. Bern. Fischer’s Tract, de senio ejusque morbis. Ed. 2. Erf. 1760,
8vo.

Benj. Rush’s Medical Inquiries & Observations. Vol. ii. Philadel.
1793, 8vo. p. 295, sq.

Burc. W. Seiler’s Anatomiae c. h. senilis specimen. Erlang. 1799, 8vo.
Const. Anast. Philites. l. c.

↵

[Seite 369]

Vide J. Burlin. De faeminis ex suppressione mensium barbatis. Altorf.
1664, 4to. This remarkable phenomenon, which deserves further in-
vestigation, is analogous to a change frequently remarked in female
birds, which, after ceasing to lay eggs, lose the feathers peculiar to their
sex and acquire those characteristic of the male. Examples of this oc-
cur in the columba oenas, phasianus colchicus, pavo cristatus, otis tarda,
pipra rupicola, anas boschas, &c.

↵

†.

[Seite 369]

Joach. H. Gernet. De siccitatis senilis effectibus. Lips. 1753, 4to.

↵

‡.

[Seite 369]

I do not here repeat what I have said at large in my osteological
work, p. 36, sq. upon the remarkable wasting of the bones of old men.

↵

§.

[Seite 369]

G. Gottl. Richter. De morte sine morbo. Gotting. 1736, 4to.

↵

¶.

[Seite 369]

J. Oosterdyk Schacht. Tr. qua senile fatum inevitabili necessitate ex
hum. corp. mechanismo sequi demonstratur. Ultraj. 1729, 4to.

Matt. Van Geuns De morte corporea et causis moriendi. L.B. 1761, 4to.
reprinted in Sandifort’s Thesaurus, vol. iii.

[Seite 370]

C.G. Ontyd. De morte et varia moriendi ratione. Lugd. Bat. 1791,
8vo.

Curt. Sprengel’s Instit. medic. T. 1. Amst. 1809, p. 289, sq.

↵

[Seite 370]

See the successive progress of the phenomena of death observed in
himself, a man of middle age, dying of dysentery, in Moritz magaz. zur
Erfahrungs Seelen-Kunde. vol. i. P. 1. p. 63, sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 370]

Durondeau in the Nouveaux Mém. de l’Ac. de Bruxelles. vol. i. 1788,
p. i.

↵

‡.

[Seite 370]

C. Himly’s Commentatio (which gained the royal prize) mortis his-
toriam causas et signa sistens. Gotting. 1794, 4to.

Sol. Anschel’s Thanatologia s. in mortis naturam, causas, genera, species,
et diognosin disquisitiones, ib. 1795, 8vo.

↵

§.

[Seite 370]

Among other well known treatises on this subject, consult J. Gesner
De termino vitae. Tigur. 1748, reprinted in the Excerptum Italicae et
Helveticae litterat. 1759, T. iv.

↵

[Seite 371]

Bacon de Verulamio. Historia vitae et mortis. Opera. vol. ii. p. 121,
sq. London, 1740, fol.

Chr. W. Hufeland’s Makrobiotik. T. 1. p 90. and elsewhere. Edit. 3.
1805.

↵

[Seite 372]

Vol. iv.

↵

†.

[Seite 372]

Spermatol. p. 186.

↵

‡.

[Seite 372]

I say generally, because, for instance, the greatest evolution of the
testes is often accompanied either with little beard, or a small larynx,
or some analogous circumstance, while the other marks of manhood are
strikingly manifested; and vice versa. A boy only six years of age
without any premature evolution of the organs of generation, is recorded
to have had a beard. Philos. Trans. vol. 19.

↵

§.

[Seite 372]

A castrator of sows and other animals in Germany is said to have
been so enraged with his daughter for giving loose reins to her passions,
as to have resolved to extinguish them, and to have completely suc-
ceeded by removing her ovaria. ‘“Ita bilis mota est, ut aperto latere
castraret pullam, quam ab eo tempore nulla testigit veneris cupido.”’
Boerhaave’s Praelect. Acad. T. vi. p. 127.

↵

¶.

[Seite 372]

Philos. Trans. vol. 95.

↵

[Seite 373]

Memoires de la Societé Médicale d’Emulation. Paris. Tom. 2.

↵

†.

[Seite 373]

Histoire naturelle de la femme. T. 3.

↵

‡.

[Seite 373]

An experiment to determine the effect of extirpating one ovarium upon
the number of young produced. Obs. p. 157.

↵

§.

[Seite 373]

‘“It will not be easy to produce me an instance of any one giant or of
[Seite 374] any one dwarf perfectly sound in heart and mind, i.e. in the same degree
with a thousand other individuals who are regularly constituted. Great
mental weakness is the usual portion of giants, gross stupidity that of
dwarfs.”’ Lavater’s Physiognomy.

↵

[Seite 374]

Haller. Elementa Physiologiae. T. 12. lib. 30.

↵

†.

[Seite 374]

As the period of growth is so short in dwarfs, and the period of
childhood so short in those who reach puberty early, it is to be expected
that their old age will be premature – that their stationary period and
decline will be likewise short. Giants do not, like dwarfs, 1 believe,
die from premature old age, but from exhaustion.

[Seite 375]

Hopkins Hopkins, weighing never more than 18 lbs. and latterly but
12, died of pure old age at seventeen, and one of his sisters, but twelve
years of age and weighing only 18 lbs. at the time of her death had all
the marks of old age. Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. 24, p. 191.

↵

[Seite 375]

Philos. Trans. vol. 3. 1699.

↵

†.

[Seite 375]

Iliad, lib. 5.

↵

‡.

[Seite 375]

Psalm 90.

↵

[Seite 376]

Pope’s Essay on Man, Epistle 1.

↵

†.

[Seite 376]

Dr. Johnson’s Review of a Free Enquiry into the nature and origin of
evil.

↵

[Seite 378]

By the former, stimuli act upon them, and by the latter, they
upon stimuli: – by the sensibility and contractility of the vessels, sub-
stances are taken up by the roots, circulated through the system, and
converted into the various parts of the vegetable. Yet this does not
imply perception or will; the sensibility and contractility of the ab-
sorbents and secretories of our own system carry on absorption and
secretion without our consciousness or volition.

↵

†.

[Seite 378]

I cannot conceive an animal without perception and volition; nor
can I conceive these in an animal without a brain, any more than the
secretion of bile without a liver, or something analogous. I contend
not for the name, but the thing. Comparative anatomists indeed af-
firm, that many internal worms and all the class of zoophytes have no
nervous system. But comparative anatomy is yet imperfect, the ex-
[Seite 379] animation of minute parts is extremely difficult, and new organs are
daily discovered. Blumenbach, after remarking that, except those
animals which inhabit corals, and the proper zoophytes, most genera
of the other orders of the class of vermes are found to possess a dis-
tinct nervous system, adds: ‘“Although former anatomists have ex-
pressly declared in several instances that no such parts existed.”’
(Comparative Anatomy, cxvi. F.) Again, some beings are denominat-
ed animals without any very satisfactory reason. Where the nervous
system of an animal cannot be readily detected, its presence may be
inferred from motions evidently voluntary, such as the retraction of
worms into the earth upon the approach of footsteps, proving the ex-
istence of an organ of hearing, a brain and nerves; motion in a part
directly stimulated, as the contraction of an hydatid upon being punc-
tured, is no proof of an animal nature, for this is common to vegeta-
bles, for instance, the leaves of the Dionaea Muscipula, which contract
forcibly on a slight irritation. It may likewise be inferred from the
presence of a stomach, because where there is a stomach, the food is
taken in, not by absorbing vessels constantly plunged in it, but by a
more or less complicated and generally solitary opening regulated by
volition. John Hunter contended that the stomach was the grand
characteristic of the animal kingdom.

↵

[Seite 379]

I see daily instances of reason in animals; to the sceptical I offer
the following anecdote, in the words of Darwin. ‘“A wasp on a gravel
walk had caught a fly nearly as large as itself. Kneeling on the ground,
I observed him separate the tail and the head from the body part, to
which the wings were attached. He then took the body part in his
paws and rose about two feet from the ground with it; but a gentle
[Seite 380] breeze, wafting the wings of the fly, turned him round in the air, and
he settled again with his prey upon the gravel. I then distinctly ob-
served him cut off with his mouth first one of the wings and then the
other, after which he flew away with it, unmolested with the wind.”’
Darwin’s Zoonomia. – Instinct. Consult the works of the two Hubers
Sur les abeiles and Sur les fourmis.

↵

[Seite 380]

An error has been committed, not only in supposing the gradation
regular, but in supposing every species of animal to constitute a dis-
tinct step in the gradation. ‘“The whole chasm in nature,”’ says Ad-
dison, (Spectator, No. 519,) ‘“from a plant to a man, is filled up with
divers kinds of creatures, rising one above another, by such a gentle
and easy ascent, that the little transitions and deviations from one
species to another are almost insensible.”’ ‘“All quite down from us,”’
remarks Locke, (Essay on the Human Understanding, B. 3. c. 6.)
‘“the descent is by easy steps, and a continued series of things, that
in each remove differ very little one from the other. There are fishes
that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region; and there
are some birds, that are inhabitants of the water, whose blood is cold
as fishes, and their flesh so like in taste, that the scrupulous are al-
lowed them on fish days. There are animals so near of kin both to
birds and beasts, that they are in the middle between both: amphi-
bious animals link the terrestrial and aquatic together, seals live at
land and at sea, and porpoises have the warm blood and entrails of a
hog; not to mention what is confidently reported of mermaids or sea-
men.”’ Now the various kinds of animals do certainly run into each
other; no two are so different, but that daily discoveries are made of
a third intermediate. But connection is not gradation. Many kinds,
for instance, birds and beasts, and the intermediate ones by which
they are united, are all on a level in point of excellence, so that a
single step in the gradation may comprehend a great number of kinds;
– the whole vegetable kingdom forms but one step.

↵

[Seite 381]

Shakspeare. Hamlet. Act 2, Sc. 2.

↵

†.

[Seite 381]

Lc Cat (Traité de l’Existence du fluide des nerfs. p. 35,) asserts
that he had seen the jocko (Simia Troglotydes) both laugh and cry.

↵

‡.

[Seite 381]

Fouche d’Obsonville. Obs. philos. sur les maeurs d’anim. etrangers
p. 167.

↵

[Seite 383]

Consult Spurzheim’s System of Physiognomy, passim.

↵

†.

[Seite 383]

Consult Blumenbach’s Treatise De Generis Humani Varietate
Nativa. Sect. 1. De hominis a coeteris animalibus differentia.

↵

‡.

[Seite 383]

Milton’s Paradise Lost. Book iv. 288.

↵

§.

[Seite 383]

There is no necessity to attempt the refutation of the ridiculous
opinion, that man is destined to walk on all fours. But I do so for the
purpose of displaying many peculiarities of our structure.

It is almost incredible that any thinking man could have entertain-
ed it for a moment. Yet such is the fact, and it was in vain even that
Hudibras, after proving to his mistress by his beard that he was no
gelding, urged his erect posture in proof that he was not a horse.

‘“Next it appears I am no horse,’
‘That I can argue and discourse,’
‘Have but two legs, and ne’er a tail –’
‘Quoth she, That nothing will avail;’
‘For some philosophers of late here’
‘Write, men have four legs by nature,’
‘And that ’tis custom makes them go,’
‘Erroneously but upon two.”’
Hubidras. Part ii. Canto 1.

↵

[Seite 385]

As the head is connected with the trunk farther back in animals
than in us, the small length of lever between the occipital foramen
and the back of the head, and the length of the head below the fora-
men, require all this power; but in us, much more upholding power
than we have at the back of the neck would be required for all-four
progression, as the spine would be connected with the head horizon-
tally.

↵

[Seite 387]

Consult Spurzheim, l. c. on the correspondence between the
mind and the proportion of the brain in several particulars.

↵

[Seite 389]

Memoires de l’Academie des Sciences de Paris, 1764.

↵

[Seite 391]

Cuvier. Discours Preliminaire aux recherches sur les ossemens Fos-
siles des Quadrupedes.

↵

†.

[Seite 391]

De generis humani varietate nativa. Sect. iv.

↵

[Seite 392]

Histoire Naturelle du genre humain, Tom. 1. Sect. i.

↵

[Seite 394]

The inhabitants of these islands are not included by Blumenbach
in the Ethiopian, but in the Malay variety.

↵

[Seite 395]

The hair is frequently of different shades in different parts. John
Hunter remarked, that the iris in animals agrees principally with the
colour of the eyelashes. However various the colour of the hair in
horses, the iris, he also observes, is always of the same. Hut then the
hair is always of the same at birth, and the skin does not participate in
its subsequent changes, being as dark in white as in black horses. In
cream-coloured horses, indeed, there is an exception, the iris agrees
[Seite 396] with the hair, but then the foals are originally cream coloured, and the
skin is cream coloured. Hunter, On the colour of the pigmentum of the
eye in different animals. Obs. 247.

↵

[Seite 396]

‘“Sooty blackness is not peculiar to the Ethiopian, but is occasion-
ally found in other varieties of men very different and remote from
each other, in the Brazilians, Californians, Indians, and some South
Sea Islanders; and among the latter, the new Caledonians form an in-
sensible transition with the chesnut coloured inhabitants of Tongata-
bu, from the tawny Otaheitans to the black New Hollanders. Blumen-
bach, De generis humani varietate nativa. Sect. 43.’

‘Some tribes of Ethiopians have long hair (Bruce on the Galla;
African Institution on the people of Bornan;) on the contrary, some
copper coloured people have the crisp hair of the Ethiopian. (The
inhabitants of the Duke of York’s island, near new Ireland; Vide
Hunter’s Historical Account of the Proceedings at Port Jackson;)
again, the hair of the New Hollanders, specimens of which I have
now before me, is so perfectly intermediate between the crisp hair of
[Seite 397] the Ethiopian and the curly hair of the islanders of the Pacific ocean,
that there has been much diversity of opinion, from the first Dutch
to the latest English travellers, to which of the two varieties it should
be referred. As to the varieties of colour existing among nations
whose hair is usually black, we have sufficient authority for asserting,
that numerous instances of red hair occur in all the three last vari-
eties.”’ l. c. sect. 52.

‘“The Caffres and the people of Congo have hair not unlike that of
Europeans. Even the Foulahs, one of the Negro tribes of Guinea,
have, according to Mr. Park, soft, silky hair; on the other hand, the
inhabitants of many other countries resemble the Africans in their
hair, as the savages of New Guinea, Van Diemen’s land, and Malli-
collo. And in the same island, some of the people are found with
crisp and woolly, others with straight hair, as in the New Hebrides.
In New Holland, there are tribes of each character, though resem-
bling in other particulars.”’ Prichard’s Researches into the Physical
History of Man. p. 83.

‘“Many tribes of the Negro race approach very near to the form of
Europeans. The Jaloffs of Guinea, according to Park, are all very
black; but they have not the characteristic features of the Negro –
the flat nose and thick lips: and Dampier assures us that the natives
of Natal in Africa have very good limbs, are oval visaged, that their
noses are neither flat nor high, but very well proportioned; their teeth
are white, and their aspect altogether graceful. The same Author
(Dampier’s Voyages) informs us, that their skin is black, and their
hair crisped. Nor are others of this diversity more constant. In the
native race of Americans, some tribes are found, who differ not in the
characters in question from Europeans. Under the 54° 10′ of north la-
titude,”’ says Humboldt, ‘“at Cloak-bay, in the midst of copper-colour-
ed Indians, with small long eyes, there is a tribe with large eyes, Eu-
ropean features, and a skin less dark than that of our peasantry.”’
Humboldt’s Essay on New Spain, translated. l. c. p. 62. note b.

‘“The features of the inhabitants of the Friendly Islands are very
various, insomuch that it is scarcely possible to fix on any general
[Seite 398] likeness by which to characterise them, unless it be a fulness at the
point of the nose, which is very common. But, on the other hand,
we met with hundreds of truly European faces, and many genuine
Roman noses among them.”’

‘“Similar examples,”’ remarks Blumenbach on this passage, (Cook’s
last voyage. Vol. 1. 382. l. c. § 55. note.) ‘“are observed, among
Ethiopian and American nations; and, vice versa, the resemblance
of individual Europeans to Ethiopians and Mongoles is very fre-
quent, and has become even proverbial.”’

↵

[Seite 398]

‘“The Tartars of the Caucasian variety pass, by means of the
Kirghises and neighbouring people, into the Mongoles, in the same
manner as these, by means of the people of Thibet, into the Indians,
by means of the Esquimaux, into the Americans, and, by means of
the Philippine Islanders, even in some measure into the Malays.”’
Blumenbach. l. c. § 86.

↵

†.

[Seite 398]

See note, page 396.

↵

[Seite 399]

Hume’s Essays, Part 1. Essay 21. Note M.

↵

†.

[Seite 399]

Beyträge zur Naturgeschichte. p. 118. Vide Rees’s Cyclopaedia.

↵

‡.

[Seite 399]

Soemmerring. De basi cranii et originibus nervorum cranio egre-
dientium.

↵

[Seite 400]

Spurzheim’s Physiognomical system.

↵

†.

[Seite 400]

Cuvier’s Léçons d’Anatomie Comparée.

↵

‡.

[Seite 400]

Soemmerring.

↵

§.

[Seite 400]

Camper. (Dissertation physique sur les différences reelles, que pre-
sentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de différens pays et de dif-
férens ages) gives the following proportions of the facial angle.

European	80 or 90
Chinese	75
Negro	70
Ourang-outang	42

Mr. White (Essay on the regular gradation,) states them rather
differently.

Monkey	40	to	50
Ourang-outang	50		60
African	60		70
American	70		75
Asiatic	75		80
European	80		90

↵

[Seite 401]

The temperature of the Negro is said to be two degrees cooler
than that of Europeans; and the voluptuous, therefore, to prefer a
Negress in summer, a fair Circassian in spring and autumn, and an
European brunette in winter.

↵

[Seite 402]

Juvenal. Sat. L. xv. 163.

↵

†.

[Seite 402]

Spurzheim’s Physiognomical System.

↵

[Seite 403]

Cogitata et visa.

↵

[Seite 404]

The writer of the article Man, in Rees’s Encyclopaedia, remarks,
that the book of Genesis does not clearly assert that Adam and Eve
were the parents of mankind. If we read the whole Bible, we shall
find our descent from Adam and Eve frequently alluded to, both in
the Old and New Testament, and not merely as an indifferent fact,
but as one of the fundamental truths of revelation; and thus any sup-
posed obscurity in the book of Genesis completely dispelled. His ob-
ject, however, seems not to charge Moses with obscurity, but with
contradiction. He says, – ‘‘We are told, indeed, that ‘“Adam called his
wife’s name Eve, because she was the mother of all living.”’ But in
the first chapter of Genesis we learn, that God created man, male
and female, and this seems to have been previously to the formation
of Eve, which did not take place till after the garden of Eden had
been made. Again, we are informed, in the fifth chapter of Genesis,
that ‘“in the day God created man, in the likeness of God, created
he him; male and female, created he them; and blessed them and
called their name Adam, in the day when they were created.”’’’ Now
the second chapter of Genesis is a recapitulation, and, at the same
time, a more circumstantial detail of what is contained in the first.
In the first, the man and woman are said to have been created on the
sixth day; in the second, we are further informed how and in what
order each was formed, – that the man was formed of the dust of the
earth, and placed in the garden of Eden, (planted, it appears from
perusing the whole of the second chapter, before his creation, no less
than before that of Eve) where he fell into a deep sleep, during
which the woman was formed from a part of his body. Is this ob-
scure or contradictory?

‘‘We find also that Cain,’’ continues this writer, (in the words of
Mr. White, of Manchester) ‘‘after slaying his brother, was married,
although it does not appear that Eve had produced any daughters
[Seite 405] before this time.’’ ‘“Cain went out from the presence of the Lord,
and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden. And Cain knew
his wife, and she conceived and bare Enoch.”’ Indeed, it is said,
(ch. 5. v. 4.) that ‘“the days of Adam, after he had begotten Seth,
were eight hundred years, and he begat sons and daughters.”’ ‘‘This,
it should seem, took place after the birth of Seth, and consequently,
long after Cain had his wife; for Seth was not born till after the
death of Abel. If Cain had sisters prior to that period, from amongst
whom he might have taken a wife, it is singular, as some persons
may allege, that Moses should not have noticed them.’’ By no means
singular. Moses relates a few most important circumstances only,
just sufficient to carry on the history from the creation; the first six
chapters comprehend a period of no less than sixteen hundred and
fifty-six years. Although the marriages of Adam’s descendants are
continually alluded to, yet, as the successions and periods of the births
of the men only were important to his history, he does not, I believe,
individually mention, during the first nineteen hundred and fifty years
of his history, the daughter of any particular person. His silence, in
this particular, is conspicuously seen in the fifth chapter; for exam-
ple, where, after mentioning the birth of the first son, and the amount
of the subsequent years of the father’s life, he merely adds, ‘“and be-
gat sons and daughters;”’ not only in regard to Adam, but to his de-
scendants. He passes over in silence even individual sons, when they
constitute no link, and are connected with no remarkable circum-
stance, in his history of our race.

I, as a believer in the divine origin of Christianity, and, I trust,
from rational conviction, earnestly entreat this writer, and all others,
who are inclined to despise the Scriptures, to distinguish between
Christianity and sanctified cant, and to suspend their unbelief and
sarcasms, till they have dispassionately studied at least the four gos-
pels, and the works of Bishops Butler and Watson, of Palcy, Dr. Malt-
by, and Mr. Leslie.

‘‘Hume owned to a clergyman, in the bishopric of Durham, that he
had never read the New Testament with attention.’’†

† (Boswell’s Life of Johnson. Vol. ii. p. 7. fifth edition.)

↵

[Seite 406]

All the animals of each species appear descended from one stock,
for the animals of the two hemispheres are all of distinct species, ex-
cepting in the northern regions, where a communication is very expli-
cable. The same is true of the animals of the arctic and antarctic
regions: prevented, like the more equatorial animals of the two he-
mispheres, by the intermediate climate, from communicating with
each other, they are all of distinct species. In islands remote from
continents, either no quadrupeds are found, or such as have been con-
veyed thither, or such as are different from any others; while in isl-
ands near continents, the quadrupeds are the same as in the neigh-
bouring country.

↵

[Seite 407]

Horace, L. iv. od. 4.

↵

[Seite 408]

Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, No. 2.

↵

†.

[Seite 408]

The offspring most frequently resembles both parents, but the
proportion of resemblance to each is extremely various, some children
favouring the father most, some the mother, though all sufficiently
resembling each to preserve a family likeness; some stamped by any
accidental singularity of one parent, others not; and it is remarkable,
that the resemblance to the parents, whether in regard to usual or
singular peculiarity, is occasionally not observed in the immediate
offspring, but re-appears in the third; or even some later generation

↵

[Seite 409]

Pallas. Spicileg. Zoologica.

↵

†.

[Seite 409]

Blumenbach. l. c. § 28.

↵

‡.

[Seite 409]

l. c.

↵

§.

[Seite 409]

l. c.

↵

ǁ.

[Seite 409]

l. c.

↵

**.

[Seite 409]

l. c.

↵

††.

[Seite 409]

Pallas. Spic. Zool. fasc. iv. p. 22. Sandifort. Museum Anatoni-
cum acad. Lugd. Batav. T. 1. p. 306.

↵

‡‡.

[Seite 409]

Blumenbach. l. c. § 30.

↵

[Seite 410]

Blumenbach, l. c. § 30.

↵

†.

[Seite 410]

l. c.

↵

[Seite 411]

Two blacks, marrying, produced a white child; the woman, fear-
ing her husband’s resentment, endeavoured to conceal it from him.
The man, however, insisted upon seeing the infant, and finding it
white, said, ‘‘I love it the better for that; for my own father was a
white man, though my grandfather and grandmother were as black
as you and myself; and although we come from a place where no
white people were ever seen, yet there was always a white child in
every family that was related to us.’’ Phil. Trans. Vol. 55.

An instance is likewise very credibly stated of an adult negress,
who, from no evident cause, grew white, and, in the course of fifteen
years, became scarcely inferior in any part of her surface to an Euro-
pean. Phil. Trans. Vol. 51.

↵

†.

[Seite 411]

An instance has already been mentioned of what is a still strong-
er argument, – the simultaneous production of two individuals of dif-
ferent varieties by the same mother.

↵

[Seite 412]

Cuvier. Discours Préliminaire aux Récherches sur les Ossemens
Fossiles des Quadrupedes. Natural varieties only are meant. Local
situation can produce the most intimate structural diseases; witness
Cretinism.

↵

†.

[Seite 412]

Poiret’s Voyage en Barbarie. T. i. p. 31. Vide Blumenbach, l. c.

↵

‡.

[Seite 412]

Lord Kaimes, M. de Virey, and Dr. Prichard, have quoted many
[Seite 413] instances of these facts. ‘‘We found,’’ says Humboldt, ‘‘the people of
the Rio Negro swarthier than those of the lower Orinoco, and yet
the banks of the first of these rivers enjoy a much cooler climate
than the more northern regions. In the forests of Guiana, especially
near the sources of the Orinoco, are several tribes of a whitish com-
plexion, the Guiacas, Guajaribs, and Arigues, of whom several ro-
bust individuals, exhibiting no symptom of the astlienical malady
which characterizes Albinos, have the appearance of true Mestizos
Yet these tribes have never mingled with Europeans, and are sur-
rounded with other tribes of a dark brown hue. The Indians, in the
torrid zone, who inhabit the most elevated plains of the Cordilleras,
of the Andes, and those who, under the 45° of south latitude, have as
coppery a complexion as those who, under a burning climate, culti-
vate bananos in the narrowest and deepest vallies of the Equinoctial
region. We must add, that the Indians of the mountains are cloth-
ed, and were so long before the conquest; while the Aborigines,
who wander over the plains, go quite naked, and are consequently
always exposed to the perpendicular rays of the sun. I could never
observe that in the same individuals those parts of the body which
were covered were less dark than those in contact with a warm and
humid air. We every where perceive that the colour of the Ameri-
can depends very little on the local position in which we see him
The Mexicans, as we have already observed, are more swarthy than
the Indians of Quito and New Granada, who inhabit a climate com-
pletely analogous, and we even see that the tribes dispersed to the
north of the Rio Gila are less brown than those in the neighbour-
hood of the kingdom of Guatimala. This deep colour continues to
the coast nearest to Asia; but under the 54° 10′ of north latitude, at
Cloak bay, in the midst of copper coloured Indians, with small long
eyes, there is a tribe with large eyes, European features, and skin
less dark than that of our peasantry.’’ Political Essay on New Spain,
translated.

The Jews settled in the neighbourhood of Cochin ‘‘are divided in-
to classes, called the Jerusalem or white Jews, and the ancient or
[Seite 414] black Jews.’’ – ‘‘The white Jews look upon the black Jews as an in-
ferior race, and not as a pure cast, which plainly demonstrates that
they do not spring from a common stock in India.’’

The white appear to have resided there upwards of seventeen hun-
dred years. Buchanan’s Christian Researches in Asia, 219, &c.

Dr. Shaw and Mr. Bruce describe a race of fair people in the
neighbourhood of Mount Aurasius, in Africa, who, ‘‘if not so fair as
the English, are of a shade lighter than that of any inhabitants to
the southward of Britain. Their hair also was red, and their eyes
blue.’’ They are imagined to be descendants of the Vandals. Bruce’s
Travels.

The Samoiedes, Greenlanders, Laplanders, Esquimaux, &c. are
very swarthy; nay, some of the Greenlanders are said to be as black
as Africans.

‘‘Do we not in fact behold,’’ says the learned and eloquent M. de
Virey, ‘‘the tawny Hungarian dwelling for ages under the same pa-
rallel, and in the same country with the whitest nations of Europe;
and the red Peruvian, the brown Malay, the nearly white Abyssini-
an, in the very zones which the blackest people in the universe in-
habit. The natives of Van Diemen’s land are black, while Europeans
of the corresponding northern latitude are white, and the Malabars,
in the most burning climate, are no browner than the Siberians. The
[Seite 415] Dutch, who have resided more than two centuries at the Cape of
Good Hope, have not acquired the sooty colour of the native Hotten-
tots; the Guebres and Parsees, marrying only among themselves, re-
main white in the midst of the olive coloured Hindus.’’ Histoire Na-
turelle du genre humain, par J.T. Virey. Tome premier, page 124.

↵

[Seite 415]

‘“As animals are known to produce young which are different
from themselves in colour, form, and disposition, arising from what
may be called the unnatural mode of life, it shews this curious power
of accommodation in the animal economy, that, although education
can produce no change in the colour, form, or disposition of the ani-
mal, yet it is capable of producing a principle, which becomes so na-
tural to the animal that it shall beget young different in colour and
form; and so altered in disposition, as to be more easily trained up
to the offices in which they have been usually employed; and having
these dispositions suitable to such changes of form”’ Hunter’s Ob-
servations, &c. on the wolf, jackall, and dog.

↵

[Seite 417]

On the Causes of the Variety in the Complexion and Figure of the
human species, p. 85. sq.

↵

†.

[Seite 417]

l. c. p. 227. note.

↵

‡.

[Seite 417]

Cook’s Voyages. Vol. 3. book 5. ch. 7.

↵

[Seite 419]

‘‘Animals, living in a free and natural state, are subject to few de-
viations from their specific character; but nature is less uniform in
its operations, when influenced by culture. Considerable varieties
are produced under such circumstances; of which the most frequent
are changes in the colour.’

‘These changes are always, I believe, from the dark to the lighter
tints; and the alteration very gradual in certain species, requiring,
in the Canary-bird, several generations; while in the crow, mouse,
&c. it is completed in one. But this change is not always to white,
though still approaching nearer to it in the young than in the parent;
being sometimes to dun, at others to spotted, of all the various shades
between the two extremes. This alteration in colour being constantly
from dark to lighter, may we not reasonably infer, that in all animals
subject to such variation, the darkest of the species should be reckoned
nearest to the original; and that, where there are specimens of a parti-
cular kind, entirely black, the whole have been originally black? With-
out this supposition, it will be impossible, on the principle I have stat-
ed, to account for individuals of any class being black. Every such vari-
ety may be considered as arising in the cultivated state of animals.’’ Hun-
ter, On the colour of the pigmentum nigrum of the eye. Obs. p. 243.

↵

†.

[Seite 419]

See Pritchard’s Physical History of Man. Ch. vii. viii. ix.

I shall take this opportunity of noticing monsters.

[Seite 420]

Mr. Lawrence has collected most of the remarkable and well authen-
ticated instances of monsters, in a paper published in the fourth volume
of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. To this I refer for examples.
He divides monstrosity into unnatural formation, unusual position of
certain organs, deficiency, redundancy, and a mixture of these.

No one, in the present day, would ascribe monstrosity to any thing
else than an error in the original materials of the embryo, – to a mix-
ture of the whole or a part of the materials of two or more embryos,
to a deficiency in the materials, or to a derangement of them. (See
Sect. xl. 587. 3. 588. 591.)

Culture, we find, produces alterations in animated beings. If it pro-
ceeds nu farther than to afford a supply to all the natural wants of a
system, it improves the species, as is exemplified daily in vegetables.
‘“It may certainly be laid down, says Mr. Hunter, (l. c. p. 245. note.)
as one of the principles or laws of nature, to deviate under certain
circumstances. It may also be observed, that it is neither necessary,
nor does it follow, that all deviations must be a falling off: it appears
just the contrary; therefore we may suppose, that nature is improving
its works, or, at least, has established the principle of improvement in
the body as well as in the mind.”’ If, however, luxurious abundance
is supplied, or important natural habits of the system prevented, as is
not rarely the case in domesticated animals and civilized man, devia-
tion may advance beyond improvement, and actually become degene-
ration or monstrosity. Hence the commonly known fact (591) of mon-
sters being frequent among domesticated animals, and rare among the
wild. As man, by his depravity, commits errors and excesses of every
description, unnecessarily mingling ill effects with the benefits of ci-
vilization, no wonder that monsters are common among the human
species. The evils of civilization are not necessarily united with it,
and, great as they are, they fall infinitely short of its benefits. Without
civilization population must be wretchedly small, exigencies and com-
forts miserably supplied, and none of the noble characteristics of the
[Seite 421] heart and mind fully called forth: in the uncivilized state, on which
Mr. Lawrence is disposed to bestow such eulogies, this gentleman’s
superiority would not have been conspicuous.

Mr. Lawrence, I mention it with pain, draws, from the occurrence of
monsters, an argument unfavourable to the belief of the goodness of
the Almighty. This, I am aware, is not the place to ‘‘assert eternal
providence, and justify the ways of God to man;’’ but, in recommend-
ing the student to a work, it is my duty to guard him against its dis-
advantages. ‘“Neither should we overlook these productions, (says
this gentleman) in our attempts to infer, from the phenomena of na-
ture, and particularly from organized beings, the character of the cause
which has produced them. Creatures so imperfectly constructed, as to
be incapable of independent vitality, and consequently perishing imme-
diately after they are born; and those whom the malformation of some
organ draws, after a life of pain and misery, afflicting to themselves,
and burthensome to others, to a premature death, offer an apparent
exception to the inferences which have been drawn from the animal
kingdom in general, concerning some attributes of the creating pow-
er.”’ ‘“Archdeacon Paley has passed over the subject in silence.”’

The world, it must be remembered, is governed, not by partial, but
by general laws, and the least reflection will shew, that any alteration
which a human being could propose in them would produce infinite
misehief. In particular circumstances, however, the good they gene-
rally cause is certainly converted into evil. Hunger is one of the
great sources of activity and enjoyment among men and animals; but,
in particular circumstances, where it cannot possibly be gratified, it
is a torment. The laws of each species of organic formation produce
the beautiful animated system; but these same laws, under particular
[...]hwarting circumstances, – when crossed by other general laws, pro-
duce monsters. The case of monsters is but one of numerous similar
examples; and although the great Paley has not noticed this example
individually, he notices all such in general. ‘“Contrivance proves
[Seite 422] design; and the predominant tendency of the contrivance indicates the
disposition of the designer. The world abounds with contrivances;
and all the contrivances which we are acquainted with are directed
to beneficial purposes. Evil, no doubt, exists; but is never, that we
can perceive, the object of contrivance. Teeth are contrived to eat,
not to ache; their aching now and then is incidental to the contri-
vance, perhaps inseparable from it, or even, if you will, let it be call-
ed a defect in the contrivance; but it is not the object of it. This is
a distinction which well deserves to be attended to. In describing
implements of husbandry, you would hardly say of the sickle, that it
is made to cut the reaper’s fingers, though, from the construction of
the instrument, and the manner of using it, this mischief often hap-
pens. But if you had occasion to describe instruments of torture or
execution, this engine, you would say, is to extend the sinews; this
to dislocate the joints; this to break the bones; this to scorch the
soles of the feet. Here, pain and misery are the very objects of the
contrivance. Now nothing of this sort is to be found in the works of
nature. We never discover a train of contrivance to bring about an
evil purpose. No anatomist ever discovered a system of organization
(i e. no species of system of organization, for the laws of the forma-
tion of an individual are the general laws of the species to which it
belongs) calculated to produce pain and disease; or, in explaining the
parts of the human body, ever said, this is to irritate; this to inflame;
this duct is to convey the gravel to the kidneys; this gland to secrete
the humour which forms gout. If, by chance, he come at a part of
which he knows not the use, the most he can say is, that it is useless:
no one ever suspects that it is put there to incommode, to annoy, or to
torment. Since then God hath called forth his consummate wisdom,
to contrive and provide for our happiness, and the world appears to
have been constituted with this design at first, so long as this consti-
tution is upholden by Him, we must in reason suppose the same de-
sign to continue.”’ Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 76.

[Seite 423]

Even where evil is produced, such is the mighty universal plan, that
it proves not simple, solitary evil, but becomes the cause of innumer-
able good effects. A severe misfortune has often converted a proud
and prejudiced man into one of modesty and candour. Again, the
stupendous wisdom and the benevolence of the Almighty are conti-
nually manifested, in the operation of one general law, preventing the
particular evil resulting occasionally from the clashing effects of
others. Thus, the greater number of monsters perish in the womb;
of those which are born, many die the moment of their birth, or a few
days afterwards; of those which survive, many die during childhood;
and of those few which grow up, very few reach, and perhaps none,
whose singularity is very great, pass, the middle period of life, and
their organs of procreation are often languid, if not perfectly ineffi-
cient: nor, in fact, do I believe, from my observation, that many of
them are at all less happy than other people.

But I blush to think it has been necessary to advocate the cause of
the Almighty. Can any one refuse to

Find tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,

Sermons in stones, and good in every thing?

↵

Water	992 . 9
A peculiar animal matter	2 . 9
Mucus	1 . 4
Alkaline Muriates	1 . 7
Lactate of Soda and animal matter	0 . 9
Pure Soda	0 . 2
	–––––––
	1000 . 0
	–––––––

Water	907.4
Biliary matter	80.0
Mucus of the gall bladder dissolved in the bile	3.0
Alkalies and salts common to all secreted fluids	9.6
	–––––––
	1000.0 ^§
	–––––––

Water	933.00
Urea	30.10
Sulphate of potass	3.71
Sulphate of soda	3.16
Phosphate of soda	2.94
Muriate of soda	4.45
Phosphate of ammonia	1.65
Muriate of ammonia	1.50
Free lactic acid Lactate of ammonia Animal matter soluble in alcohol, and usually accompanying the lactates Animal matter insoluble in alcohol Urea, not separable from the preceding	} – 17.14
Earthy phosphates with a trace of fluate of lime	1.00
Uric acid	1.00
Mucus of the bladder	0.32
Silex	0.03
	–––––––
	1000.00
	–––––––

Of	water	9.0
	Mucilage	6
	Phosphate of lime	3
	Soda	1

Water	928.75
Cheese, with a trace of butter	28.00
Sugar of milk	35.00
Muriate of potash	1.70
Phosphate of potash	0.25
Lactic acid, acetate of potash, with a trace of lactate of iron	6.00
Earthy phosphates	0.30
	–––––––
	1000.00
	–––––––

Towards the end of the first year, about	124
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - second	110
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - third and fourth	96
When the first teeth begin to drop out	86
At puberty	80
At manhood	75
About sixty	60

Butter	4.5
Cheese	3.5
Whey	92.0

Table of contents

THETRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

THE AUTHOR’S PREFACETO THELAST EDITION.

THE AUTHOR’S PREFACETO THEFIRST EDITION.

CONTENTS.

THEINSTITUTIONSOFPHYSIOLOGY. SECT. I.OF THE LIVING HUMAN BODY IN GENERAL.

SECT. II.OF THE FLUIDS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY OF THEBLOOD.

NOTES.

SECT. III.OF THE SOLIDS IN GENERAL, AND OF THE MUCOUS WEB IN PARTI-CULAR.

NOTE.

SECT. IV.OF THE VITAL POWERS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY OFCONTRACTILITY.

NOTES.

SECT. V.OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES.

NOTE.

SECT. VI.OF HEALTH AND HUMAN NATURE.

NOTES.

SECT. VII.OF THE MOTION OF THE BLOOD.

NOTES.

SECT. VIII.OF RESPIRATION AND ITS PRINCIPAL USE.

NOTES.

SECT. IX.OF THE VOICE AND SPEECH.

NOTE.

SECT. X.OF ANIMAL HEAT.

NOTE.

SECT. XI.OF THE CUTANEOUS PERSPIRATION.

NOTES.

SECT. XII.OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL.

NOTES.

SECT. XIII.OF THE EXTERNAL SENSES IN GENERAL, AND OFTOUCH IN PARTICULAR.

SECT. XIV.OF TASTE.

NOTE.

SECT. XV.OF SMELL.

SECT. XVI.OF HEARING.

SECT. XVII.OF SIGHT.

NOTES.

SECT. XVIII.OF THE VOLUNTARY MOTIONS.

NOTE.

SECT. XIX.OF MUSCULAR MOTION.

NOTES.

SECT. XX.OF SLEEP.

NOTES.

SECT. XXI.OF FOOD AND HUNGER.

NOTES.

SECT. XXII.OF MASTICATION AND DEGLUTITION.

NOTE.

SECT. XXIII.OF DIGESTION.

NOTE.

SECT. XXIV.OF THE PANCREATIC JUICE.

SECT. XXV.OF THE BILE.

NOTES.

SECT. XXVI.OF THE FUNCTION OF THE SPLEEN.

NOTES.

SECT. XXVII.OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE OMENTUM.

SECT. XXVIII.OF THE FUNCTION OF THE INTESTINES.

NOTE.

SECT. XXIX.OF THE FUNCTION OF THE ABSORBENT VESSELS.*

NOTE.

SECT. XXX.OF SANGUIFICATION.

SECT. XXXI.OF NUTRITION.

NOTE.

SECT. XXXII.OF THE SECRETIONS IN GENERAL.

NOTES.

SECT. XXXIII.OF THE FAT.

NOTE.

SECT. XXXIV.OF THE URINE.

NOTES.

SECT. XXXV.OF THE GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF THE SEXES.

NOTES.

SECT. XXXVI.OF THE GENITAL FUNCTION IN MAN.

NOTES.

SECT. XXXVII.OF THE GENITAL FUNCTION OF WOMEN IN GENERAL.

NOTES.

SECT. XXXVIII.OF THE MENSTRUA.

SECT. XXXIX.OF CONCEPTION AND PREGNANCY.

NOTES.

SECT. XL.OF THE NISUS FORMATIVUS.

NOTES.

SECT. XLI.OF LABOUR AND ITS SEQUELAE.

SECT. XLII.OF THE MILK.

NOTES.

THE
TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO THE
LAST EDITION.

THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO THE
FIRST EDITION.

THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY. SECT. I.
OF THE LIVING HUMAN BODY IN GENERAL.

SECT. II.
OF THE FLUIDS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY OF THE
BLOOD.

SECT. III.
OF THE SOLIDS IN GENERAL, AND OF THE MUCOUS WEB IN PARTI-
CULAR.

SECT. IV.
OF THE VITAL POWERS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY OF
CONTRACTILITY.

SECT. V.
OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES.

SECT. VI.
OF HEALTH AND HUMAN NATURE.

SECT. VII.
OF THE MOTION OF THE BLOOD.

SECT. VIII.
OF RESPIRATION AND ITS PRINCIPAL USE.

SECT. IX.
OF THE VOICE AND SPEECH.

SECT. X.
OF ANIMAL HEAT.

SECT. XI.
OF THE CUTANEOUS PERSPIRATION.

SECT. XII.
OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL.

SECT. XIII.
OF THE EXTERNAL SENSES IN GENERAL, AND OF
TOUCH IN PARTICULAR.

SECT. XIV.
OF TASTE.

SECT. XV.
OF SMELL.

SECT. XVI.
OF HEARING.

SECT. XVII.
OF SIGHT.

SECT. XVIII.
OF THE VOLUNTARY MOTIONS.

SECT. XIX.
OF MUSCULAR MOTION.

SECT. XX.
OF SLEEP.

SECT. XXI.
OF FOOD AND HUNGER.

SECT. XXII.
OF MASTICATION AND DEGLUTITION.

SECT. XXIII.
OF DIGESTION.

SECT. XXIV.
OF THE PANCREATIC JUICE.

SECT. XXV.
OF THE BILE.

SECT. XXVI.
OF THE FUNCTION OF THE SPLEEN.

SECT. XXVII.
OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE OMENTUM.

SECT. XXVIII.
OF THE FUNCTION OF THE INTESTINES.

SECT. XXIX.
OF THE FUNCTION OF THE ABSORBENT VESSELS.^*

SECT. XXX.
OF SANGUIFICATION.

SECT. XXXI.
OF NUTRITION.

SECT. XXXII.
OF THE SECRETIONS IN GENERAL.

SECT. XXXIII.
OF THE FAT.

SECT. XXXIV.
OF THE URINE.

SECT. XXXV.
OF THE GENERAL DIFFERENCES OF THE SEXES.

SECT. XXXVI.
OF THE GENITAL FUNCTION IN MAN.

SECT. XXXVII.
OF THE GENITAL FUNCTION OF WOMEN IN GENERAL.

SECT. XXXVIII.
OF THE MENSTRUA.

SECT. XXXIX.
OF CONCEPTION AND PREGNANCY.

SECT. XL.
OF THE NISUS FORMATIVUS.

SECT. XLI.
OF LABOUR AND ITS SEQUELAE.

SECT. XLII.
OF THE MILK.

SECT. XLIII.
OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE SYSTEM BEFORE AND
AFTER BIRTH ^*.

SECT. XLIV.
OF THE GROWTH, STATIONARY CONDITION, AND
DECREASE OF MAN.