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1 H - . e . 
A 
MANUAL 
OF THE 
ELEMENTS 
OF 
NATURAL HISTORY. 
BY 
I. F. BLUMENBACH, 
PROFESSOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN, AULIC COUNSELLOR, 
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, OF THE 
ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT PARIS, &C. &C. 
TRANSLATED FROM THE TENTH GERMAN EDITION, 
By R. T. GORE, 
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, IN LONDON, &C. 
“ It is, indeed, remarkable for its clear arrangement, and for the immense 
quantity of interesting and valuable information it contains, condensed into a 
small compass. It is, altogether, the best Elementary book on Natural History, 
in any language.” 
LAWRENCE’S LECTURES. 
LONDON : 
PRINTED FOR W. SIMPKIN & R. MARSHALL, 
STATIONERS’-HALL COURT. 
1825. 
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PRINTED BY C. SMITH, ANGEL COURT, 
STRAND. 

ADVERTISEMENT 
BY THE TRANSLATOR. 
The intrinsic merits of this Manual, together with 
the reputation of Professor Blumenbach, and the fa- 
vourable reception it has received in other countries, will, 
probably, be considered as a sufficient apology for pre- 
senting it to the English public. Without attempting to 
anticipate or evade the criticism to which he may have 
exposed himself, the Translator is far from supposing that 
he has been so fortunate as to succeed in avoiding the 
defects generally attendant on an undertaking like the 
present : with regard, however, to the language and con- 
struction, points for which he is more particularly answer- 
able, he may perhaps be allowed to advert to ; first, the 
peculiarities of the German language; and, second, the 
nature of the work, which affords no opportunity for 
ornament, and in which it is necessary that every thing 
should be subservient to the important particulars of 
clearness and utility. 
To prevent the disappointment which might he created 
by erroneous impressions, it should not be forgotten that 
this book is solely what it professes to be, a Manual, and 
that it is as little calculated as intended to answer the 
objects of a systematic work on Natural History. 
It is in a few, and, for the most part, unimportant in- 
stances, that the Translator has felt himself justified in 
making any alterations; in this respect he has almost 
wholly confined himself to the correction of errors arising 
from the imperfect acquaintance of the Author with the 
English language. In the Natural History of the Mineral 
Kingdom, Professor Blumenbacii has, for the most 

ADVERTISEMENT. 
part, mentioned the German localities only, of the various 
Minerals described. To those who might think that the 
deficiency should have been supplied, as far as regards 
our own country, it may be sufficient to mention, that such 
an undertaking, besides adding materially to the length of 
the work, would have rendered some changes in the 
arrangement necessary, and did not appear altogether 
essential in a work which, as already stated, lays no claim 
to the rank of a systematic one. 
Bath, August 1st. 1825. 

EXTRACT FROM 
THE 
AUTHOR’S PREFACE. 
It must not be imputed to the vanity of author- 
ship, if I confess that I feel gratification in publishing a 
Tenth edition (not reckoning three re-impressions) of this 
Manual, which has also been translated into various 
Foreign languages, and in, a word, has received the appro- 
bation of the public. 
Its object is to present an intelligible view of Natural 
History at large, as well as of its Philosophy; and from 
amongst the infinite number of individual objects, to 
include so many of the most interesting and most generally 
useful, as are suitable to the limits of a work intended 
more particularly, as a text-book to Academical praelec- 
tions. I have also endeavoured to render it serviceable 
for the purposes of reference, particularly in reading 
descriptions of Travels, &c. ; and with this intention have 
formed an Index, containing some thousand Names of 
remarkable Natural productions. 
With regard to the Names invented by modern sys- 
tematic writers, for the distinction of Genera and their 
Species, I may remark, that however just and reasonable it 
is to retain appellations which have been pretty universally 
received, cases occur in which it becomes still more rea- 
sonable to exchange the name thus selected, for a more 
suitable one, if it should happen to convey an incorrect 
idea. I have, however, but rarely, and then only when it 
appeared unavoidable, availed myself of this liberty, so 
often misapplied at the present day, to the incumbrance 
of the study of Natural History. Thus, for instance, I 
have restored to the Annadilloes their original name, 
Tatu , as being generally known, and long since adopted 
by classical Zoologists ; whilst, by a strange error, these 

author’s preface. 
nearly hairless creatures had been designated by the term 
Dasyphus (hairy-footed) ; a name which the ancient 
Greeks had, in strict conformity with Nature, assigned to 
the Hare Genus. For similar reasons, I call the splendid 
Nephrite, from New Zealand, Punammu- stone, its native 
name, under which it was first brought to us from our 
Antipodes, in preference to the more modern one, Axe- 
stone ; because, in the great Collections of South-Sea 
Curiosities here and in London, I find hooks and other 
implements, but not axes, manufactured from this stone 
by the New Zealanders. So, also, I have called that 
Species of the Bat Genus, fampyre , which really sucks 
the blood of sleeping animals ; whilst Linn^us, on the 
contrary applied this name to the Roussette, which never 
sucks blood, and lives exclusively on fruits. Many other 
artificial names of the kind, I have, when not too unsuit- 
able, allowed to remain unaltered, in order to avoid an 
unnecessary increase of nomenclature and synonymy, 
which might prove burdensome to the learner. 
It is on sufficient grounds that many well known names 
will be found written in this work in a manner varying 
from the common. Thus, I employ Tofus and not Tophus, 
the word not being derived from the Greek : so, also, 
Manacanitc and not Menacanite. 
In the Animal Kingdom I have always prefixed the 
Latin name, because many hundred foreign creatures 
occur, which have not any common or well known appel- 
lation in our language. The case is different in the IN 1 - 
neral Kingdom : there the German names are those most 
universally known, and have, even in many instances, been 
incorporated into other languages. 
The representations of objects of Natural History, 
( Abbildungen Natur-Historischer Gegenstande) which 1 
publish in Fasciculi, bear reference to the latest Editions 
of this Manual, and are well calculated for the purpose ot 
illustrating it. 
I. F. Blum enbach. 
Gottingen, August, 1820. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
SECTION I. 
Of Natural Bodies in general, and of their Division into Three 
Kingdoms 1 
SECTION II. 
Of Organized Bodies in general 8 
SECTION III. 
Of Animals in general 20 
SECTION IV. 
Of Mammalia 27 
SECTION V. 
Of Birds 79 
SECTION VI. 
Of Amphibia 131 
SECTION VII. 
Of Fishes 145 
SECTION VIII. 
Of Insects 172 
SECTION IX. 
Of Worms 236 
SECTION X. 
Of Plants 278 
SECTION XI. 
Of Minerals in general 296 
SECTION XII. 
Of Stones and Earthy Fossils • 305 

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
PLATE I. 
Page 
The Intestinal Worms of the Human body of their Natural size Fig. 1 6 
240 
Fig. 1. — Ascaris vermicularis 
2. The front part of the Ascaris lumbricoides 241 
3. — Trichocephalus dispar lb ‘ 
4., The head end of the human Taenia 
5_ Four of the posterior joints of the Taenia solium..-. | b - 
6. " Thirteen of the posterior joints of the Taenia vulgaris ib. 
7. —The front part of the Earth-worm 2 
g The dart of the common Snail much magnified 
9 ‘—A stem with three Plume- Polypes, Tubularia sultana, conside- ^ 
rably magnified 
10._An Arm-Polype, Hydra viridis, with a young one, of the na- 
• ••• ••••• & J & 
t u nil si zc» «•••••••••••••*•• •••••••••••••••* ********* 
11— A stem with twelve Blossom-Polypes, Brachionus anastatica, ^ 
considerably magnified 
12 The Wheel animal, Furcularia rotatoria, considerably magm- 
ib. 
tied 
13 —An Animalcule from human semen, Chaos spermaticum, sti ^ 
more magnified 
•* PLATE II. 
Twenty remarkable crystalline forms of Minerals. 

To the t Description 
f'nlthsitnl by ounphnA’M/irtholl . Xtahonme Hull (hurt 


To la crDettnptwn 
f’lihlulwl btj Sintphn / Mantlntll Xtaturnrrj //;// (hurt.. 


TO 
EDWARD STANLEY, ESQ., 
ASSISTANT SURGEON, 
AND DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY 
AT 
ST. BARTHOLOMEWS HOSPITAL, 
THIS VOLUME, 
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 
AS A TOKEN OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT FOR NUMEROUS 
INSTANCES OF KINDNESS AND FRIENDSHIP, 
BY 
THE TRANSLATOR. 

' 
* 

SECTION I. 
OF NATURAL BODIES IN GENERAL, AND OF THEIR DIVISION 
INTO THREE KINGDOMS. 
§ 1. All bodies which we meet with upon the surface, or 
in the interior of our planet, present themselves either with 
the form and structure which they receive from the hands of 
the Creator, and from the undisturbed action of the powers of 
Nature or else, with changes and alterations resulting from 
the designed actions of men and beasts, or from the effects of 
mere accident. 
On this difference is founded the familiar division of them 
into natural and artificial. The first form the object of Natural 
History, and comprise all those bodies in which man has not 
effected any essential alteration. On the contrary, artificial bo- 
dies are those in which changes have been designedly produced 
by the hand of man * . 
Remark 1st. It is unnecessary to say, that the ideas attached 
to the terms essential and designed, are susceptible of such 
' aried views and modifications, as to be merely relative. 
Thus, in certain respects, a mule, or a Carib, with his 
artificially moulded skull, and other instances of the same 
kind, might be included among artificial bodies. 
Remark 2d. In some cases natural bodies have such a close 
resemblance to the products of art, that it is difficult 
to distinguish one from the other class. Hence, for ex- 
ample, the great diversity of opinion which formerly pre- 
vailed as to whether the superficial layer in the piscina mU 
rable near Baiee, was a natural deposit of calcareous tufa 
Lib 2 Ar *' nve additus rebus homo."— Bacon. De Augment. Snientiarum. 
“ L ’ A . rt cn ^ n4ral l’industric de l’homme applique par scs besoins on 
dc la N ““ re "— D.°BR° t. Syfane «gfa fa 
B 

£> OF NATURAL BODIES IN GENERAL, AND 
from water, or an artificial coating purposely laid on. 
(Vide Gottingen Gelehrt. Anzeigen, 1791. p. 188.) 
§ 2. Natural bodies differ among themselves with respect 
to, 1st, their Origin ; 2d, their Growth j and, 3d, their Struc- 
tU Some of them are invariably produced by other bodies of 
the same form and kind ; so that their existence in an un- 
broken series, up to the first Creation*, presupposes other 
similar bodies, to which they owe their being. 
In the second place, they introduce various extraneous su - 
stances into their bodies as nutriment, assimilate them to thei 
own composition, separate the superfluous parts, and by 
constant change and renewal grow from within- by mtus 
SU n!2j, The existence of these two properties presupposes 
a peculiar structure in this class of Natural Bodies l or m 
order to introduce and to assimilate nutriment, and at a futu 
period to produce other creates of ^their ^ 
cessary that their bodies shoul P called) 
other organs, suitably connected, endowed with (so . called) 
vital powers, and adapted to the reception of cjtam Amds, 
assimilation of aliments, and the P^ creatlon f c ^ s viz . 
All this is wanting in natural bodies of the o ^ be 
in Minerals. Both origin and growth m them ( J 
said to grow), are the effects not of 
so called physical (chemical and mechanical) laws ot ag 
gregation, the addition of homogeneous particles from without 
consequently, neither organization nor vital forces are to be 
Theater are therefore called i«orgm»c, and the former or- 
g °ff Farther organized bodies also differ, particularly with 
resVct“numer in which their nutriment ^ mtrodu<,d._ 
Some of them absorb a very simple nututious flu , p 
paf,; b “of numerous flbres placed a. the lower par. of 
their bodies, without any evident spontaneous motion. 
* Or at least to their first progenitors for I have ad- 
tributions to Natural History (fleyta/ge *«» ^ cveu iu thc present Crea- 
duced facts rendering it more than pi » ^ subsequent operations 
tion, now species of organized ngs appears referable; 

OF THEIR DIVISION INTO THREE KINGDOMS. 
3 
The others, on the contrary, have a simple opening at their 
upper or anterior extremity, leading to a capacious bag, into 
which, when impelled by hunger, they introduce their food, 
(which is of several kinds,) by means of voluntary motion. 
The former are Plants, the latter Animals. 
Remark. The power of locomotion does not afford any suffi- 
ciently precise character of distinction between Animals 
and Plants. Many plants, common Duckweed, for example, 
are not firmly attached to the ground by their roots, but 
can change their situations at certain seasons of the year, 
&c., sinking at one time to the bottom, and at others 
coming to the surface of the water. On the other hand, 
there are whole genera of aquatic animals, especially 
among the testacea and corals, which are incapable of 
changing the spot to which they have once attached 
themselves. 
§ 4. This easily intelligible division of natural bodies into 
organized and inorganic, (§ 2.) and that of organic bodies, 
(§ 3.) is the basis of the three kingdoms, in which they have 
been very conveniently classed, and of which, the first includes 
Animals, the second Plants, and the third Minerals. 
Animals, therefore, are organized bodies, living and ani- 
mated, seeking their food, which may be of various kinds, by 
voluntary motions, and introducing it, by a mouth, into a 
stomach. 
Plants are' also organized bodies, living, but not animated, 
absorbing their very simple, nutritive fluids by roots, and 
without the aid of voluntary motion. 
Minerals, lastly, are inorganic bodies j not living, conse- 
quently without vital powers, and governed merely by the 
physical (mechanical and chemical) principles of attraction, 
affinity, plastic force, &c. 
Remark. Two objections have been made, particularly in 
modern times, to this division into three kingdoms. 
Many have admitted the distinction between organized 
and inorganic bodies, but have denied the existence of any 
well defined limits between Animals and Plants. 
Others have carried the favourite metaphor of grada- 
tion in the Creation to such an extent, as to exclude the 
division of Nature into kingdoms. 
As to the first, what often happens with respect to ob- 
jects of experience should not be forgotten, namely, that 
b 2 

OF NATURAL CODIES IN GENERAL, AND 
it is easier to know things as they really exist *, than to 
discover and to indicate their distinctive characters +- 
Thus Linnaeus said — “ Nullum characterem haclenus eruere 
potui, unde Homo a Simia internoscatur." — Now I believe, 
that in this very work I have established such characters, 
by means of which Man can be unerringly distinguished 
from the most anthropomorphous Ape, as well as from all 
other Mammifera. But even without them, it is to ie 
hoped that no Naturalist would incur any risk, in praxi, ol 
confounding a Man with an Ape. Still more, creatures 
from very different classes have frequently remarkable 
and unexpected resemblances to each other, without, on 
that account, doing away with the indisputable differences 
between the classes to which they belong. For example, 
animals are very correctly divided into warm-blooded ant 
cold-blooded 3 with equal propriety Mammifera are reck- 
oned among the former, and Insects among the latter 3 yet 
it is not on that account less true that Bees, in their hn e, 
are, beyond comparison, warmer than a Hedgehog t ui mg 
his hybernation. So also, there are genera in the class 
Vermes, such as that of Sepia, (cuttle-fish) which differ 
from other animals of that class, and are very similar to 
fishes. But no one will conclude, that therefore the sepa- 
ration of the class Pisces from the class Vermes should be 
rejected. With as little propriety can the animal and 
Jtable kingdoms be confounded together, merely because 
a certain similarity of certain plants to certain animals, has 
been remarked. Of this kind are the singular motions ot 
several mimosa, of the hedysarum gyrans, &c., which, re- 
markable as they may be, do not, in any respect jsume 
the character of animality which has been already la 
down. As little of the character of vegetability have t e 
resemblances of the arm-polypi with plants. These polypi 
* In the common acceptation of the term 3 foi it ^ 
that, in a stricter sense, we know only the ?^2t modS tantummodo 
enim, omnes rationes, quibus natura expi ^ ’ inationis cons titutionem 
imaginandi, nec ullius rei naturam, sed < ‘ a 
indicarc.”— Spinoza. f i; sce rnere, quam verbis 
f “ Facilius plerumque est rem presenter 
exacte definire.”— G aubius. grounds of distinction, 
,hera ,n p “- 
ticular instances.” — J. Aug. Unzer. 

OF TIIEIR DIVISION INTO THREE KINGDOMS. 5 
are animals, which, alike with man and the oyster, im- 
pelled by hunger, introduce food into their mouths by 
voluntary motions, a thing which does not take place 
in any plant in the known creation. 
It is equally easy to give an answer to the other objec- 
tion to the three kingdoms of Nature, founded on the 
common metaphor of a scale of beings. 
All these ideas of chain, scale, progression, &c., in Na- 
ture, are so far useful in the methodical part of the study 
of Natural History, as they form the basis of a (so called) 
Natural System, in which beings are classed according to 
their most striking resemblances, their general habits, and 
the mutual affinities derived from those sources. 
But to do, as some well-meaning Physico-Theologians 
have done — to make this a part of the plan of the Crea- 
tion, and to look there for the unity and perfection of that 
Creation, on the principle that there are not any abrupt 
transitions in Nature (such is the expression), because 
beings form a series as regards their external forms, ap- 
pears to me to be at least presumptuous, even if it were 
not, as it actually is, in contradiction with itself when 
closely examined *. 
In truth, it is only necessary to inspect this ingenious, 
but artificial, scheme of a regular gradation of beings, to 
discover that on the one hand immense numbers of crea- 
tures of similar form are collected into genera, composed 
of almost innumerable species (particularly among worms 
and insects, and also in the vegetable kingdom), whilst 
others, on the contrary, stand as it were isolated ; because, 
on account of their very distinct and peculiar forms, they 
cannot, without violence, be introduced into any part of 
such a gradation of natural objects. Such, for example, is 
the whole class of birds, tortoises, the sepiEe, already men- 
tioned, and others. More than this, there are animals 
(among insects the genus coccus ,) in which the forms of 
the male and female are so different, that in such a scale 
it would be absolutely necessary to separate the two sexes, 
and to assign them very distant situations in the series. 
Besides all this, there are positive interruptions in the 
scale, which it is impossible to pass over without abrupt 
* Vide Beylriige zur Natur -Geschichte, 1 Th. p. 106. &c. 

6 
OF NATURAL BODIES IN GENERAL, AND 
transitions ; as in one instance out of many, that between 
organized bodies and minerals. 
If this suppositious gradation in Nature is to be considered 
as defective, equally groundless is the idea advanced by some 
Physico-Theologians, that if one link of their hypothetical 
chain should be lost, the whole course of the Universe would 
be interrupted, &c. But as whole species of animals have been 
exterminated in large islands (wolves, for instance, in Eng- 
land), without any interruption of the completeness or con- 
nexion of the remaining Creation in those spots ; so also, 
others may disappear from the entire surface of the globe, (as 
seems to have happened in many cases already, the dodo, didus 
ineptus, for instance,) without any disturbance in the regular 
and eternal unity of the Creation succeeding to this evident 
hiatus in the physico -theological chain. 
List of Authorities and Sources of Reference for 
Natural History in General. 
Aristoteles. (Lived about 400 years B. C.) Ej. Opeia, 
Grcec.-Lat. ex. Ed. Gu. Duval, Paris iis 1654. 4 Vols. fob 
(particularly in the 2d Vol.) 
C. Plinius Secundus. (Died anno 79, A. C.) Ej. Historia 
Mundi. Lib. lxxxvii. Two correct Editions are the Elzevir, 
at Leyden, 1635. 3 Vols. 12mo., and that of Deux-ponts, 
1783, 5 Vols. 8vo. 
Conrad Gesner. (Died in 1562.) 
John Ray. (Died in 1705.) The principal works on this 
subject, by these two writers, are quoted elsewhere. 
C.VonLinne. (Died 1778.) Ej. Sy sterna Natures. Edit. 12mo. 
Holm. 1766. 4 Vols. 8vo., and the two Mantissse appended to 
it. Ib. 1767- Svo. 
Edit. 13 ma aucta, reformata cur&, J. F. Gmelin, Lips. 1 / 99. 
9 Vols. Svo. 
And for the explanation of the language of the Linnean sys- 
stem, J. Reinh Forster. Enchiridion Histories Naturali inser- 
viens. Flail. 1788. 8vo. 
J. R. W. Illigers’ Versuch einer Systematischen vollstandigen 
Terminologie fur das Thierreich und Pjlanzcnreich. Helmstadt, 
1800. Svo. (Essay towards a General Systematic Terminology 
of the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.) 

OF THEIR DIVISION INTO THREE KINGDOMS. 
7 
FOR NATURAL HISTORY AT LARGE. 
J. S. Voigt’s (Elements of Nat. History.) Grundziige einer 
Natur-Geschichte. Frankfort, 1817- Svo. 
FOR GEOGRAPHICAL NATURAL HISTORY. 
C. Ritter’s Ercl-kunde im Verhaltniss zur Natur. Berlin, 
1817- Svo. (Geography in connexion with Nature.) 
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. 
C. Von Linne. Amceniiates Academic (E. Holm, since 1749* 
9 Vols. Svo. 
CEuvres de Ch. Bonnet. Neufch&tel, 1779. 4to. The first 
5 Vols. 
PHYSICO-THEOLOGICAL WORKS. 
John Ray's Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the 
Creation. Edit. 12. Glasgow, 1750. 12mo. 
W. Derham’s Physico-Theology . Edit. 4. London, 1716. Svo 
Ch. Bonnet, Contemplation de la Nature, (in the 4th Volume, 
of the Edition quoted above.) 
DICTIONARIES. 
Valmont de Bomare. Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle. Ed. 
4. Lyon, 1791, 7 Vols. 4to. 
Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle appliquee aux Arts, 
8sc. par une Societe de Naturalistes et d' Agriculture. Paris, 
1804, 24 Vols. 8vo. 
Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, par plusieurs Professeurs 
du Jardin du Roi, &c. Strasburg, from 1S16, 8vo. 
Ph. Andr. Nemnich’s Allgemeines Polyglotten Lexicon der 
Natur-Geschichte. Hamburg, 1793, 4 Vols. 4to. (General Poly- 
glot Lexicon of Natural History.) 
JOURNALS. 
Journal de Physique. Paris, from 1773, 4to. Magazin fur 
das Neueste aus der Physilc und Natur-Geschichte, Herausgegeben 
VonL.C.LicHTENBURcund J.H.Voigt, Gotha, 1781, bis 1797. 
B. und J. H. Voigt’s Magazin fur den neuesten Zustand der 
Laturkunde, Jena, 1797, his 1806 ; ebenfalls 12 B, Svo. (Lich- 
tenbero and Voigt’s Magazine ; and Voigt’s Magazine, each 
12 Vols.) 

8 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
SECT. II. 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
§ 5. Organized Bodies (§2.) are, in general, produced by 
their like * ; their existence and their growth are the effects of 
a peculiar power lasting during life, and by which they are 
also enabled, when arrived at maturity, to continue the 
species. 
§ 6. They are rendered capable of performing these impor- 
tant functions, by the organization of their structure, and by the 
vital powers connected with it. For it is by means of the latter 
that the organs receive as well their sensibility to impressions, 
(stimuli,) as their powers of motion, without both of which it 
would be impossible to conceive either nutrition or growth, or 
the mutual influences of parts for the support of the whole, 
and the contrary f. 
§ 7. In order to explain the formation of organized bodies, 
the hypothesis of evolution has been advanced, particularly in 
modern times. According to it, neither human beings, nor 
other animals, nor plants are generated, but all have existed 
from the first creation as perfect, pre-formed germs %, within 
their ancestors, the succeeding generations being lodged in the 
preceding ones like nests of boxes, and progressively deve- 
loped, and brought to light by the process of impregnation ; 
an idea which, even if it were not most decisively contradicted 
* See the Note at page 2, above. 
t Compare Kant’s Critik der Urtheilskraft, p. 285, &c. 
+ “ For,” says Haller, the head of the modern Evolutionists, “ all the 
viscera, and even the bones, already exist in an invisible germ, although 
in an almost fluid state.” This is at least a positive expression. 
But when some modern writers, endeavouring to reconcile the hypothe- 
sis of evolution, with the doctrine of progressive formation, admit that the 
seminal fluid is not pre-formed, and yet assert that it contains a germ, 
which differs from the unorganized fluid, they employ vague unmeanmg 
terms. At least, I may use the same language in relation to these quasi- 
germs, as Cicero did when speaking of the quasi corpus of t ic ioc o ic 
Epicureans ; — Corpus quid sit, intelligo: quasi corpus quid sit, nu o prorsus 
modo intelligo.” 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
9 
results ot* experience, must be considered ns mconso- 
nant with every principle of unbiassed reason, as well from 
the interposition of preternatural (hyper-physical) arrange- 
ments (Vide Kant. Op. Cit. p. 372.), which it renders neces- 
sary, as from (contrary to all the rules of the philosophical 
study of Nature,) the uncalled for multiplication of natural 
(physical) powers, and from the incalculable number of crea- 
tions without any object, consisting in the multitude of pre- 
formed germs, which can never have even an opportunity of 
development. 
Remark. The most able and zealous advocates of the hypo- 
thesis of evolution agree in supposing that the pre-formed 
germs exist in the female, and that during the process of 
fecundation they are stimulated and excited to develop- 
ment by the power of the seminal matter of the male. 
What is called impregnation, is with them nothing more 
than the excitement of the dormant germ by the stimulus 
of the male semen. 
Here, consequently, an exciting power is first of all re- 
quired. But in many instances children resemble the father 
only. Bitches, which have copulated with several dogs at 
short intervals, often produce whelps similar to the differ- 
ent males. Human beings of two separate races, such as 
the White and the Negro, produce children intermediate 
between them, viz. Mulattoes. Lastly, when impregna- 
tion takes place between two dissimilar species of animals 
or plants, bastards are produced, bearing an equal degree 
of resemblance to the forms of the male and female. 
These are facts which it is impossible to mistake ; con- 
sequently, besides its exciting power, the evolutionists 
admit the existence of a formative power in the male semen, 
to such an extent as to enable it to modify the form of the 
germ pre-existing in the female, and to approximate it 
to that of the male. 
On this supposition then, the male semen must possess 
two powers ; 1st, an exciting ; and, 2d, a formative power. 
But it is possible, by the artificial production of a bastard 
progeny, for several generations, completely to change 
one species of organized bodies into another. For instance, 
fertile bastards have been obtained by the artificial im- 
pregnation of one species of plants with the pollen of an- 
other ; these again, when fecundated by the same pollen. 

10 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
produced a second generation of fertile bastards. The 
bastards of the first generation were intermediate between 
the two original species. Those of the second, on the con- 
trary, more closely resembled the male, from which the 
pollen was taken, than the female 5 and by continuing a 
similar artificial impregnation through two other gene- 
rations, plants were ultimately produced in which the ori- 
ginal form of the female had wholly disappeared, and was 
changed to that of the male. (Vide J. Kolreuter’s third 
Appendix to an Account of some Experiments relative to 
the sexes of Plants, p. 51. § 24. under the title of “ Com- 
plete Conversion of one natural species of Plants into 
another.”) 
The pre-formation of the germ from the Creation must 
therefore have proved unavailing, and must have given 
way to the formative power of the male semen, which, 
according to the hypothesis of evolution, should have ex- 
erted merely an exciting influence upon it. 
§ 8. Hence also, it is far more consonant with the powers 
of our understanding, and with the rules of the philosophical 
study of Nature *, to explain the origin of organized bodies 
by the progressive formation (epigenesis) of the seminal matter, 
itself unorganized, but susceptible of organization in certain 
circumstances. But on account of the various modes t which 
can be, and have been adopted, of explaining such a pro- 
gressive formation, it is necessary to define it in such a 
way as to make it correspond as closely as possible with 
the ideas entertained of organized bodies, and with the phe- 
nomena presented to our notice by the observation of their 
origin. 
§ 9. This may be done by admitting, that the mature and pre- 
viously unorganized, but organizable, seminal matter of the pro- 
genitors, when transmitted at the proper time, and under certain 
* “ Causas reruin naturalium non plures admitti debere, quam qua; et 
verse sint et earum phaenomenis explicandis sufficient.” — is the first of 
Newton’s Reg u la; Philosophandi. 
f For when Mazini, for instance, supposed that the progeny was formed 
at its conception by a kind of crystallization, this also was a species of 
epigenesis. 
But the utter inadmissibility of all such mechanical expositions of the 
progressive formation of organized bodies, by what the ancients called Vis 
Plastica, which prevails also in the Mineral Kingdom, is shewn by the no- 
tions entertained of organized bodies, which always suppose a destination 
to the effecting of fixed objects. — See also Kant, op. Citat. p. 292. 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
11 
necessary circumstances, to the place of its destination, comes 
under the influence of a vital power, the so called Formative Im- 
pulse, ( Nisus Formativus, Bildungstrieb,) which gives origin to 
suitable actions. This impulse is distinguished from all purely 
mechanical formative powers (such as that which produces crys- 
tallizations, &c. in the mineral kingdom *), by its capability 
of moulding the varied kinds of organizable seminal matter by 
an infinite number of modifications into forms corresponding 
to, and equally numerous with the endless differences in the 
purposes which organized bodies and their parts are destined 
to fulfil. The combination of the mechanical principle with 
this, which is susceptible of modifications subservient to par- 
ticular objects f, operates, first, in producing the progressive 
formation from the time of conception j second, the support 
of the structure thus formed, by nutrition during life 5 and, 
lastly, as far as is possible, repairs, by the process of reproduc- 
tion, the accidental injuries it may experience 
Remark 1st. This progressive formation of new organized 
bodies can be most easily observed in those which, to- 
gether with a tolerable size, and a very rapid growth, 
possess a structure so delicate and transparent, as to per- 
mit us to see through them readily, in a moderate light, 
and with a slight magnifying power. 
Such are, in the vegetable kingdoms, many simple water- 
mosses ; as, for example, conferva fontinalis, ( ceranium 
ccespitosumj which propagates in the first days of spring. 
Among bloodless animals, the arm-polypi. 
And in warm-blooded animals, the first appearance of 
* Crystallizations may be discriminated from organized bodies merely by 
the geometrical regularity of their almost invariably rectilinear outlines, 
which are reducible to a few primaiy forms : the bodies of animals and 
plants on the contrary must, in order to render them suitable to their des- 
tined offices, be moulded into an incalculable number of forms with end- 
lessly varied outlines. 
f Comparative Anatomy affords numerous and striking examples (many 
of which I have noticed in my Manual of that Science) of this connexion 
of the two principles, mechanical and teleological, which has hitherto been 
considered as impracticable in affording an explanation of the mode in 
which organized bodies originate : this combination forms the most striking 
characteristic of the doctrine of the Formative Impulse. (Nisus Formativus.) 
* * have entered more fully into the consideration of this subject in the 
third edition of my Treatise. — Ucber den Bildungstrieb Gottingen, 1791. 
8vo. 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
12 
the chick in the incubated egg, and its subsequent pro- 
gressive formation from day to day. 
Remark 2 d. I trust that it is unnecessary to inform the 
greater part of my readers, that the term Formative Impulse, 
like the names applied to every other kind of vital power, 
of itself, explains nothing ; it serves merely to designate 
a peculiar power formed by the combination of the me- 
chanical principle with that which is susceptible of mo- 
dification 5 a power, the constant agency of which we 
ascertain by experience, whilst its cause, like that of all 
other generally recognized natural powers, still remains, 
in the strictest sense of the word — “ qualitas occulta 
This, however, in no way prevents us from endeavouring, 
by means of observation, to trace and explain the effects, 
and to reduce them to general principles. 
§ 10. The Formative Impulse acting in a determinate, man- 
ner, and with a particular object, upon given materials sus- 
ceptible of its influence and of organization, preserves the 
equally determinate form and habit of all the individual 
species of organized beings : by the same influence the sexual 
difference, in other words, the distinction of males from 
females in the same species, when such a difference exists, is 
established. 
§ 11 . But the formative impulse, like every other vital power, 
may deviate from its peculiar determinate direction in various 
ways, when disturbed in its action or modified by extraneous 
circumstances f . 
From this source arise, (passing over those deviations which 
are the effect of disease, as not coming within the sphere of 
Natural History) 1 st, from material disturbances of the 
power, organized bodies with preternatural | forms, a iz. 
Monsters ; 
* “ II fallait respecter les quality occultes; car depuis le briu d’herbe 
que l’ambre attira, jiisqu’A la route que taut d’astres suivent dans 1 
•espace : depuis la formation d’uuc mite dans un fromage. jusqu’a la 
Galaxie ; soit que vous consideriez une pierre qui tombe, soit que vous 
suiviez le cours d’une com6te traversant les cieux, tout est qualite occulte. 
■ — Voltaire. 
f I have treated more at length of these deviations in a “ Commentatio 
de anomalis et vitiosis quibusdam Nisus Formativi aberrationibus. Gott., 
•1813, 4 to.” 
I Preternatural only in the common acceptation of the term. We have 
been advised to say unusual, and not preternatural; the two words, how- 

13 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
2d. From the more or less perfect combination, in one in- 
dividual, of the double sexual characters commonly distinct in 
the two sexes — Hermaphrodites ; 
3d. From fecundation taking place between two beings of 
different species — Bastards ; And 
4th. By the action of the various causes of gradual degene- 
ration — Races and Varieties. 
§ 12. By the term Monster, as it is commonly employed, is 
meant a preternatural, congenital, and striking deformity of 
external and considerable parts. However varied these defor- 
mities may be, they may be classed under the four following- 
heads * : — 
1st. Monsters with preternatural formation of individual 
parts. Fabrica aliena. 
2d. Monsters with transposition or preternatural situation 
of individual parts. Situs mutatus. (The rarest of all— at 
least according to the definition given above. In many in- 
stances the viscera of individuals apparently well formed, have 
been found, on dissection, completely transposed.) 
3d. Monsters in which entire parts are wanting. Monstra 
per defectum. The most instructive of all. 
4th. Monsters with superfluous parts. Monstra per excessum. 
The most frequent not uncommon even among wild animals, 
the hare for instance. In some degree, also, hereditary, as 
in the six-fingered families, and in fowls with five or six 
toes. 
Remark. The decided similarity of many kinds of mon- 
strosity proves, that even these deviations of the Formative 
Impulse must be regulated by certain laws ; whilst, on 
the other hand, the well known fact that they are much 
more frequent among cultivated plants and domesti- 
cated animals f, than in those which still remain in a 
state of nature, is strongly opposed to the doctrine of the 
Evolutionists, that the germs of such monsters were also 
monstrous, and were pre-formed from the Creation. 
ever, convey distinct ideas, and their indiscriminate application, though not 
unusual, is certainly very far from being natural. 
* See, in my Abbildungen N atur- Ilia tor ischcr Gegenstdnde, Tab. 61, a 
young pig’s head, from my Collection, in which all four kinds of deformity 
are combined, 
+ For instance, Monstrosities arc particularly frequent in the domestic 
swine ; in the wild kind they are almost unknown. 

n 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
§ 13. Those individuals only are called hermaphrodites, in 
a strict sense of the word, in which are more or less perfectly 
combined in a preternatural manner, traces of the two distinct 
kinds of sexual organs, which are ordinarily separate in the 
male and female of the same species. Such are sometimes 
met with even in warm-blooded animals, particularly oxen, 
sheep, and goats. 
In this place that deviation of the Formative Impulse deserves 
notice, in which functions or characters, commonly peculiar to 
one sex, are manifested by individuals of the other. Of this kind 
is the growth of horns in Hinds and Roes ; the acquisition of 
the male plumage by the pea hen and hen pheasant, as they 
become old ; the secretion of milk in men and other male 
mammifera *. 
Lastly, we occasionally observe more or less of the appear- 
ance and habit of the one sex, in the condition and form of 
individuals of the other, without any farther deviation from 
regularity and perfection ; as, for instance, a feminine deli- 
cacy in the whole form of the male f. 
§ 14. When a female of one species is impregnated by a 
male of another, bastards are produced, the forms of which 
are as it were compounded of those of their progenitors J. But 
as the perfect execution of the functions of organized bodies, 
and of animals in particular, essential as it is to the whole 
scheme of Creation, depends upon their determinate forms, it 
has been wisely provided by Nature ; first, that in red-blooded 
animals at least, two distinct species are never, to the best of 
my knowledge, observed to copulate and breed whilst in a 
state of nature ; secondly, that the bastard progeny is for the 
most part barren, and very rarely capable of propagating. To 
this there are a few exceptions, in those instances in which the 
mule and the bastards between the linnet and canary bird are 
fruitful. In plants, it is much easier by means of the artificial 
impregnation of distinct species to procure bastards bearing 
* I have treated on this anomaly in the Hanover Magazine, 1787. p. 753. 
•f See more on this subject in my Specimen Histories Naturalis antiques 
art is operibus illustrates eaque vicissim illustraiUis. — Gott. 1808, 4to. page 
14, &c. 
+ Mongrels, on the contrary, are those beings produced by the combi- 
nation of progenitors not specifically distinct, but merely forming two dif- 
ferent races of the same species : thus are formed in the human species, for 
instance, mulattoes, &c. 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 15 
fertile seeds. (See page 8, above.) The fabulous tales of the 
supposed bastards from the copulation of oxen with the horse 
or ass, of rabbits with the common fowls, and even of man 
with beasts, do not need contradiction. 
§ 15. Races and Varieties are deviations from the original 
specific forms of individual species of organized bodies, result- 
ing from their gradual variation or degeneration. 
The word race, however, is in strictness applicable only to a 
character produced by degeneration *, and of such a nature as 
to become by propagation necessarily and inevitably heredi- 
tary j as, for example, when whites produce mulattoes with 
negroes, or mestizoes with American Indians j on the con- 
trary, this is by no means a necessary consequence with re- 
spect to varieties ; as, for instance, when fair individuals pro- 
duce with brunettes dark-eyed children f. 
Remark. When particular deviations have been continued 
through a long series of generations, it often becomes 
difficult to decide whether they are races merely, or ori- 
ginally distinct species. To assist us in forming a deter- 
mination in such cases, there are no rules applicable in 
practice but those drawn from analogy ; the proposal of 
Ray, Buffon, and others, to fix the character of a species 
by the possibility of producing a fruitful progeny, is un- 
certain and inadequate to the object proposed. For, not to 
mention, that this rule is inapplicable in all those animals 
and plants which propagate without copulation, (see § 20, 
below) its adoption is prevented in very many other cases 
by insurmountable difficulties, as in the instance of the 
question, whether the Asiatic and the African elephant be- 
long to the same species or not. And even when we have 
the assistance of experience, as in the copulation of the 
horse and ass, which should be considered as the rule, the 
ordinary or the extraordinary result ? Commonly mules are 
barren, and it is only in some rare instances that they 
have been found capable of propagation. But if this sin- 
gularly rare occurrence be adopted as the rule, the horse 
* It is right to remark, that the word “ degeneration,” is here employed 
m its literal meaning, to express a deviation in breeding from any given 
standard without any reference to inferiority or superiority. — Translator. 
t 'lli is distinction between Races and Varieties was first established by 
Kant, in, the German Mercury, 1788. Vol. I. p. 48. See also, Gimanner, 
Ueber das Kanlisc/te I’rincip. filr die Natur- Geschichte. Gottingen, 1 797. 8vo. 

16 OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
and ass must be considered as animals of the same species, 
although in their whole structure, particularly internal, 
as, for instance, in the strikingly different disposition of 
their vocal organs they vary specifically, at least as much 
as the lion and the cat. All analogy is in favour of their 
separation into two distinct species ; and, in like manner, 
I consider myself justified by the same principle of ana- 
logy, to form the elephants already mentioned into sepa- 
rate species, because of the constant and remarkable dif- 
ferences presented by their teeth, which cannot be ima- 
gined to be a mere effect of degeneration. 
§ 16. Among the many causes of degeneration, the principal 
are the influence of climate and of food ; and in man and 
animals, the mode of life. 
A cold climate, for example, interrupts the growth of or- 
ganized bodies ; hence the Greenlanders, Laplanders, &c., to- 
gether with the animals and plants of cold regions, are small 
and short. So also this climate gives a white colour to its 
animals and plants ; for the same reason the northern nations 
have white skins, &c., many animals of cold regions anomalous 
white hair and feathers, many plants anomalous white blos- 
soms, &c. On the other hand. Creoles, i. e. whites born in the 
East and West Indies, of European parents, bear the mark of 
their southern origin in a manner that cannot be mistaken. 
We witness the most evident specimens of the power of 
different modes of life, culture, and food, to change, by de- 
grees, the form, colour, and entire constitution of organized 
bodies, in our domestic animals *, our grain, our fruits, garden 
plants, and flowers, but above all, in the human species itself. 
These various causes of degeneration may, according to 
circumstances, either mutually co-operate, and thus render the 
deviation more rapid and more remarkable, or they may, to a 
certain extent, act in opposition one to the other ■, hence, in the 
one application of the principles to individual cases, we must 
guard against forming an opinion too decidedly. 
Remark 1st. Thus there are, even under the line, cold dis- 
tricts, as the interior of Sumatra, &c. Siberia, on the 
other hand, produces many plants of warm climates, which 
do not appear in much more southerly regions of Europe. 
Remark 2d. The peculiar effect which some climates produce 
* See on the Races of Men and the Races of Swine. — Voigt’s Magazine, 
Vol. VI. Part 1. p. 1., &c.* 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
17 
on organized bodies, particularly animals, is very singular. 
In Syria, for example, the cats, rabbits, and goats, have 
extraordinarily long white hair ; in Corsica, the horses 
and dogs are spotted in a peculiar manner ; in Guinea, 
the men, dogs, and fowls, become negroes in their different 
ways. 
§ 17. The nutrition of organized bodies is effected indifferent 
ways. Plants derive their support from their roots, which are 
external, and placed at one extremity of the stem. Animals, on 
the contrary, as was remarked by Boerhaave, have their roots 
within their bodies, viz. in the stomach and intestines, where 
the nutritious portions of their food are absorbed by numerous 
vessels, analogous in their office to the roots of plants, and 
carried to every part of the body. 
The serviceable part of the alimentary matter is assimilated 
to the materials of organized bodies by a truly wonderful 
process 3 the superfluous portion is rejected by perspiration 
from the surface, and in animals, of which the nutritious fluid 
is less simple than that of plants, is also thrown off in other 
ways under the form of excrement. 
§ 18. The growth of organized bodies is the consequence of 
nutrition. The greater number arrive early at their destined 
size. There are, however, some trees, such as the Norfolk 
island pine, ( Columnia pinifolia , or Auracaria excelsa ) the 
Areca oleracea, the Baobab, ( Adansonia cligitata') some other 
plants, as the Rotang, ( Calamus Rotang ) and even some animals, 
as, for instance, many species of taenia, crocodiles, and water- 
serpents, of which it is difficult to say, whether, or at what 
period, they cease to increase in length and thickness. 
§ 19. fo the growth of organized bodies belongs, also, 
their power of reproduction, or the peculiar property by which 
mutdated or completely separated parts are regenerated. This 
wonderful disposition in the organized creation ensures the 
preserv ation of animals and plants, in the many accidents to 
which they are liable: consequently it, together with the 
power of nutrition, forms a decided evidence of the superiority 
of the machines constructed by the Creator over the most 
perfect productions of human art, to which it is impossible to 
impart the power of remedying the defects arising from the 
disturbance, injury, or usage of the wheels and springs entering 
into their composition; this power has, however, been allotted 
in very different degrees, to different animals and plants. 
« C 

18 
OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 
Many organized bodies lose, at fixed periods, and without 
any external cause, certain parts of their bodies, which are 
subsequently reproduced ; to this head belong the casting of 
horns, the moulting of birds, the change of the skin in snakes 
and caterpillars, of the shell in crabs, and of the leaves in 
plants. This we may call ordinary reproduction. 
The other kind is the extra-ordinary , to which I allude more 
particularly, and by means of which, especially among ani- 
mals, wounds, fractures, &c., are cured ; and parts which have 
been accidentally mutilated or destroyed, are regenerated. This 
power is but limited in man, and in the animals most closely 
related to him : on the contrary, in many cold-blooded animals, 
particularly water-newts, crabs, snails, earth-worms, sea ane- 
mones, sea-stars, arm-polypi, it exists in great strength and 
perfection. 
Remark. Many years ago I extirpated almost the whole eye 
of a water-newt of the larger kind (lacerta palustris), 
and which I still preserve in spirits ; all the humours were 
evacuated, and four-fifths of the membranes cut away 5 
notwithstanding which, within ten months a perfect new 
eye was formed, with cornea, pupil, lens, &c., and only 
differing from the eye on the other side, in being about 
half its size. (See Gotting. Gel. Anzieg , 1785. p. 47-) 
§ 20. When organized bodies have, by nutrition and growth, 
arrived at maturity, they then also acquire the faculty of pro- 
creation (§ 5 .), a faculty, however, which is exercised in very 
different ways. For, either each individual is singly capable of 
continuing the species ; or else, the production of new beings 
is effected by the copulation of two distinct individuals. 
The numerous variations of these two principal methods of 
propagation, may be conveniently ranged under the four fol- 
lowing classes : — 
1 st. Every individual multiplies itself in the most simple 
manner, without previous impregnation 5 either by division, as 
many infusory animalculse * and blossom polypes t ; or, as 
in the conferva fontinalis, by the enlargement of one end of the 
old thread-like plant into a globular ball, which afterwards 
falls off and itself expands into a thread of the same kind 3 (See 
* J. Ellis in the Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LIX. Part I. page 138. 
plate 6. figs. 1 and 6. , 
f A. Trembley in the same Work, Vol. XLIII. page 175, &c., and \ . 
XLIV. page 138, &c. 

OF ORGANIZED BODIES IN GENERAL. 19 
Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 49 .) or by sprouts, as the 
arm-polypi and many other plants. 
l 2 d. Each individual is capable of propagating singly 3 but 
is a true hermaphrodite possessing two kinds of sexual organs 3 
previous, therefore, to the production of young, it must itself 
be impregnated 5 if it be an animal, the female ova by the male 
semen 3 and if a plant, the female germen by the male pollen. 
This is the case with most plants 5 and in the animal kingdom, 
apparently, with many shell- fish. 
3 d. Both sexes are, as in the hermaphrodites of the previous 
class, combined in one individual 5 no one, however, is capable 
of impregnating itself 5 but two must copulate, mutually im- 
pregnating and being impregnated. This singular disposition 
occurs only in a few animals 3 in the earth-worm, many land 
snails, &c *. 
4 th. The two sexes are placed in separate individuals, of 
which one contains the female parts or ovaria, the other the 
male fecundating fluid. Such are all red-blooded, and many 
other animals 3 such, also, are several plants, as palms, the 
hop, and most mosses. 
Some animals of this class deposit the ova, in which the 
formation of the young is subsequently completed : these are 
oviparous animals. In others, the ovum is retained in the 
womb until the young is perfected, and can enter the world 
without its appendages 5 viviparous animals. 
Remark. Quae actu animal pariunt, vivipara dicuntur 3 quse 
potentia, ovipara. — H arvey. 
How little essential difference there is between ovipa- 
rous and viviparous production, is proved by the in- 
stances of the plant-louse, (aphis) and plumed polype, 
which, according to the season of the year, produce some 
times in the one way, sometimes in the other 3 and many 
serpents which lay eggs containing the young animal com- 
pletely formed. With this last example, may be in some 
sort compared those plants, the ripe seeds of which inclose 
a green shoot 3 for example, the Egyptian beans, as they 
are called, of the nympheea nelumbo. 
§ 21. When organized bodies have accomplished the ob- 
jects of their lives, all vital power ceases, and they die. Few, 
however, reach the limits set by Nature to the duration of their 
* Swammerdam. — Biblia Natures, page 157. — Tab, 8. fig. 6. 
C2 

20 
OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
life, a thousand accidents interrupting its course long before 
the destined time. Thus, it is supposed, that of one thousand 
men born, seventy- eight only die of old age ; and of the large 
amphibia, the crocodile, the boa, &c., probably not one in a 
thousand reaches its full age and bulk. After the death of 
animals and plants, their bodies are gradually destroyed by 
fermentation, putrefaction, and the chemical affinities of their 
elements, their internal organization is destroyed, and their 
remains are ultimately confounded with that earth from which 
they had once derived nourishment and support. 
For the Natural History of Organized Bodies generally. 
Cii. Bonnet. — Considerations sur les corps organises. In the 
3d Vol. of his Works. 
G. R. Treviranus. — Biologie, Stc. Gott. 1802. et seq. 8vo. 
SECT. III. 
OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
§ 22. Endlessly varied as are the form and structure of ani- 
mals, they appear to have in common, with at most a few 
exceptions, among the infusory animalculee, a mouth (§ 3.) 
through which they introduce their food ; and whilst plants 
absorb their simple nutriment from air, water, and earth, the 
food of animals is of many kinds, and, almost without excep- 
tion, derived from the organized kingdoms ; impelled, too, by 
the painful feeling of hunger, they are obliged to seek it by 
means of voluntary motion, for the purpose of preserving their 
existence. 
§ 23. In the more perfect animals, as they are called, the 
nutritive fluid is first mixed with the blood circulating in their 
vessels, and then deposited from it, in the component parts of 
their bodies. The blood, properly so called, is of a red colour, 
but differs with regard to its temperature in the different 
classes of red-blooded animals. In one class, viz. amphibia 

OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
o\ 
rw 1 
and fishes, it commonly approaches to the temperature of the 
medium in which they are placed ; hence they are called cold- 
blooded. In the other, therefore, called warm-blooded, (mam- 
malia and birds) it possesses a degree of heat about 100° 
Fahr., more or less. The fluid which, in the so called white- 
blooded animals, (insects and worms) supplies the place of 
blood properly so called, is distinguished from it more parti- 
cularly by the absence of red globules. 
§ 24. The blood of animals, whether it be white or red, hot 
or cold, must, in a state of health, be constantly supplied, 
either from the atmospheric air, or from water, with suc- 
cessive quantities of a substance necessary for the continuance 
of life (oxygen) ; giving off, in return, equal quantities of 
another, (carbon.) This remarkable process is principally 
effected in the living animal laboratory by means of respiration ; 
a function which red-blooded animals perform either by lungs, 
or like fishes, by means of gills; and white-blooded, by a 
variety of analogous organs. 
§ 25. Those animals only possess voice, which are pro- 
vided with lungs. Man, besides the voice which is born with 
him, has also invented speech. 
§ 26. The immediate organs of voluntary motion are the 
muscles, which in red-blooded animals form flesh, properly so 
called. In a few animals of very simple structure, as polypes, 
these organs are indistinguishable from the rest of their gela- 
tinous substance. 
§ 27- There are some few muscles over which the will does 
not possess any power ; such, for instance, is the heart, with 
its incessant pulsatory motion, (in man about 4500 times an 
hour) the principal agent in circulation, and not like other 
muscles, susceptible of fatigue. 
§ 28. Both kinds of muscles, however, involuntary as well 
as voluntary, require the influence of the nerves for their power 
of motion. 
§ 29. These nerves arise from the brain and spinal marrow, 
and it appears that the bulk of the two last, as compared with 
the nerves springing from them, is inversely proportioned to 
the intellectual powers of the animal * ; so that man has the 
largest brain in proportion to his slender nerves ; whilst, on 
* This acute remark belongs to M. Summering. — See his Dissert, rle Vast 
Enrephali, page 17. 

22 
OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
the contrary, animals with limited intellectual powers, such as 
the amphibia of these countries, possess bulky nerves with a 
very small brain. 
§ 30. Besides the influence which the nerves possess over 
muscular motion, they have also a second office to perform, 
in conveying to the mind, through the senses, external im- 
pressions made on the animal body. The nature of the 
organs of sense is, however, very different in different classes 
of animals. So, for example, many animals evidently receive 
impressions of every kind by the senses, without our being 
able to detect the organs which, in others, are essential to the 
perception of such impressions. Thus, the blue-bottle fly, 
(musca vomitoria) and many other insects have the sense of 
smell without our being able to perceive that they have a 
nose ; with other similar instances. 
Remark. Many have wished to diminish, others, on the con- 
trary, to increase the number of senses. Vanini, for ex- 
ample, and many after him, considered the feeling of sex- 
ual enjoyment as a sixth sense; Julius C/esar Scaliger, 
the sensation caused by tickling under the arm-pits as a 
seventh ; an eighth, according to Spallanzani, is the 
feeling by means of which bats, flying in the dark, avoid 
the contact of objects ; and with Darwin, the feeling of 
heat and cold formed a ninth. 
§ 31. Nerves and muscles, by continued exertion become 
fatigued, and require for the restoration of their poivers occa- 
sional repose, which they procure by sleep. In man, and most 
herbivorous animals, night is devoted to this purpose ; but 
many even of these, as the rell-mouse, many animals of prey, 
to which class belong most fishes, together with many insects 
and worms, remain concealed during the day, and come forth 
at night, whence they are called nocturnal animals. 
§ 32. Besides this daily sleep, a very suitable provision is 
made in the economy of certain animals, by which they pass a 
considerable part of the year in a deep sleep, and that precisely 
at the most rigorous season, when they would otherwise have 
been unable to provide for their subsistence *. When this 
time arrives, they creep into secure sheltered places, become 
torpid as the cold increases, and awake only under the cheering 
* Ergo in hiemes aliis provision pabulum, nliis pro ciho somntis .” — 
Pi.inius. 

OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
23 
influence of the sun in Spring. This torpidity is so complete, 
that warm-blooded animals, during their death-like sleep, re- 
tain a barely perceptible degree of heat (see Remarks to § 4, 
above) and that the pupae of many insects, which undergo 
metamorphosis at that time, are in Winter so thoroughly frozen 
as to ring like glass, or icicles, when allowed to drop on the 
ground, and yet without any injury to the torpid animal within. 
As far as is known, no birds, and, on the contrary, most am- 
phibia, have a Winter sleep. 
§ 33. Of the intellectual faculties, there are many possessed 
by man in common with most other animals, such as Peicep- 
tion. Attention, and the two internal senses as they are called. 
Memory and Imagination. 
§ 34. Others are almost wholly confined to animals, so that 
but slight traces of them are found in man, viz. the natural 
impulses or instincts : on the other hand, man is in exclusive 
possession of Reason. 
§ 35. Instinct * is the power which animals display of en- 
gaging by an internal, innate, and involuntary impulse, sponta- 
neously, and without previous instruction, in the performance 
of certain offices tending to their own support, and that of the 
species. _ 
Numerous observations prove that these important offices 
are performed without reflection, by a principle of necessity, 
and as it were mechanically ; thus, the Hamster breaks the 
wings even of dead birds before he touches any other part ; 
young birds of passage, which have been brought up alone in 
confinement, still feel in Autumn the internal impulse to emi- 
grate; and though taken care of and supplied with food, be- 
come restless in their cage. 
§ 36. Among the many kinds of animal instincts, the mecha- 
nical, as they are called, are particularly remarkable ; by means 
of them it is, that so many warm-blooded animals and insects 
are enabled to construct such exceedingly artificial dwell- 
ing places, nests, webs, for their own residence, for the secu- 
rity of their young, for the taking of their prey, and many 
other purposes ; all too without instruction, and without prac- 
tice f, which indeed is, in many cases, impossible ; in silk- 
* H. S. Reimarus Jietr. fiber die Triebe der Thiere, 4te. Ausg. Ham-' 
burg, 1798. 8vo. Dupont de Nemours. — Memoires sur differ cm sujets, 
&c. Paris, 1807. 8vo. p. 147-373. 
+ “ Nascitur ars ista, non dicitur.” — Seneca. 

24 
OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
woims, &c., for instance, which only employ their power once 
in their lives, and produce at the same time a first attempt and 
a master-piece. 
§ 3/. Excepting the sexual propensity, man exhibits but few 
traces of instinct, 'ihe innate mechanical instinct is in him to- 
tally wanting. This apparent deficiency, however, is compen- 
sated by the use of reason. 
Whether this is to be considered as a faculty exclusively pe- 
culiar to the human mind, or as an infinitely more elevated 
degree of a faculty of which many animals present some faint 
traces *, or as a particular direction of the collective powers 
of the human mind ; the advantage which man derives from 
it of improving his condition, is equally undeniable. And since 
the whole habitable earth is open to him for abode, and almost 
the whole organized creation for food, the great differences of 
the climates which he inhabits, and of the food which they 
afford, create a number of wants which are better supplied by 
means of reason, capable as it is of accommodation in various 
ways to surrounding circumstances, than they could have been 
by any uniform instinctive power. 
§ 38. How incomparably this single privilege elevates man 
above the rest of the animal creation, is proved by the unlimit- 
ed power which it confers upon him of directing the instincts, 
the habits, the mode of life, in a word, the whole natural dis- 
position of the creatures surrounding him; of taming the most 
formidable animals, repressing their strongest impulses, and 
devoting them to the most useful purposes. 
Remark. To be convinced how completely man, in a state 
of cultivation, is master of the other parts of the Creation, 
it is only necessary to consider the mutual interchanges 
which he has effected since the discovery of the New World 
between it and the Old. How many animals and plants 
have been carried from one to the other ; for instance, to 
the New World, rice, coffee, the horse, ox, &c. ; to the Old, 
the potatoe, tobacco, the turkey, &c. 
§ 39. This empire over the rest of the animal creation, for 
which man is indebted to the gift of reason, is still more con- 
spicuous in the case of his domestic animals. In the strict 
sense of the term, these consist of such warm-blooded animals 
as man has deprived of their freedom, and subdued for pur- 
* Cm. G. Le Roy. Lett res philosophiques sur l’ intelligence ct la perfecti- 
bilite des animaux. Paris, 1802. 8vo. 

OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
25 
poses of necessity or utility. In a more extended sense, how- 
ever, bees, the silk-worm, and the cochineal insect, may be 
considered as domestic animals. 
Remark 1st. Domestic animals, properly so called, differ in 
three ways. Of many, man has subjected the whole spe- 
cies, and reclaimed it from a state of nature, as the horse 3 
of others, the original wild race still exists, as of the ox, 
swine, cat, rein-deer, the two kinds of camel of the Old 
World, and our common poultry 5 lastly, the elephant re- 
fuses to propagate in captivity *3 and those which are re- 
quired for the service of man, must be taken and reclaimed 
from their wild state. 
Remark 2 d. The domestic animals vary principally in their 
colour j many of the mammiferous kind are distinguished 
by their pendant tail and ears, neither of which, how- 
ever, are constant indications of slavery. (On Domestic 
Animals — See the Gotha Almanac, for 1796.) 
§ 40. According to the Linnean system, the whole animal 
kingdom is ranged under the following six classes : — 
I. Mammalia. — Animals with warm red blood 3 viviparous, 
and suckling their young. 
II. Aves. — Animals with warm red blood 3 oviparous, and 
feathered. 
III. Amphibia. — Animals with cold red blood 3 breathing by 
lungs. 
IV. — Pisces. — Animals with cold red blood, breathing by 
gills, and not by lungs. 
V. Insecta. — Animals with cold white blood, having an- 
tennae on the head, and articulated horny organs of motion. 
VI. — Vermes. — Animals with cold white blood, without an- 
tennae, for the most part with tentacula, and to the best of my 
knowledge never with articulated organs of motion f. 
* This vulgar error, though very generally received, has been of late 
years completely refuted by eye-witnesses. See Mr. Corse in Phil. Trans. 
Vol. LXXXIX. p. 31, &c. — Translator. 
t This character, taken from the construction of the organs of motion, 
appears to me more positive than any hitherto proposed for the distinction of 
Insects and Worms. 

26 
OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 
Authorities and Sources of Reference for the History of 
Animals in general. 
Aristotei.es. Histoire des Animaux d' Aristote, avec des notes, 
fyc. par Camus. Paris, 1793. 2 Vols. 4to. 
Conr. Gesneri. leones quadrupedum viviparorum, item avium 
et animalium aquatilium ; cum nomenclaturis singulorum in linguis 
diversis Europcc. Edit. 2d. Tig. 1560. fol. 
Aldrovandus. 
Jo. Johnston. Historia Naturalis de animalibus. Francof. 
1649-53. fol. 
Also under the title. — H. Ruyscb. (Frid. fil.) Theatrum uni- 
versale omnium animalium. Amst. 1718. 2 Vols. fol. 
Ray. 
Buffon. 
G. Ad. Suckow. Anfangs-griinde der Natur-Geschichte der 
Thiere. Leipz. 1797- et seq. 8vo. 
G. Cuvier. Tableau Elementaire de l’ Histoire Naturelle des 
Animaux. Paris, 1798. Svo. 
Also . — Regne animal, distribue d'apre's son organization. Paris, 
1817. 4 Vols. Svo. 
A. M. C. Dumeril. Zoologie analytique. Paris, 1806. Bvo. 
Gottl. Fischer. Zoognosia, % c. Mosq. 1S13. 3 Vols. 4to. 
and Svo. 
Lor. Oken’s Lehrbuch der Natur-Geschichte. 3ter Th. Leipz. 
1816. 2 B. 8vo. 
Deutschland’s Fauna in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit 
Beschreibungen von Jac. Sturm. Niirnb. 1790. &c. 12mo. 
Linn^ei Fauna Suecica. Edit 2d. Holm. 1761. Svo. 
Th. Pennant’s British Zoology. London, 1768-77- 4 Vols.Svo. 
Also his Engravings under the same title. Ibid 1763, &c. Gr. 
folio. 
C.P.Cr. Fleurieu Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, des Poissons, 
des Cetacees, des Amphibies, $c. marins — in the 2d and 3d 1 ols. 
of the Voyage autour du Monde, par Et. Marchand, Paris, 
1800. 4 to. 
AV. E. Leach’s Zoological Miscellany. London, 1814. et seq. 
Svo. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
27 
SECT. IV. 
OF MAMMALIA. 
§ 41. Mammiferous animals have warm red blood in com- 
mon with birds 3 they are viviparous however, and their lead- 
ing characteristic, by which they are distinguished from other 
animals, and from which they derive their appellation, consists 
in the presence of breasts, with which the females suckle their 
young. The number and the situation of the breasts is vari- 
ous. For the most part they are as many again as the number 
of young which the mother brings into the world at one time, 
and are placed either on the chest, the belly, or between the 
hind legs *. 
§ 42. The body of most, if not all f, mammiferous animals 
is beset with hairs of very various strength, length, and thick- 
ness 3 which in some is frizzly, as wool 3 in others stiff and 
strong, as bristles 3 and in others, as the hedgehog, &c., forms 
prickles. In many, the hair in particular situations is elongated, 
forming a mane or beard 3 in some, as the horse, dog, &c., it 
is turned in opposite directions, forming ridges, or sutures, as 
they are sometimes called. In others again, as the seal, the 
colour changes with the age. Many also become either grey, 
as the squirrel (the fur Petit gr is), or snow white, as the er- 
mine, from the effects of cold (§ 16‘ ), with us merely during 
the depth of Winter, but in the North the whole year through. 
On the contrary, when this white colour is combined with weak 
Of all the organs of mammiferous animals, the breasts are the only 
ones which vary so considerably in different species, as well with regard to 
their situation as their number. In many they have not been detected 3 as, 
to the best of my knowledge, in the porcupine. In two foetuses of that 
animal, however, in my Collection, I find that there are four teats, placed 
in pairs, in a very unexpected situation, that is, on each side, close behind 
the shoulder joint. (See stbhild. N. H. Geg. Tab. 81.) So also they may 
yet be found in some unusual situation in the duck-billed animal (orni- 
ortjnckm) , in which strangely anomalous creature they have not been 
discovered. 
, + .. For thc " kin of tf >c whale even has a few hairs here and there, as on 
the lip, See . ; it also has eye-lashes. 

28 
OF MAMMALIA. 
eyes and a red pupil, as in the Albinos of the human race, and 
of many other species of warm-blooded animals, it is the effect 
of debility depending upon disease. 
§ 43. The abode of mammiferous animals is very different. 
Most live on the ground; many, as monkeys, squirrels, 
almost wholly in trees ; some, such as the mole, as true sub- 
terraneous animals, under ground ; others occasionally on 
land, occasionally in water, as the beaver, the seal ; and lastly, 
some altogether in water, as the wdiale. The structure of 
their feet, or corresponding organs of motion, varies accord- 
ingly. Most have four feet ; man only has two, but also two 
hands ; apes, on the contrary, have four hands. The fingers 
and toes of those mammiferous animals, which live alternately 
in water and on land, are connected by membranes. In the bat, 
the toes of the fore feet are very long and thin, with a fine 
membrane stretched between them, which enables the animal 
to fly. The feet of many aquatic animals of this class are 
adapted to serve as oars, and in the whale they in some degree 
resemble the fins of fishes, with this difference however, that 
the posterior ones are without bones, and placed horizontally 
instead of vertically, as in a fish’s tail. Some few mammifer- 
ous animals ( solidungula ) have hoofs; many ( bisulca ) cloven 
feet. The greater number step merely on the toes, particularly 
of the hinder feet ; others, as man, and in some degree apes, 
the bear, and elephant, on the sole of the foot as far as the heel. 
§ 44. Except the ant-eater, manis, and some whales, all 
other mammiferous animals possess teeth, which are divided 
into front teeth ( primores sive incisures §), canine ( canini sive 
laniarii), and grinding teeth ( molar es ). The latter, in parti- 
cular, are variously formed, according to the various kinds of 
food on which the animals live. In the carnivorous, the crown 
is angular, and almost cutting-edged ; in the herbivorous, 
broad above and grooved ; and in those which, like man, de- 
rive their nourishment from both organized kingdoms, depres- 
sed in the middle, and rounded at the edges. 
Many mammalia, the elephant and narwhal for example, 
* In the greater number, the upper incisors are placed in a particular 
hone, either single or double, called os inter, na.villare. I have treated more 
at length of its remarkable peculiarities in the third edition of my Treatise 
Dc Generis Human i Varietate Native , p. 34, &c„ and in the second edition 
of my Manual of Comparative Anatomy, p. 22, &c. A representation 
of it 'in the skull of the Orang-Outang is also given in lab. 5- of my 
Abbildmgen Natur Historischer GegenstRnde. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
29 
have large prominent tusks ( dentes exserti ) ■, others, as the 
walrus, projecting canine teeth. 
§ 45. It is only among mammiferous animals, and of them 
among herbivorous ones, that truly ruminating species occur ; 
those, viz. which first imperfectly chew and swallow their 
food, and subsequently return it through the oesophagus in 
small quantities at a time to the mouth, there to be thoroughly 
masticated, and then swallowed a second time. 
For this purpose, ruminating animals have a peculiar dispo- 
sition of the teeth ; the molar teeth are intersected by serrati- 
form transverse furrows, and the crowns are not placed hori- 
zontally, but incline obliquely, so that in the upper jaw the 
outer side is highest, and in the lower, that next the tongue. 
Hence they have the lower jaw small, and admitting of con- 
siderable lateral motion, by which, as is evident to the sight, 
the mechanism of this part of the singular function in question 
is executed. 
Remark 1st. In those ruminants which are also cloven-footed 
( bisulca ), the fourfold stomach, with its remarkable struc- 
ture and mechanism, contributes to this object. The food 
when first swallowed, and in a half crude state, is received 
into the immense first stomach, as into a storfe-house, in 
which it is only a little softened. From it small portions 
of the food are successively taken up by the second sto- 
mach, which appears merely an appendage to the first, and 
propelled a second time through the gullet into the mouth. 
In the next place, the food after having been again chewed, 
is carried by a particular groove direct from the gullet into 
the third stomach, without passing through the two first ; 
lastly, it is transmitted to be completely digested in the 
fourth, which approaches the most closely to the stomach 
of other mammiferous animals *. 
Remark 2d. The general purpose of rumination, as applicable 
to all the animals which chew the cud, appears to me to 
be still unknown. 
§ 46. Besides claws, teeth, &c., many mammifera are also 
provided with horns, as instruments of defence. In some 
species, as the stag, roe, &c., the females are without horns ; 
in others, as the rein-deer, and goat, they have horns, which 
are smaller than those of the male. The number, shape, and 
See farther my Manual of Comparative Anatomy , p. 1 36, &c. 

30 
OF MAMMALIA. 
situation, but particularly the texture of horns, arc very differ- 
ent. In the ox, goat, and gazelle, they are hollow, and 
placed like a sheath over a bony process of the frontal bone. 
The horns of both kinds of rhinoceros are solid, and merely 
connected with the integuments of the nose. In the stag genus 
they are also solid, but of a more bony texture, and branched. 
They are then called antlers, and are commonly cast off and pro- 
duced afresh every year. 
§ 47. In most mammifera the opening of the fundament is 
covered by the tail, which is a continuation of the coccyx, and 
has various forms and uses. For instance, it serves many ani- 
mals to drive away the insects which sting them ; several 
monkeys, and some other animals of America and New Holland, 
use it as a hand for support, or for grasping with ( cauda pre- 
hensilis) ; in the jerboa, it is a leaping spring ( cauda saltatoria ) ; 
and in the kangaroo, an organ of defence, and a balance when 
sitting in the upright posture. 
§ 48. Some animals of this class are also provided with 
pouches, for various purposes. Thus many apes, baboons, 
monkeys, and also the hamster, have cheek-pouches for con- 
taining their provisions. In the female of the opossum, the 
teats are placed in a bag on the belly, into which the young 
ones creep when sucking. 
§ 49 . Many mammifera, for instance the greater number of 
bulky herbivorous ones, usually produce but a single young 
one at once 3 others, on the contrary, as most beasts of prey, 
and the hog, have several together. 
The young animal is connected to the mother before birth, 
by what are termed the secundines, which are of different 
forms; thus, in man, they constitute a single bulky mass 
(placenta), in bisulcous ruminating animals are divided into 
several, and often very numerous distinct connecting organs 
(cotyledones), and so forth. 
& 50. The importance of animals in general may be prima- 
rily estimated in a double point of view, viz. either in so far as 
they influence the economy of Nature in general, and the course 
r\f thfi whole Creation ; or, in as much as they are immediate y 

OF MAMMALIA. 
31 
man in a great variety of ways*. From no other class of ani- 
mals has he been able to obtain such faithful, serviceable, and 
industrious assistants ; no others are so indispensible to him 
for his immediate use and support — whole nations are enabled 
to supply nearly all their most urgent necessities with a single 
species of mammiferous animals : — the Greenlanders with the 
seal ; the Laplanders, Tunguses, &c. with the rein-deer ; the 
Aleutians, with the whale 
§ 51. The varied uses of mammifera to the human species, 
may be classed in the following way : — For riding, draught, 
husbandry, carrying burdens — the horse, mule, ass, ox, buf- 
falo, rein-deer, elephant, camel. Llama, dog. For hunting 
and watching — the dog. For destroying mice and other 
vermin — the cat, hedgehog, ant eater. For food — the flesh 
of oxen, the sheep, goat, swine, the deer genus, hare, rab- 
bit, besides lard, tallow, blood, milk, butter, and cheese. For 
covering, and clothing — furs, leather, hair, wool. For fuel 
and burning — tallow, train oil, spermaceti f. For writing and 
bookbinding, &c. — parchment, leather. For other purposes of 
trade and miscellaneous uses — bristles, hair, antlers, horns, 
hoofs, ivory, teeth, bone, whalebone, bladders. For glue — 
guts, tendons and bones. For strings — guts (catgut.) Blood 
for Prussian blue, and other colours. Bones and hoofs for 
ivory black, &c. Fat and marrow for soap. Excrement for 
manure, fuel, sal ammoniac, &c. Lastly, for medicines — 
musk, castor, hartshorn, milk, and other articles. 
§ 52. On the other hand, several animals of this class are 
directly or indirectly injurious to man. Many carnivora, par- 
ticularly of the cat genus, attack him. These and many others, 
as the weasel, martin, polecat, glutton, otter, and whale, 
destroy serviceable animals; or injure trees, plants, fruit, 
corn, &c. — as the field mouse, hamster, lemming, deer, hare, 
beaver, monkey, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus : or 
consume our provisions, as the rat, mouse, and bat. No ani- 
mal of this class appears to be venomous when in a state of 
health, except, perhaps, the male of the duck-billed animal. 
So much so, that in many cases the single individual is of considerable 
v ^ ue » 38 die common and the white whales; not to mention the superior 
kinds of domestic animals, in which the worth is so much augmented by 
beauty, fineness of the skin, education, &c. 
t Viz. that which is prepared from the macerated flesh of horses and 
other quadrupeds. — See Voigt’s Neues Magazin, Vol. II. page 772, &c. 

32 
OF MAMMALIA. 
( ornithorhyncus paradoxus ) the spur on the hinder leg of which 
is considered to be poisonous. 
§ 53. Eminent naturalists have suggested various artificial 
systems for the classification of mammifera ; and founded 
them on particular characters devoted to that purpose Aris- 
totle’s arrangement, for instance, is founded on the differences 
of the toes and claws, and has been adopted and extended by 
Ray and others. But in this way it is necessary to separate 
the closely connected and very similar species of ant eaters and 
sloths, and to place them in very different orders, merely 
because the one has a toe more, the other a toe less. Linn^us 
selected the teeth as his basis of classification ; which, how- 
ever, is not less liable to the objection of producing at one 
time the most unnatural separations, at another, the most ex- 
traordinary approximations *. The bat genus must, in his 
system, from the differences of the teeth in some species, be 
divided among at least three orders ; so also the two species 
of rhinoceros; on the contrary, the elephant is placed in the 
same order with the armadillo and manis. 
§ 54. I have therefore attempted to form a more Natural 
System of mammifera : in doing so, 1 have looked to the ge- 
neral habit of these animals, but particularly to their organs 
of motion in the formation of the orders, as being most open to 
inspection, and correspondent to the general habit. Two of 
these orders, including many animals, I have again subdivided 
into families according to the differences presented by their 
teeth, and designated them by the names of some of the 
JLinnean orders : the whole class, therefore, is arianged in the 
following manner . — 
Order I. Bimanus. Man, with two hands. 
II. Quadrumana. Animals with four hands.— Apes, 
Baboons, Monkeys and Makis. (Lemurs.) 
III. Chiroptera. Mammiferous animals, in which the 
fore feet form membranes for flying : (§ 43.) Bats. 
IV. Digitata. Mammiferous animals with separate 
toes on all four feet. This order is divided accord- 
ing to the differences of the teeth, into the fol- 
io wingthree families : — 
(A.) Glires. — With teeth like those of the mouse. 
* “ Non enim methodicorum scholis se adstringere voluit Natura. S; s- 
temata artijicialia nostra flocci faciens.” — Pallas. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
33 
squirrel, dormouse, and other mice ; the marmot, guinea-pig, 
jerboa, hare, porcupine. 
(B.) Feres . — Carnivorous animals, properly so called, and 
some other genera with teeth of the same kind. Lions, dogs, 
&c. The bear, weasel, civets, opossums, hedgehog, shrew, 
mole. 
(C.) Bruta . — Without teeth, or at least without fore teeth, 
&c. Sloths, ant eaters, armadilloes, manis. 
V. Solidungula. The horse, &c. 
VI. Bisulca. Ruminating animals with cloven feet. 
VII. Multungula. Mammiferous animals, for the most 
part very large, unshapely, with bristles or scat- 
tered hairs, with more than two toes on each foot. 
Swine, (which have usually four toes) the tapir, 
elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus. 
VIII. Palmata. Mammiferous animals with feet made for 
swimming. Subdivided according to the different 
forms of their teeth, into three families, as above. 
(A.) Glires . — The beaver. 
(B.) Feres. — Seals, otters, &c. 
(C.) Bruta. — Duck-billed animal, walrus, manatij and from 
these the most suitable transition to Order 
IX. Cetacea. Whales, warm-blooded animals, which 
have nothing in common with cold-blooded fishes 
but the name, and the natural connexion of which 
with mammifera was correctly remarked even by 
Ray*. 
For the Natural History of Mammifera . 
Coxk. Gesneri. Histories Animalium, L. I. de Quadrupedibus 
viviparis. Basil, 1551. fol. 
Ul. Aldrovandi. De Quadrupedibus digitatis viviparis. 
L. III. Bonon. 1627. fol. 
Id. De Quadrupedibus solidipedibus, ib. 1616. fol. 
Id. De Quadrupedibus bisulcis, ib. 1613. fol. 
Id. De Cetis (at the end of his Work De Piscibus.) ib. eod. 
folio. 
Jo. Raii. Synopsis Animalium Quadrupedum. Lond. 1693. 8vo. 
Cetacea quadrupedum modo pulmonibus respirant, coeunt, vivos 
feetus pariunt, eosdemque lacte alunt, partium denique omnium inter- 
narum structura et usu cum iis conveniunt.” — R aius. 
D 

34 
OK MAMMALIA. 
Buffon. 
Tii. Pennant’s History of Quadrupeds. Lond. 1781. 2 Vols. 
4t°. . 
Deutsch Quit Zusdtzen von J. M. Beciistein.) Weimar. 
1799. 2 Vols. 4to. 
Ej. Arctic Zoology. Vol. I. ib. 1784. 8vo. 
J. Ch. Dan. v. Schreber. Suugethiere. Erlangen. l?/4. et 
seq. 4to. „ 
j Ciir. Pol. Erxleben. Systema Mammalium. Lips. 1 ill- 
8 'e. A. W. Von Zimmerman. Geographisclie Geschkhte des 
Menschen, und der Allegemein verbreitelen vierfussigen. There. 
Leipz. 1778. 3 B. 8vo. . . , . p 
J. M. Beciist bin’s Gemeinniltzige N. G. Deutschlands. 1 !»■ 
Leipz. 17&9- 8vo. , , rpr 
Marmad. Tun stall’s General History of Quadrupeds. The 
Figures engraved on Wood, by J. Bewick, Newcastle-upon- 
Tvne, 1790. 8vo. „ „ 
Fb Tiedemann’s Zoologie. 1 B. Landshut, 1808. Svo. 
Histoire Naturelle des Mammif'eres, par Geoffroy t 
Hilaire et Fr. Cuvier, publide par C. de Lasteyrie. P 
1819. et seq. Gr. folio. v 
Tabellarische Uebersicht der Sdugthiere nach Ilhger, *c. V on 
J. Chr. L. Helwig. Helmst. 1819. Svo. 
Order I.- — BIMANUS. 
1 Homo. Erectus bimanus. Mentum prominulum. 
Dentes lequaliter approximate 3 incisores infenores 
erecti. 
Among ^tlie^exteriial ^characters by which Man is clistin- 
nuished S not only from animals in general, but from the Ap i 
S5.-S. 
mtaence^oMds drii^wlrt^the perpendicular direction of the 
lower incisor teeth. 
. Se e Lawrenob's uh„„ m «<*"> «*"» ° f 
1919. 8vo.with 12 plates. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
35 
The female, beside the peculiar form of the bosom in the 
bloom of life, possesses two other characters of distinction 
from the male, and from all other animals, viz. a periodical 
discharge of blood during- a certain number of years ; and a 
particular part in the sexual organs, the absence or destruction 
of which forms a physical sign of loss of virginity, and which, 
at least as tar as regards its form and position, has not been 
remarked in any other animal. 
As to the mental faculties of man, excepting the sexual 
propensity, he presents few traces of instinct, and of the me- 
chanical kind none (§ 34, &c.). On the other hand, he is ex- 
clusively in possession of reason, (§ 37-) and of speech, which 
he has invented, and which must not be confounded with the 
voice, (§ 25.) existing from birth, and even in those born 
dumb. From these two exclusive privileges is derived the 
peculiar perfectibility by which he is elevated above the rest 
of the animal creation. (§ 37.) 
Man is, in himself, a defenceless, helpless, creature. No 
other animal continues so long in a state of infancy ; no other 
is so long before it obtains its teeth ; no other is so long- 
before it can stand •, no other arrives so late at puberty. Even 
hia greatest advantages, Reason and Speech, are but germs, 
developed, not spontaneously, but by external assistance, cul- 
tivation, and education. This necessity of assistance, and his 
numerous urgent wants, prove the natural destination of man 
for social connexion. On the cohtrary, it is not so easy at 
once to decide, whether the proportion in all parts of the 
world of the number of males to females born, and the relative 
proportion of the periods during which both sexes are capable 
of propagating the species, be such as to render it certain that 
man is destined elsewhere for monogamy, as well as in Europe. 
His residence and his diet are both unrestricted ■, he inhabits 
the whole habitable earth, and feeds upon the varied materials 
derived from the organized creation. Relatively to his mode- 
rate bulk, and in comparison with other mammifera, he reaches 
a very advanced age. 
There is but one species of the genus Man and all people 
of every time and every climate with which we are acquainted, 
may have originated from one common stock*. All national 
* I have spoken of this subject in my Treatise de Generis Humani 
V nr iet ate Nalhd. 3d Edition. 
D 2 

OF MAMMALIA. 
36 
differences in the form and colour of the human body are not 
more remarkable nor more inconceivable than those by which 
varieties of so many other organized bodies, and particularly ot 
domestic animals, arise, as it were, under our eyes. All these 
differences too, run so insensibly, by so many shades and 
transitions one into the other, that it is impossible to separate 
them by any but very arbitrary limits. I conceive, however, 
that the whole human species may be most conveniently divi- 
ded into the following five Races * : — „ 
1. The Caucasian Race. 
(. Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 3 and 51.) 
Colour more or less white, with florid cheeks ; hair long, soft, 
and brown (running on ihe one hand into white, on the other 
into black) ; according to the European ideas of beauty, the 
form of the face and skull most perfect. It includes all the 
Europeans, with the exception of the Laplanders ; the western 
Asiatics on this side the Ob, the Caspian Sea, and the Ganges , 
lastly, the northern Africans; altogether the inhabitants of the 
world known by the ancient Grecians and Romans. 
2. The Mongolian Race. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 1.) 
Mostly of a pale yellow (sometimes like a boiled quince, or 
dried lemon peel) ; with scanty, harsh, black hair; with halt 
closed, and apparently tumid eyelids ; a flat face, and latera 
projections of the cheek bones. This race includes the re- 
maining Asiatics, excepting the Malays ; in Europe, the Lap- 
landers ; and, in North America, the Esquimaux, extending 
from Behring’s Strait to Labrador. 
3. The Ethiopian Race. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 5.) 
Black in a greater or less degree; with black frizzly hair; 
jaw projecting forwards ; thick lips and flat nose. Composed 
of the remaining Africans, viz. the Negroes who pass into the 
Moors by means of the Foulahs, in the same manner as 
other varieties merge into one another in consequence of 
their intercourse with a neighbouring people. 
* Compare the Charts of the World, coloured according to this div'siou, 
in the 1st Vol. of Archies fur Ethnographic and Lmgvuhek. Non J. . 
Bertuch and J. S. Vatf.r. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
37 
4. The American Race. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 2.) 
Mostly tan colour or cinnamon brown (sometimes like rust of 
iron or tarnished copper) ; with straight, coarse, black hair ; 
with a wide, though not a flat face, and strongly marked 
features. Comprises all the Americans, except the Esquimaux. 
5. The Malayan Race. 
( Abbilcl . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 4.) 
Of a brown colour, from a clear mahogany to the darkest 
clove or chesnut brown with thick, black, bushy hair, a broad 
nose, and wide mouth. To this class belong the South Sea 
Islanders, or inhabitants of the fifth part of the world ; of the 
Marianne, Philippine, Molucca, and Sunda Isles, &c., with the 
true Malays *. 
The Caucasian must, on every physiological principle, be 
considered as the primary or intermediate of these five prin- 
cipal Races. The two extremes into which it has deviated, are 
on the one hand the Mongolian, on the other the Ethiopian. 
The other two Races form transitions between them ; the Ame- 
rican between the Caucasian and Mongolian ; and the Malayan 
between the Caucasian and Ethiopian f. 
* “Each of these five Races includes two kinds of people, which are more 
or les3 strikingly distinguished by their form. Thus, for instance, the Hin- 
doos may be considered as a subdivision or secondary Race, distinct from 
the Caucasian ; the Chinese and Japanese from the Mongolian ; the Hot- 
tentots from the Ethiopian ; the North Americans from those in the South- 
ern part of the New World ; and the black Papoos of New Holland, &c. 
from the brown Otakeitans and other Islanders of the Pacific Ocean.”— 
Beytr. zur Natur. Geschichte, 1 Th. p. 72 of the 2d Edition. 
t It is allowable to suppose that the people dispersed through the various 
parts of the world have, according to the differences in the degree and du- 
ration of the influence of climate and other causes of degeneration, either 
deviated still more from the form of the primary race, or approximated 
more closely to it. Thus, for example, the Jakuts, Koraks, Esquimaux, 
and other polar nations of the Mongolian Race, have deviated considerably 
from the Caucasian Race j whilst on the other hand, the American, placed 
at a greater distance, but in a milder climate, has in an equal degree ap- 
proximated ; and it is only at the Southern extremity of the Continent, in 
the frozen Tierra del Fuego, that it again recedes to the Mongolian. So 
also the Ethiopian Race has passed to the extreme of variation in the burn- 
ing regions of Africa, but passes into the Malayan in the milder climate of 
New Holland, the New Hebrides, &c. It is unnecessary to point out the 
in uence of the mixture of different Races, which accidentally come in con- 
tact with each other in their emigrations. 

38 
OF MAMMALIA. 
It is unnecessary to recount all the fabulous imaginations 
with which the Natural History of the human species has been 
burdened ; to notice a few however : — The supposed Patago- 
nian giants have sunk in the relations of travellers, from Ma- 
gellan’s times down to our own, from twelve feet to seven and 
a half, and at last are but little taller than any other men of 
good stature. 
It is also rendered more than probable by pathological con- 
siderations, that the Quimos of Madagascar, set forth by Com- 
mebson as a nation of pygmies, are nothing else than a kind of 
cretins, or idiots, with big heads and long arms, such as are 
met with in the district of Salzburgh, in the Pays du Vaud, 
and in Piedmont. 
So also the Albinoes, Kackerlacken, or white Ethiopians*, 
are not even a variety, much less a species ; but rather speci- 
mens of disease, coming more within the range of Pathology 
than of Natural History. 
The homo troglodytes of Linnjeus, is an incomprehensible 
combination of the history of the Albino resulting from disease, 
and of the Ourang-outang: his homo lar, on the contrary, is a 
true Ape. 
The children f who have lived in a savage state among 
brutes are wretched monsters in intellect, which can no more 
be considered as perfect specimens of the master-piece of the 
Creation, than other men disfigured by accident or disease. 
The fables of men with tails, of the natural apron of the 
Hottentot women, of the supposed natural deficiency of beard 
in the Americans Syrens, Centaurs, and others of the same 
stamp, can only be excused by the simple easy credulity of 
our ancestors. 
II. QUADRUMANA. 
Mammifera with four hands, which are required by their 
* These white Ethiopians, or Negroes as they are called, must be distin- 
guished from the Negroes spotted white. One of these whom I saw in London, 
and a specimen of whose black and white woolly hair I possess, is repre- 
sented in my Ahbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 21. from the life. 
f I have treated of this matter more fully in my Beytr. zur A atur. Ges- 
chichte, 2 Th. p. 13, 14. 
+ I have admitted a difference in the strength of the growth of hair in 
the Mongolian and Malayan Races; but the want of beard in many Ameii- 
can nations is artificial, as much as the small feet of the Chinese women, 
(the Struthopodes of the Eudoxus of Pliny.). 

OF MAMMALIA. 
39 
mode of life and residence in trees. They are originally natives 
only of the countries between the Tropics . — (Histoire Naturelle 
des Singes, peinls d'apres Nature, par J. D. Audebert. Paris, 
1797- Grx fol.) 
2. Simia. — Ape. Ger. Affe. Fr. Singe. Habitus plus 
minus anthropomorphus, auriculas et manus fere 
humanse, nares anteriores. Dentes primores incisores, 
supra et infra 4 ; laniarii solitarii, reliquis longiores. 
Confined to the Old World ; more nearly approaching to 
man than the animals of the succeeding genera, but easily dis- 
tinguished from him, not only by the characters already pointed 
out, but also by the entire form, and particularly by the flat- 
ness of the loins and smallness of the hips. 
(a.) Without Tails. 
1. Satyrus. The Ourang-outang. — S. rufa, pilis longis raris, 
capite globoso, fronte tumkla, auriculis minoribus. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 12. and 22.) 
Confined apparently to the island of Borneo, and even there 
in small number*} when taken young it can, as well as the 
chimpans6 and other apes, be taught to perform a variety of 
actions, which however must not be confounded with its na- 
tural habits. 
As Camper has proved by dissection, it is not capable either 
of speech or of walking naturally in an upright posture. 
2. Troglodytes. The Chimpanse. — S. nigra, macrocephala, 
torosa, auriculus magnis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 11.) 
In the interior of Angola, Congo, &c., like the preceding spe- 
cies, about the size of a child of three years. 
3. Lar. The Gibbon. (Homo Lar of Linnaeus.) — S. brachiis 
longissimis, talos attingentibus. 
(Schreber. Tab. 3.) 
In both the Indian Peninsulas, and in the Moluccas : has a 
round face tolerably like that of man, with very long arms, 
and is of a black colour. 
4. Sylvanus. The Barbary Ape. — S. brachiis corpore brevi- 
oribus, natibus calvis, capite subrotundo. 
(Schreber. Tab. 4.) 
In North Africa, the East Indies, &c., the strongest and the 
Consequently a very small species ; whilst the human, on the contrary, 
amounting to about a thousand millions, is certainly the largest among 
mammiferous animals. 

40 
OF MAMMALIA. 
most common of all the tail-less apes ; it also readily breeds in 
Europe* and is very docile. Scarcely different from the Inuus, 
(Buffon’s Magot). It has become wild at Gibraltar, and breeds 
there in a state of freedom. 
( b .) With Tails. 
5. Kostrata. The long-nosed Ape. Ger. der langnasige. 
Affe. Fr. la Guenon a long nez. — S. cauda mediocri, naso 
elongato, rostrato. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 13.) 
From the Sunda Isles. It is simia, but not sima ; being remark- 
able for its long proboscis-like nose. 
6. Silenus. The Wanderow. Ger. der Bartaffe.— S. caudata, 
barbata, nigra, barba incana prolixa. 
(Schreber. Tab. 11.) 
From Ceylon, &c. : old and scarcely recognizable representa- 
tions * of this ape have been transformed by the embellish- 
ments of subsequent copyists h into the supposed men with 
tails. 
7. Cynomolgus. The Macaco. Ger. die (insgemein so gen- 
nante,) Meerkatze. Fr. le Macacque. S. cauda longa, 
arcuata, naribus bifidis elatis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 12.) 
From Guinea, Angola, &c.: nearly olive green. Of true Apes 
with tails, that which is most frequently brought to Europe. 
3. Papio.— Baboon. Ger. Pavian. Fr. Babouin.— Facies 
prolongata, minus antliropomorpha, nasus utrinque 
tuberosus, nates nudae, coccinese, cauda (plerisque ) + 
abbreviata. Dentes ut in simiis. 
Also confined to the Old World. The head has little resem- 
blance to that of man ; on the contrary, in many is more like 
that of the hog, particularly in the snout. In general, they are 
very untameable and lascivious. 
1. Hamadryas. (Cynocephalus.) Ger. der Hundskopf. Fr. 
le Tartarin. — P. cinereus, auriculis comosis, unguibus 
acutiusculis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 10.) 
In Egypt and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. It is often 
* Originally in Bf.rnii. Von Bp.eydenbach Bei/ss in das gelobt Land. 
Mainz, 1486. folio. , 
f For instance, in Vol. VI. of Martini’s Translation of Buffon. 
+ For the formidable baboon of Borneo (papio pongo) is tail-less, whilst 
the cynocephalus may be said to be long-tailed. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
41 
represented in the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians*. 
2. Mormon. The ribbed faced Baboon. Ger. der Choras. — 
P. naso miniato ad latera cterulescente. 
(Schreber. Tab. 8 A. 8 B.) 
From Ceylon, &c.: is near five feet high; has a singular appear- 
ance, from the bright coloured streaks upon and at the sides of 
the nose. 
3. Maimon. The Mandrill. — P. facie violacea, glabra, pro- 
funde sulcata. 
(Schreber. Tab. 7-) 
From Guinea, the Cape, &c., where whole droves of them 
often plunder the vineyards and orchards ; much smaller than 
the preceding species. 
4. Cercopithecus. — Monkey. Ger. Meerkatze. — Auri- 
culae et manus minus humanae. Nares laterales. Nates 
tectae. Dentes ut in simiis. 
The whole genus is confined to the warmer parts of South 
America, where the Indians commonly use it as game. 
(a.) Cauda prehensili. — Sapajous. 
1. Seniculus. Ger. der rothe Briillaffe. Fr. l’Alouate. — C.' 
barbatus rufus, gutture tumido. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 91.) 
In troops in the great forests of Guiana, &c., where it, toge- 
ther with another species, (Cercop. Belzebub.) emits a deafen- 
ing noise, principally on change of weather, and which is pro- 
duced by a remarkable bony cavity in the larynx, placed be- 
tween the unusually large lateral portions of the lower jaw. 
2. Paniscus. The Coaita. — C. ater, palmis tetradactylis, 
absque pollice. 
(Schreber. Tab. 26 A. 26 B.) 
Extremely dexterous in the use of its long prehensile tail T . 
( b .) Cauda non prehensili. — Sagouins. 
3. Jacchus. The Ouistiti. Ger. Uistiti. — C. juba pilosa alba 
ad genas ante aures, cauda villosa annulata. 
(Schreber. Tab. 33.) 
Brown, and so small that it will fit in the shell of a cocoa nut. 
* See the Rouleau de Papyrus public par Cadet, 1805. 
t The singular manner in which they hang together, so as to form a 
chain, for the purpose of swinging themselves from one tree to another on 
the opposite banks of a river, is represented in the original edition of Ant. 
de Ulloa’s Viagc, &c. Madrid, 1748. fol. Vol. I. p. 144-149. 

42 
OF MAMMALIA. 
5. Lemur. — Makis. Nasus acutus, dentes primures su- 
periors 4 3 per paria remoti ; inferiores 4 — 6 , por- 
recti, compressi, incumbentes: laniarii solitarii, ap- 
proximati 
1 . Tardigradus. The Lori. — L. ecaudatus. 
(Schreber. Tab. 38.) 
From Ceylon ; of the size and colour of a squirrel ; with slen- 
der legs, and together with the next species, has a pointed 
claw on the index toe of the hinder foot, but on all the other 
toes a flat nail. 
2 . Mongoz. The Mongoz. — L. facie nigra, corpore et cauda 
griseis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 39 A. 39 B.) 
Together with some similar species in Madagascar and the 
neighbouring isles. The hinder are much longer than the 
fore feet. Its skin, like that of many apes, has a peculiar 
smell, nearly resembling that of an ant hill. 
Ill, CHIROPTERA. 
The fingers of the fore feet, the thumb excepted, are, in these 
animals, longer than the whole body, and between them is 
stretched a thin membrane for flying (§ 43.). Hence they are 
as little capable of walking on the ground as apes with their 
hands, or sloths with their hooked claws, which are calculated 
for climbing. 
6. Vespertilio. — Bat. Ger. Fledermaus. Fr. Chauve- 
souris. — Pollex palmarum et digiti plantarum breves, 
reliqui longissimi, membranae expansili intertexti, 
pro volatu. 
A very extensive genus of nocturnal animals, the different 
species of which are dispersed through all the five parts of the 
world. 
(A.) Dentibus primoribus 4, utrinque. 
1. Spectrum. The Vampyre. — V. ecaudatus, naso infundi- 
biliformi lanceolato. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 31.) 
In South America. The body about the size of a squirrel. It 
proves very troublesome by sucking the blood, not only of the 
larger mammilera, but also of men when asleep, in whom it 
* Govru. Fischer’s Anatomic der Makie. 1 B. Frankf. 1804. 4to. with 
plates. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
43 
commonly attacks the toes ; on this account it has received its 
name. 
2. Caninus. Roussette. Eng. and Fr. — Der fliegende Hund. 
Ger. Vampyrus of Linnaeus. — V. ecaudata, naso simplici, 
membrana inter femora divisa. 
(Schreber. Tab. 44.) 
Much larger than the Vampyre, so that its flying membranes, 
when extended, measure six feet j it lives, however, solely on 
fruits, and has therefore no claim to the appellation, Vampyre. 
Occurs in troops in Hindostan, and in the Indian and Austra- 
lasian islands, and in vast numbers in New Holland. It is the 
only mammiferous animal on the Pellew islands. 
(B.) — Dentibus primoribus supra 4, infra 6. 
3. Auritus. The long-eared Bat. L’Oreillard of Buffon”. — 
V. caudatus, auriculis maximis. 
Together with the following species in the milder regions of 
the Old World. Their ears, which are commonly, but incor- 
rectly, said to be double, are single ; but in all their parts ex- 
tremely large. 
4. Murinus. The Bat, Rear Mouse. Ger. die gemeine Fle- 
dermaus. Fr. la Chauve-souris commune. — V. caudatus, 
auriculis capite minoribus. 
This, as well as the preceding species, suspends itself by its 
hinder feet in caverns during its hybernation. In many situ- 
ations it multiplies to a great extent in a very short period. 
(C.) Dentibus primoribus superioribus nullis. 
5. Ferrum equinum. The Horse-shoe Bat. Ger. Die IIu- 
feisennase. — V. naso foliato ferri equini aemulo. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 42.) 
In the Middle and Southern parts of Europe. 
IV. DIGITATA. 
Mammifera with separate toes on all four feet. This order 
contains the greatest number of genera and species, and is 
therefore conveniently divided, according to the differences of 
the teeth, into three families. 
(A.) Glires. (B.) Ferce. (C.) Bruta. 
(A.) Glires. (Scalpris dentata. Jo. Hunter.) 
With two chisel-shaped incisor teeth in each jaw, for the pur- 
pose of gnawing} without canine teeth, 
7- Sciurus. — Cauda pilosa, disticha. Dentes primores 
utrinque 2 j inferiores subulati. 

44 
or MAMMALIA. 
1. Volans. The Flying Squirrel. Ger. das fliegende Eich- 
hornchen. Fr. le Polatouclie. — S. duplicatura cutis late- 
rali a pedibus anterioribus ad posteriores. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 71.) 
In Livonia, Russia and Siberia. Of the colour of the fur called 
Petit- Gris. The loose membrane extended laterally between 
the fore and hind feet serves the purpose of a parachute, and 
enables the animal to spring from great heights. 
2. Vulgaris. The Squirrel. Ger. das Eichhornchen. Fr. l’Ecu- 
reuil. — S. auriculis apice barbatis, cauda dorso concolori. 
(v. Wildungen Tasclienbuch , fur 1808.) 
In the whole of Europe, and most parts of Asia. Those of the 
North, particularly on the banks of the Ob and the Baikal 
Lake, become grey in Winter, and furnish the true Petit -Gris. 
(Grauwerk.) Sometimes there are black squirrels ; less fre- 
quently snow white with red eyes, and more rarely still, spot- 
ted with black and white. 
The Virginian species. Sc. cinereus (Buffon’s Petit-gris ,) is 
larger, and without tufts in the ears. It does great damage to 
the plantations of Maize. 
8. Glis. (Myoxus.) Cauda rotunda, versus apicem 
crassior. Dentes ut in sciuris. 
1. Esculentus. The Rell Mouse, the fat Dormouse. Ger. die 
Rellmaus, der Siebensclilafer, Katz, Bilch. Fr. le Loire. — 
G. griseus, subtus albidus, auriculis rotundatis, nudis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 225.) 
Together with the next species in the milder regions of the 
Old World. The true glis of the ancients, which they used as 
food*, and fattened in glirariisi for the purpose. It lives in 
oak and beech forests, builds its nest in hollow trees, and has 
a very long and profound Winter sleep. 
2. Avellanarius. The Dormouse. Ger. die Kleine Haselmaus. 
Fr. le Muscardin. — G. rufus, pollice plantarum mutico, 
auriculis rotundatis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 227-) 
Smaller in the body than the domestic mouse. For its Winter 
sleep it prepares a globular and tolerably solid nest of the 
needle shaped leaves of the fir, &c., in which it conceals itself. 
9. Mus. Cauda gracilis, subnuda. Dentes ut in praece- 
dentibus. 
* Apicii s, VIII. 9. 
f Varro de R. It. III. 15. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
45 
1. CEconomus. The Economic Rat. Ger. die Wurzelmaus.— 
M. cauda subsesquiunciali, auric ulis nudis vellere molli 
latentibus, palmis subtetradactylis, corpore fusco. 
(Schreber. Tab. 190.) 
In all Siberia, and as far as Kamschatka. Remarkable for the 
emigrations which it makes principally from Kamschatka, like 
the Lemming in certain years ; but still more so, for the in- 
dustry with which it collects large quantities of roots in its 
burrows, which are plundered by the 1 ungooses, &c., in the 
same manner as the stores of the Hamster by the inhabitants 
of Thuringia. 
2. Sylvaticus. The Field-rat. Ger. die Waldmaus. Fr. le 
Mulot. — M. cauda mediocri, pectore flavescente, abdo- 
mine albido. 
(Schreber. Tab. ISO.) 
Does much injury to corn and newly planted trees. 
3. Amphibius. The Water-rat. Ger. die Wasserratte, der Erd- 
wolf. Fr. le Rat d’eau. — M. cauda longitudine dimidia 
corporis, auribus vix vellere prominulis, palmis subtetra- 
dactylis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 186.) 
In all the northern parts of the world. Very injurious to gar- 
dens, and particularly to the roots of plants*. 
4. Arvalis. The Field-mouse. Ger. die Feldmaus, Stoss- 
maus. Fr. le Campagnol. — M. cauda mediocri, dorso fer- 
rugineo, abdomine cinereo. 
(Schreber. Tab. 191.) 
Multiplies in certain years to a vast extent, and does great 
injury to the Winter corn. In this, as in the following species. 
Albinos are occasionally met with. 
5. Musculus. The Mouse, Ger. die Hausmaus. Fr. la Souris 
— M. cauda elongata, palmis tetradactylis, pollice palma- 
rum mutico. 
In Europe, and the temperate climates of Asia and America. 
It has attached itself to man in some degree as a domestic 
animal. 
The white Mice with red eyes (Albinos) are occasionally so 
sensible to the impression of light, as to close their eye-lids 
in full day, so as to have the appearance of being blind. 
* 1 lately received from this neighbourhood a beautiful variety ot this 
species, ermine white, with a few brownish grey spots on the back. 

4 G 
OF MAMMALIA. 
6*. Rattus. The black Rat. Ger. die Pmtte. Fr.le Rat.— M. cauda 
elongata, palmis tetradactylis cum unguiculo pollicari. 
Dispersed over all the five parts of the world, but apparently 
originally a native of the middle regions of Europe. Extremely 
voracious. It eats even scorpions, and follows man and his 
provisions every where, into the deepest mines as well as into 
his ships. Among others, one of the greatest enemies to the 
sugar plantations of the West Indies. 
In many places it has been gradually supplanted by the 
Norway Rat, (Mus clecumanus.) which is originally a native 
of Persia and the East Indies, and is of a reddish grey colour, 
with a few bristly hairs scattered through its fur. 
10. Marmota. (Arctomys.) Auriculae abbreviataj, cauda 
brevis, aut nulla. Dentes ut in praecedentibus. 
1. Alpina. The Marmot. Ger. das Murmelthier. Fr. la Mar- 
motte. In the Grisons, Murmont — from the Latin, Mus- 
montanus. — M. corpore depresso, supra fusco, subtus fla- 
vescente. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1S12.) 
In many of the highest Alpine regions of Europe and Asia. It 
is remarkable that it is occasionally met with on the Alice 
Blanche, in Savoy, upon isolated rocks, which project like 
islands from the sea of ice, at the distance of some leagues 
from any part that is not frozen, and not free from snow for 
more than six weeks in the whole year j so that it would ap- 
pear that the Marmot, in such situations, must sleep at least 
ten months in the year, and pass an extremely small part of 
its existence in a waking state. 
2. Citellus. (Mus ponticus.) Earless Marmot. Ger. das Erd- 
zeiselchen. — M. Auriculis minimis, cauda villosa, corpore 
vario. 
(Schreber. Tab. 211.) 
Principally found in Hungary, Poland, and Siberia. About the 
size of the Hamster, and like it has cheek-pouches. 
3. Cricetus. The Hamster. — M. abdomine nigro. 
(F. G. Sulzers’ N. G. des Hamsters. Gott. 1774. Svo. Tab. 1,2.) 
In many parts of Germany, Poland, Siberia, &c. Lives chiefly 
on corn and beans, of which it carries large quantities in its 
cheek-pouches to its subterraneous burrows, sometimes seven 
feet deep. A hole of this kind will contain sixty pounds of such 
provisions. It increases rapidly, and in the district of Gotha 
alone, as many as 90,000 Hamsters have been killed in one 

OF MAMMALIA. 47 
Summer. There is a black variety of this animal, as well as an 
Albino with red pupils. 
4. Lemmus. The Lemming. — M. capite acuto, corpore nigro 
fulvoque irregulariter maculato. 
(Schreber. Tab. 195 A. 195 B.) 
Common in Lapland and Siberia. Sometimes whole legions 
emigrate from one place to another. Their unexpected and 
unnoticed arrival, together with the accidental fall of those 
which may have escaped from the claws of birds of prey, by 
which they had been taken up into the air, probably gave rise 
to the ancient saying that the Lemmings fell from the heavens. 
5. Typhlus. The Blind Rat. Ger. die Blindmaus. Fr. le Zemni. 
— M. ecaudata, palmis pentadactylis, incisoribus supra in- 
fraque latis, palpebrarum aperturis auriculisque nullis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 206.) 
In the south of Russia. Lives chiefly under ground. It has a 
small distinct pupil, but no opening in the eye-lids, and con- 
sequently is blind. 
11. Hyrax. (Daman.) Dentes primores superiores 2, 
distantes, inferiores 4, contigui, palmse digitis 4, 
plantre digitis 3, cauda nulla. 
1. Capensis. The Daman. Cape Hyrax. Ger. der Klipdas. 
Fr. laMarmotte du Cap. — H. palmarum unguibus planis, 
plantarum unico subulato. 
(Schreber. Tab. 240.) 
At the Cape, &c. About the size of the Marmot : burrows 
like it also in the ground, but is difficult to classify on account 
of its peculiar anomalous structure, particularly of the teeth 
and feet. 
12. Savia. Auriculae rotundatse, parvae. Cauda nulla 
aut brevis. Dentes primores utrinque 2. 
The whole Genus confined to the warmer parts of South Ame- 
rica, particularly Brazil. 
1. Porcellus. The Guinea Pig. Ger. das Meersweinchen. Fr. 
le Cochon d’lnde. — S. ecaudata, corpore variegato. 
(Schreber. Tab. 173.) 
Thrives well in Europe, varies in colour, and is certainly the 
most prolific of all mammifera. It is at present seldom found 
in the wild state. 
2. Aguti. The Agouti. Eng. and Fr. — Ger. das Ferkelkanin- 
chen. — S. caudata, corpore ex rufo fusco, abdomine 
flavescente. 

48 
OK MAMMALIA. 
(Sciireber. Tab. 172.) 
Larger than a Rabbit. 
13. Lepus. Dentes primores utrinque 2 ; superiores 
duplicate 
1. Timidus. The Hare. Ger. der Hase. Fr. le Li&vre. — L. 
auriculis apice nigris, corpore et pedibus posticis longi- 
oribus. 
(v. Wildungen Tasclienbuch f. 1798.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World, as well as in North 
America, the soles of the feet and in part the mouth, are 
covered with hair. Both the Hare and the Rabbit appear to 
ruminate* * * § . 
Many able naturalists have admitted the truth of the reports 
of individual hares being met with at different times and places, 
possessing small, but perfect horns f. 
The Varying Hare. (Lepus variabilis) (Berghase, Ger.) in 
many Northern 'and Alpine situations, is distinguished from the 
common one by its broader head, shorter ears, shorter tail, and 
longer hind legs, with extremely broad feet ; neither do they 
breed together. In the extreme North, as Greenland, &c. it is 
white all the year through ; in the Swiss and Tyrolese Alps, 
only during Winter %. 
2. Cuniculus. The Rabbit. Ger. das Kaninchen. Fr. le La- 
pin. — L. Auriculis nudatis, corpore et pedibus posticis 
brevioribus. 
(v. Wildungen Tasclienbuch, f. 1799). 
Originally a native of the warmer regions of the Old World, 
but now also found in its northern parts. They increase so 
rapidly, that on some occasions they have become a public 
calamity ||, as in the year 1736, on the island of St. Peter, near 
Sardinia § ; they propagate in the most desart places, as on 
Volcano, one of the Lipari Islands, otherwise uninhabited. 
The wild animal is grey ; the white, with red eyes, are among 
the most common kinds of Albinos. 
* Leviticus, Chap. ii. v. 5, &c. 
+ I have given my reasons for doubting the truth of such reports in my 
Manual of Comparative Anatomy, p. 34. 
+ See Meisner’s Museum der Natur. Gesch. Helveticus, No. 4. 
J “ Certurn est, Balearicos adversus proven turn cunicolorum auxihum 
militare a divo Augusto petiisse.”— Plinius. 
§ Cetti. Quadrupedi dt Sardegna , p. 149. 

OF MAMMALIA. 49 
The long-haired Angora Rabbit, (Englische Seidenliase), 
(§ 16. Remark 2d.) also thrives in this part of the world. 
14. Jaculus. (Dipus.) Pedes antiei brevissimi, postici 
elongati. Cauda saltatoria, apice floccosa. Dentes 
primores utrinque 2. 
1. Jerboa. The common Jerboa. Ger. der Springhase. Fr. la 
Gerboise. — J. palmis tridactylis ; plantis tetradactylis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 228.) 
Principally in North Africa, Arabia, &c. Burrows in the 
ground. Leaps, with the agility of a grasshopper, the dis- 
tance of seven or eight feet at a time. 
15. Hystrix. Porcupine. Ger. Stachelschwein. Fr. 
Porcs-Epie. — Corpus spinis tectum. Dentes primo- 
res utrinque 2. 
1. Cristata. The crested Porcupine. — H. spinis longissimis, 
capite cristato, cauda abbreviata. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 81.) 
Originally in the warmer parts of Asia, and almost the whole 
of Africa ; feeds principally on the bark of trees ; burrows in 
the ground. When angry, it rattles its prickles, which occa- 
sionally fall off, particularly in Autumn ; it has not, however, 
any power of shooting them at its pursuers *. 
2. Dorsata. (Urson.) Canadian Porcupine. Fr. 1’Urson. — H. 
spinis brevibus sub pilis occultis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 169.) 
From Canada, Labrador, and the country about Hudson’s Bay. 
It does great mischief to the trunks of young trees, particularly 
in Winter. 
(B.) FERiE. 
W ith pointed or angular front teeth, and mostly with only a 
single canine tooth on each side, which is generally, how- 
ever, of remarkable size and strength. The carnivorous ani- 
mals, properly so called, and some other genera with teeth 
of the same kind, compose this family. 
16. Erixaceus. Corpus spinis tectum. Dentes primores 
utrinque 6 f ; laniarii supra 3, infra 1, molares 4. 
1 he high-priced biliary concretion, (piedra del porco) formerly famed 
as a panacea, is found in an East Indian Species of Porcupine, that is not 
yet accurately known. 
+ Not 2, as Lixn/eus supposed; for the upper incisors are all those 
which are fixed in the intermaxillary bone (Note to § 44.); and the lower,, 
all those in the front of the jaw, which correspond to the upper. 
K 

50 
OF MAMMALIA. 
1. Europeeus. The Hedgehog. Ger. der Igel. Ft. le Heris- 
son. — E. auriculis rotundatis, naribus cristatis. 
In almost the whole of the Old World : a nocturnal animal 
feeds both on animals and vegetables : mouses like a cat ; 
can eat cantharides in great quantity. It sticks its prickles 
into fruit, for the purpose of bringing them to its holes, a 
thing which had been asserted by the ancients, and denied 
by the moderns, but of the fact I have been assured by three 
credible witnesses 
17. Sorex. Nasus rostratus, auriculae breves. Dentes 
primores superiores 6 +, bifidi ; inferiores 2 — 4, 
intermediis brevioribus ; laniarii utrinque plures. 
1. Arancus. The Shrew. Get. die Spitzmaus. Fr. la Musa - 
raigne. — S. cauda mediocri, abdomine albido. 
(Schreber. Tab. 160.) 
In Europe, the North of Asia, &c. There is no truth in the 
common assertion that it is venomous, or that it creeps into 
the body of horses. White shrews are uncommon. 
2. Fodiens. The Water-Shrew. Ger. die Wasserspitzmaus. 
Fr. la Musaraigne d’eau. — S. abdomine cinereo, digitis 
ciliatis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 72.) 
In Europe on the banks df ponds. Instead of a swimming 
membrane the toes are furnished with small stiff hairs, which 
render the foot excellently adapted for rowing. The opening 
of the auditory passage has a valve, which the animal can 
close as long as it is under water. 
3. Exilis. " The minute Shrew.— S. minimus, cauda crassis- 
sima tereti. 
On the Jennisey and Ob. The smallest mammiferous animal 
yet known : it weighs but half a drachm. 
18. Talpa. Caput rostratum, palime fossorias. Dentes 
primores superiores 6, inferiores 8, laniarii major 1 , 
minores 4. 
1 . Europcea. The Mole. Ger. der Maulwurf. Fr. la Taupe. 
— T. cauda breviore, auriculis nullis. 
In almost the whole of the Old World. A completely subter- 
raneous animal, for which it is fitted by the peculiarities of its 
structure, particularly of its shovel- shaped paws. It has very 
* Dr. Patrick Russel makes a similar statement in the new Edition of 
his brother’s Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, Vol. T. p. 41<). 
f 'Phis is the case at least in the Water Shrew. 

OF MAMMALIA. 51 
small eyes, can swim well, and in times of Hoods climb up 
trees. A variety of a dull yellow is occasionally met with. 
2. Versicolor. (Aurata.) T. ecaudata, palmis tridactylis. 
(Vosmaer’s Monograph, 1787-) 
Only at the Cape ; consequently cannot be called (as by Lin- 
n-eus) Asiatic. The hair, particularly when damp, glitters 
with a gold-like splendour. 
19. Didelphis. Hallux (plerisque •) muticus. Fceminis 
folliculus abdominalis mammarum. 
This Genus, composed of numerous and closely connected Spe- 
cies, presents such varieties in the teeth, that according to 
the Linnean system it would be necessary to divide it into 
several Genera. \ 
] . Marsupialis. The Opossum. Ger. das Eeutelthier. Fr. le 
Sarigne. — D. albida, auriculis, antibrachiis et tibiis nigris, 
cauda squamosa longitudine corporis. Dentes primores 
superiores 10, inferiores 8, laniarii elongati. 
Chiefly in the warmer parts of North America *. The fe- 
male of this, and other species of the Genus, has a large pouch 
on the belly, which can be opened and closed by particular 
muscles, and at the bottom of which the teats are placed. 
The young ones are born small beyond all proportion, like 
imperfect abortions. They are carried in this pouch for a 
length of time, continuing to suck, and being nourished by the 
mother’s milk, until having become mature, and more perfectly 
formed, they are as it were born for the second time. 
2. Gigantea. The Kanguroo. Ger. das Kanguruh. — D. gri- 
sea, cauda longa crassa, pedibus anticis brevissimis, 
posticis longissimis. Palmis pentadactylis, plantis sub- 
tetradactylis. Dentes primores superiores 6, inferiores 
2, laniarii nulli. 
(Schreber. Tab. 154.) 
In New Holland. Mouse grey. When sitting upright is as 
high as a man, and weighs 140ibs. Lives together in herds 
of fifty or more. Is altogether herbivorous. Moves by leaps 
of full 12 feet at a time. The female has an abdominal pouch; 
produces but a single young one at a time, which, when born, 
is scarce half so large as a mouse, but is carried in the mo- 
ther’s pouch three quarters of a year, until it weighs nearly 14 lb. 
3. Wombat. The Wombat. (Phascolomys.) — D. subfusca, 
( have communicated some observations which I made on a living 
Opossum in Voigt’s Neues Magazin, Vol. III. p. C83, &c. 
E 2 

OF MAMMALIA. 
cauda brevissiraa. Dentes primores utrinque 2, cylindrici, 
obtusi ; laniarii nulli ; molares 5. 
(Leach. Vol. II. Tab. 96.) 
Also from New Holland. Of the size of the Badger. Appa- 
rently a nocturnal animal, which burrows in the earth. 
20. ViveRra. Caput vulpinum. Cauda plerisque felina. 
Dentes primores utrinque 6, intermediis breviori- 
bus. Lingua plerisque retrorsum aculeata. Ungues 
exserti. 
1. Zibetha. (Hycena odorifera.) The Civet. G'er. die Zibeth- 
katze. Fr. la Civette. — V. cauda annulata, dorso cinereo 
nigroque undatim striato. 
(Sciireber. Tab. 112.) 
In the south of Asia and north of Africa. In both sexes of the 
Civet, a fatty odoriferous substance is contained in a parti- 
cular cavity, placed between the anus and organs of generation. 
2. Genetta. The Genet Cat. Ger. die Genettkatze. Fr. la 
Genette.— V. cauda annulata, corpore fulvo-nigricante 
maculato. 
(Schreber. Tab. 113.) 
In the Levant. Is prized on account of its skin. 
3. Putorius. The Skunk. Ger. das Stinkthier. Fr. la Mouf- 
fette.— V. lineis quinque dorsalibus parallelis albis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 122.) 
In Virginia, Canada, &c. It has its name from the insupport- 
able stink, which it, like several other species of this genus, 
emits when enraged. 
4. Ichneumon. The Egyptian Ichneumon. Ger. die Pharaons- 
maus. Buffon’s Mangouste.—V. cauda basi incrassata 
sensim attenuate apice floccosa. 
(Schreber. Tab. 45 B.) 
Has coarse, almost bristly hair, with broad, brown ring-like 
stripes. Is common in Egypt, where it destroys the eggs of the 
crocodile, and also serpents : it is, however, easily tameable. 
5. Junta. Fennec. Ger. das Grossolir. Buffon’s Animal 
Anonyme. — V. auriculis amplessimus. 
(Bruce’s Travels to the Source of the Nile. Vol. V. Tab. 22.) 
In Barbary, Nubia, &c. It nests in palms, and lives chiefly on 
dcitcs « • 
21. Mustela. Dentes primores superiores 6, erecti, 
acutiores, distincti ; inferiores 6, obtusiores, con- 
ferti; duo interiores. Lingua lcevis. 
The species of this genus have short legs and a long slender 

OF MAMMALIA. 
body, which is arched in walking. They are very active, ma- 
licious, and blood-thirsty. 
1. Martes. The Pine Martin. Ger. der Baummarder, Edel- 
marder, Feldmarder. Fr. la Marte. — M. corpore fulvo 
nigrieante, gula flava. 
(v. AVildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1S00.) 
Principally in the pine forests of the northern part of the 
world. Its beautiful fur comes nearest to that of the sable. 
2. Foina. The Martin. Ger. der Hausmarder, Steinmarder. 
Fr. le Fouine. — M. corpore fulvo nigrieante, gula alba. 
(V. WlLDUNGEN. 1. C.) 
In the middle and warmer parts of Europe, with the neigh- 
bouring regions of Asia. When taken young, it may, as well 
as the preceding species, be made wonderfully tame. 
5. Putorius. The Polecat, Fitchet. Ger. der litis. Ilk, Stan- 
kerratz. Fr. le Putois. — M. flavo-nigricans, ore et auri- 
cularum apicibus albis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1801.) 
In the same countries as the Martin, and also in Barbary. The 
whole animal, and even its skin when flayed, have a very dis- 
agreeable smell. 
The Ferret (furo ). Ger. das Frettel. Fr. le Furet. Of a yel- 
lowish white colour with red pupils, is a true Albino of its 
kind, consequently not an originally distinct species, but 
merely a variety of the Polecat, with which it breeds. It is 
employed for catching Rats and Rabbits. 
4. Zibellina. The Sable. Ger. der Zobel. Fr. la Zibeline. — 
M. corpore fulvo-nigricante, facie et gula cinereis. 
(Schrebeb. Tab. 136.) 
Principally in Siberia. The finest, with a perfectly black brown, 
thick and glossy fur, are found in the neighbourhood of Jakuzk. 
6. Erminea. The Ermine. Ger. das grosse Wiesel, Hermelin. 
Fr. l’Hermine. — M. caudee apice nigro. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1802.) 
Jn the North, particularly in Siberia. Larger than the common 
Weasel. Like it too, it changes colour, so as to be brown in 
Summer, but in Winter white. (Ermine.) 
6. Vulgaris. The Weasel. Ger. das Gemeine Wiesel. Fr. la 
Belctte. — M. corpore ex rufo fusco subtus albo. 
(v. Wildungen. 1. c.) 
In the North of Europe and Asia. The mother often carries the 
young ones in her mouth, and hence the saying that they enter 
the world in the same wav. 

54 
OF MAMMALIA. 
22. Ursus. Dentes primores superiores 6, intus exeavati 
alterni, inferiores G, laterales 2, longiores lobati ; 
laniarii primarii solitarii (minimi 1 — 2 inter hos et 
primos molares,) lingua laeva. 
1. Arctos. The Bear. Ger. der Bar. Fr. l’Ours. — U. fusco 
nigricans, cauda abrupta. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 32.) 
In the northern parts of the world, and also in the East Indies, 
and North Africa. When young, lives principally on vege- 
tables, but after its third year becomes carnivorous. In fight- 
ing it makes more use of its fore paws than of its teeth. When 
full grown, it often weighs upwards of four hundred weight. 
Amongst the most remarkable varieties are the great black 
Ant-Bear; the small light brown Honey-Bear; and the still 
smaller white Silver-Bear ; all shaggy, and with long hair 
particularly under the neck. 
On the contrary, the North American Bear, with black, 
smooth, satin-like hair, and a flat head with a pointed snout, 
is certainly a distinct Species, which feeds commonly on vege- 
tables, and at certain seasons of the year exclusively on Ants. 
2. Maritimus. (Glacialis.) The White Bear, Polar Bear. Ger. 
der Eisbar. Fr. l’Ours blanc.— U. albus, collo et rostro 
elongatis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 33.) 
On the coasts and ice islands of the northern parts of the world. 
It must not be confounded with the white variety of the com- 
mon bear. It is twelve feet long, and weighs fifteen hundred 
weight ; it swims and dives with great facility, and is almost 
exclusively carnivorous *. 
3. Gulo. The Glutton. Ger. der Vielfrass. Fr. le Glouton.— 
U. corpore rufo fusco, medio dorsi nigro. 
(Pallas, Spicileg. Zoologic, 14. Tab. 2.) 
In the northern parts of the world, particularly Siberia. Its 
voracity has given rise to a variety of fables. 
The Wolverene, (Ursus luscus.) from Labrador and Hudson » 
Bay, appears to differ but little from it. , . 
4. Taxus. (Meles.) The Badger. Ger. der Dachs. Fr. le Blai- 
re au. — U. cauda concolore, abdomine nigro. 
(v. Wildungen Tasclienbuch, f. 1797-) 
* Much remarkable information relative to this and other animals of 
Labrador, may be found in G. Cartwright’s 
of nearly sixteen years on the Coast of Lain ador. l cv , 

OF MAMMALIA. 
Ill Europe and Asia, as far as China. An omnivorous animal. 
Makes a deep burrow under ground, with various passages, or 
galleries, leading to it. Sleeps during the greatest part of its 
life, and has in particular a long profound Winter sleep, during 
which it places its snout in a pouch on the fundament. 
5. Mellivorus. The Honey Bear. Ger. der Honig-Dachs. — U. 
dorso cinereo, fascia lateral! nigra, abdomine nigro. 
(Sfarrmann in den Schwed. Abhandl. 1777 • Tab. 4. fig. 3.) 
At the Cape j lives on the honey and wax of the wild Bees, 
which fix themselves in the holes of the Porcupine, &c. It 
either notices the course of the Bees when returning home, or 
only follows the indication of the Cuculus Indicator (Honey 
Cuckoo). It has a shaggy fur, with an uncommonly thick and 
lax skin, by which it is defended alike from the stings of bees 
and the teeth of dogs. 
6. Lotor. The Racoon. Ger. der Wasch-bar. Fr. le Raton. — 
U. cauda annulata, fascia palpebrarum transversa linigra. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 62.) 
A nocturnal animal, inhabiting the warmer parts of the north- 
east of North America ; feeds on a variety of substances ; uses 
its fore-paws very dexterously for seizing, or even soaking and 
fishing up its food, &c *. It is in general very tame. Its hair 
is esteemed by the hatters next to that of the Beaver. 
23, Canis. Dentes primores superiores 6, laterales lon- 
giores distantes, intermedii lobati 5 inferiores 6, 
laterales lobati omnes 5 laniarii solitarii, incurvati. 
1. Familiaris. The Dog. Ger. der Hund. Fr. le Chien. — C. 
cauda recurvata; subinde digito spurio ad pedes posticos. 
This faithful companion of man, distinguished for the acute- 
ness of his senses, for his great docility and important services, 
has long been dispersed with him over all the five portions of 
the globe, and furnishes the best proof of the perfectibility of 
animals, when their faculties have been exercised during a long 
series of generations. 
It is difficult to decide whether the different races of dogs 
are varieties of one and the same species ; and whether they 
are derived from the wolf or the jackal. Many of the races, 
the turnspit and greyhound for instance, appear to me to have 
peculiarities adapted to particular functions, which I can hardly 
* I have often observed this in one which I had alive for several years, 
as did also Or.. Wokmius, Linw/eus, Rolof, Buffon, Schulze, G6tzf., 
Bechstf.in. and many others. 

56 
OF MAMMALIA. 
consider to be the accidental consequences of mere degene- 
ration. 
Among the principal Races are : — 
(a.) Fricator. The Pug-dog. Ger. der Mops. Fr. le Doguin j 
with a short, thick-set body, black spots on the cheeks, and 
pendant ears. — The Bull-dog, Molossus. Ger. Bullenbeisser. 
Fr. le Bouldogue, in which the lower projects beyond the up- 
per jaw, appears to form the connexion between this and the 
next race. 
( b .) Mastivus. The Mastiff. Ger. die Englische Dogge. Fr. 
le Dogue, with a short head, flaccid, pendant, upper lip, and 
smooth hair. Its bark is short and deep. The Butcher s dog, 
Ger. Metzgerhund, appears very closely allied to it. 
(c. ) Terra Nova. The Newfoundland. Ger. der Newfund- 
lander. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 6.) It is distinguished 
by its unusual size, its long silky hair, its shaggy tail curved 
upwards, and particularly by the sort of web between its toes, 
which is much larger than in other dogs. Hence it swims with 
great facility. It is for the most part black and white, and very 
docile. 
( d .) Sagax. (Fenaticus.) The Hound. Ger. der Jagdhund. Fr. 
le Chien courant ; with a long thick body, depressed vertex, 
long pendant ears ; the hair is sometimes smooth, sometimes 
shaggy. Here also belong the Spanish Pointer, the Setter, and 
the tiger-spotted Corsican Dog. 
(e. ) Aquations. The Water Dog. Ger. der Budel. Fr. le 
Barbet j with a short head and woolly hair. 
(f. ) Pastoralis. ( domesticus , villaticus.) The Shepherd s Dog, 
the Cur. Ger. das Schaferhund. Fr. le Chien de Berger, with 
straight ears and long hair on the under side of the tail. Here 
also belong the Iceland dog, and the Pomeranian. Ger. der 
Spitz. Fr. le Chien-loup, together with the great dog of St. 
Bernard, and those which the Kamschatkadales employ to draw 
their sledges. Of the same nature is the dog found in many 
of the South Sea Islands, which the inhabitants fatten for eat- 
ing, and which lives wholly on vegetable food* 
(g.) Meliteus. The Lap-dog. Ger. das Bologneser hiindchen. 
Fr. l’Epagneul; with very long silky hair, especially on the 
face. 
( h . ) Vertagus. The Turnspit. Ger. der Dachshund. Fr. le 
Basset. With a long muzzle, hanging ears, elongated body, 
short crooked fore legs, and reddish brown spots under the 

OF MAMMALIA. 57 
eyes. — The English Terrier (Terrarius), with bristly hair and 
rough muzzle, appears closely connected with it. 
( i .) Dingo. The New Holland Dog. Rather resembles the 
Fox, particularly in the form of the head and tail. 
( k .) Lepurarius. The Greyhound. Ger. das Windspiel. Fr. le 
Levrier. With a long pointed head, hanging ears, deep chest, 
very slender body and legs. 
( l .) Grains *, ( Canis Laconicus ) very large; intermediate 
in form between the Hound and Greyhound. The great Danish 
dog, and the great Irish dog (Wolf-dog), now extinct, are 
similar to this. 
(in.) JE gyp this. The Indian Dog. Ger. der Guineische Hund. 
Fr. le Chien-Turc, resembles the Greyhound, but has hair only 
on the face, the rest of the body being bare, and black or dark 
brown, almost like a Negro’s skin. — See Remark 2. to § 16. 
These Races of Dogs copulate not only with one another, 
but also with the Wolf and Fox, occasionally producing a fer- 
tile progeny. 
2. Lupus. The Wolf. Ger. der Wolf. Fr. le Loup. — C. cauda 
incurvata. 
(v. Wildungen Tascheubuch, f. 1795.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World; but has been extir- 
pated in some countries, as Great Britain and Ireland. Has a 
lounging, though at the same time quick pace, and is not readily 
tired. When hungry, the Wolf eats reeds, and even earth; it 
digs up newly buried bodies, and probably its appearance in 
church-yards at night may have given rise to the stories of the 
Man-Wolf. (Wahr-Wolf. Loup-garou.) 
3. Aureus. The Jackal. Ger. der Schakal. Fr. le Chacal. — C. 
corpore fulvo, pedibus longioribus, caudoe apice nigro. 
(Schreber. Tab. 94.) 
In North Africa, and in the East, particularly Natolia and 
Bengal; prowls by night in troops; eats other animals, lea- 
ther, &c.; and digs up dead bodies. Many Naturalists consider 
the Jackal as the original stock of the Dog; and many Com- 
mentators have supposed that it is the Fox of Samson. 
4. Vulpes. The I ox. Ger. der Fuchs. Fr. le Renard. — C. cauda 
recta, apice discolore. 
(v. Wxlduxcex Tascheubuch , f. 1796.) 
I his name was given by Ray, Linnvkus, &c., to tlie true Greyhound, 
wit which, however, the ancient Grecians do not appear to have been ac- 
quainted. 

58 
OF MAMMALIA. 
Principally in the northern parts of the Old World. In vast 
numbers on the eastern Aleutian, or as they have been thence 
named. Fox Islands. Among other fruit, is very fond of grapes. 
The Alopex (Brandfuchs.) is certainly only a Variety. It is 
not, however, so easy at once to decide whether the black Fox 
with a white tipped tail, so much valued for its fur, be a va- 
riety, or a distinct species : it is found in Siberia, and in great 
numbers in Labrador 5 and when the hair is silver white at its 
extremities, is called the Silver Fox 
5. Lagopus. (Isatis.) The Arctic Fox. Ger. der weisse Fuehs, 
Polar Fuchs. Russ. Pesez. — C. cauda recta, apice con- 
colore, palmis plantisque pilosissimis. 
(Sciireber. Tab. 93 A. 93 B.) 
In the Polar regions, particularly Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, 
Greenland, &c. Most of them are white. The so called Blue 
Fox, on the contrary, bluish grey. 
6. Hyaena. The Hyaena. — C. nigricans, maculis virgatis, 
facie nigra, juba cervicis dorsique, pedibus tetradactylis. 
Mostly in the same regions with the Jackal, which it also re- 
sembles in its mode of life : has its den under ground, or in 
cavities of rocks, &c. 
The Spotted Hyaena (Canis crocuta,) is much larger t than 
the striped 3 it is met with in great numbers in Abyssinia, and 
thence southward to the Cape. Both of them approximate m 
their structure to the next genus. 
24. Felis. Ungues retractiles, caput rotundius, lingua 
aspera. Dentes primores 6 ; acutiusculi, exterioribus 
majoribus; laniarii solitarii, supra a primoribus, 
infra a molaribus remoti. 
1. Leo. The Lion. Ger. der Lowe. Fr. le Lion.— F. cauda 
elongata floccosat, corpore fulvo. 
* A 11 unusually fine sldu of a Labrador Silver Fox has been sold in Lon - 
don for 500 dollars, or even more. 
f A Lioness, ten years old, which I dissected some years ag( , 
sural from the nose to the beginning of the tail, four feet ten me « ; 
a spotted Hyaena, not full grown, described in Lord \ ALEN ™ ’ f 
measured in the same way, four feet three inches. 
the same animal, with which M. Von WlLDUNGEN enriched my Collection, 
as at least as large as that of the Liofiess already mentioned at 
+ The old Scholiasts 011 Homer (Iliad, 20-1/ 0.), speak . I 
the end of the Lion’s tail ; and, in fact, in the same Lioness I found some 
which I have described and figured in my 
Historian Naturalis c.v auctonhus classics illustrator. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
59 
(Schreber. Tab. 97 A. 97 B.) 
Ill the warmer regions of the Old World, particularly in Africa, 
occasionally also in Peloponnesus and Etolia. In recent times, 
too. Lionesses in Menageries have produced young, in Ger- 
many and other of the temperate parts of Europe. The mane 
of the male first appears in its second year. The flesh of the 
Lion is eaten bv the Hottentots, and a tribe of Arabs, between 
Tunis and Algiers, live almost entirely upon it. 
2. Tigris. The Tiger. Ger. der Tiger. Fr. le Tigre. — F. 
cauda elongata, corpore et cruribus nigro-virgatis. 
(The Tiger, by G. Stubbs.) 
Found in Asia only, and there principally from Bengal to 
China, also in Sumatra, &c. It is striped with great regu- 
larity. It may certainlv be tamed, and yields to the Elephant. 
3. Pardus. The Panther*. Ger. der Panther, Parder. Fr. 
la Panth^re. — F. cauda subelongata, maculis obtuse 
angulatis, passim confluentibus et annulatis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 99.) 
In Africa and the East Indies. The spots on its fur, occasion- 
ally run into one another in a horse-shoe, ring-shape, &c. 
The Leopard is a Variety ; is somewhat smaller, and with 
smaller spots, which are mostly placed three or four together 
on a golden yellow ground. 
4. Panther a. The Ounce. Ger. der kleine Panther. Fr. 
l’Once. — F. cauda elongata, corpore albido, maculis 
irregularibus nigris. 
(Schreber. Tab. 100.) 
In Barbary and the East Indies. Much smaller than the pre- 
ceding species. Easily tamed and trained to the chace of deer, 
the Gazelle, &c. for which purpose it has long been employed 
in the East, and also during the middle ages in Italy and 
France. 
5. Onr-a. The Jaguar. (American Tiger.) F. cauda sub- 
elongata, corpore fusco lutescente, maculis angulatis, 
ocellatis, medio flavis. 
( ScnREBER . Tab. 102.) 
In South America. Larger than the Panther, which it other- 
wise resembles. 
* The fur-dealers call all skins of animals of this Genus, with ring- 
shaped spots. Panther; and on the contrary, all those in which the spots 
arc of other forms, Tiger. 

60 
OF MAMMALIA. 
6. Concolor. The Puma, Couguar. (American Lion.) — F. 
cauda mediocri, corpore immaculato fulvo. 
(Schreber. Tab. 104.) 
In Peru, Brazil, &c. Distinguished by its reddish yellow skin 
without spots, (whence it has been called Lion,) and its small 
head. 
7. Lynx. The Mountain Cat. Lynx. Ger. der Luchs. Fr. le 
Loup-Cervier. — F. cauda abbreviata, apice atro, auri- 
culis apice barbatis, corpore maculato, plantis palmisque 
amplissimis. 
(v. Wildungen Tcischenbucli, f. 1800.) 
In the northern parts of the world, common also in the king- 
dom of Naples ; does more mischief among game than even 
the wolf. 
8. Catus. The Cat. Ger. die Katze. Fr. le Chat.— F. cauda 
elongata, striis dorsalibus longitudinalibus, laterahbus 
spiralibus. 
In almost the whole of the Old World, and from thence 
introduced into America by the Spaniards. The wild ani- 
mal (v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1799.) is larger than the 
tame, and of a greyish-red colour, with the lips and soles of 
the feet black. The domestic Cat very rarely copulates under 
the eye of man, and quickly becomes wild when it has acci- 
dentally escaped. Among the peculiarities of the Cat, are its 
powerful electricity 3 the shining of its eyes in the dark ; its 
singular love of certain plants, such as the Nepeta catana, the 
Teucrium marum, &c. ; its purring 3 and the strong and invinci- 
ble antipathy of many individuals to it, &c. Among the prin- 
cipal varieties are the Angora or Persian cat, with long, silky 
hair, which is commonly hard of hearing ; the bluish-grey 
Carthusian or Cyprus cat 5 and the Spanish or Tortoise-shell 
cat : of the latter, the females are often found of three colours, 
(for instance, black, white, and yellowish brown,) equally dis- 
tributed in large spots, while on the contrary, this is very 
rarely the case with the males. 
(C.) BRUTA. 
Without teeth, or at least without front teeth. 
25. Bradypus. Sloth. Ger. Faulthier. Fr. Paresseux - 
Caput rotundatum, crura autica longiora. Dentes 
primores nulli utrinque 3 laniarii (?) obtusi, soli- 
tarii ; molares cylindrici, obtusi. 
1. Tridactylus. The Ai— B. pedibus tridactylis, cauda brevi. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
61 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 53.) 
In Guiana, &c. An extremely inactive, unwieldy animal, but 
with all its laziness, cunning, and on necessity, bold and 
strong ; it is extremely tenacious of life, and has very few 
wants. It feeds on leaves, and scarcely ever drinks. 
26. Orycteropus. Caput productum rostratum. Cauda 
elongata conica. Palmce tetradactylae, plant® penta 
dactyl®. Dentes primores et laniarii nulli : molares 
infra 4, supra 5. 
1 . Capensis. (Myrmecophaga Capensis.) Cape Ant-Eater. 
Ger. das Erdschwein. 
(Buffon Supplement, Vol. VI. Tab. 31.) 
At the Cape, and formerly classed among the Ant-Eaters, but 
improperly. A large and nocturnal animal, which burrows 
in the ground with its powerful claws. 
27- Myrmecophaga. Ant-Eater. Ger. Ameisen-bar. Fr. 
Fourmillier. Rostrum productius, lingua lumbrici- 
formis 5 dentes nulli. 
1 . Jubata. Ger. der grosse Tamandua. — M. palmis tetradac- 
tylis, cauda longa jubata. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 82.) 
Principally in Brazil. About as big in the body as a butcher’s 
dog. In the wild state, it, together with the following small 
species, lives entirely on the large Ants of the countries they 
inhabit. 
2. Didactyla. The Two-toed Ant-Eater. Ger. der kleine 
Tamandua. — M. palmis didactylis j ungue exteriore max- 
imo, plantis tetradactylis cauda prehensili. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 22.) 
Likewise in South America ; of the size and almost of the 
colour of a squirrel. 
28. Maxis. Scaly Ant-Eater. Ger. Schuppenthier. — 
Formosanisches Teufelchen. Corpus squamis tec- 
tum ; lingua teres 5 dentes nulli. 
Their external covering excepted, the animals of this Genus 
present considerable analogy in their form, mode of life, &c . 
to the true Ant-Eaters. By many of the older naturalists, they 
were classed among Lizards. 
1. Tetradactyla. The four-toed Manis 5 Scaly Lizard. Ger. 
Phatagin. — M. cauda longiore ; ungulis bifidis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 14.) 
From Formosa and the neighbouring parts of Asia. About 

() c 2 
OF MAMMALIA. 
the size of the Two-toed Ant-Eater. Its chesnut brown and 
scaly body resembles a fir cone. 
29. Tatu. ( Dasypus . Linn.) Armadillo. Ger. Panzer- 
thier, Giirtelthier. — Corpus testis zonisque osseis ca- 
taphractum 5 dentes primores et laniarii nulli. 
1 . Novemcinctus. Nine banded Armadillo. Ger. der Caschi- 
came. — T. zonis dorsalibus 9; palmis tetradactylis $ plan- 
tis pentadactylis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 83.) 
In South America, as far as Magellan’s Strait. Burrows under 
ground, and, like the Manis and Hedgehog, rolls itself into 
a ball when attacked. 
V. SOLIDUNGULA. 
Animals with hoofs. A single Genus containing but a few 
Species. 
30. Equus. Pedes ungula indivisa, cauda setosa. Dentes 
6 , primores superiores 6 , obtuse truncatij inferiores 
prominentiores ; laniarii solitarii utrinque remoti. 
1 . Caballus. The Horse. Ger. das Pferd. Fr. le Cheval. — E. 
cauda undique setosa. 
The original Wild Horse no longer exists ; but that which 
has become so, is often met with in great numbers; in Tartary, 
for example, and in immense droves in Paraguay, whither, as 
well as into the rest of America, it was introduced by the 
Spaniards. Among the tame races, the Arabians, (particularly 
those of the breed of Annecy, about Palmyra, and from Liba- 
nus to Mount Horeb,) are distinguished by their wonderfully 
fine form, as well as their extreme speed and vigour. Next 
to them, are the Persian and the Barb. Of the European, the 
principal are the Spanish, particularly the Andalusian, the 
Neapolitan and the English. The latter have the pre-emi- 
nence in point of speed, for which they are distinguished in 
their Prize Races. The English race-horse. Eclipse, so famed 
in modern times, passed over fifty-eight feet in a second ; i.e. 
when at fu ll stretch, he covered twenty- five feet, and repeated 
this action twice and one-third (2 i) in a second *. ^ Not to 
mention whole equestrian nations, as the Cossacks, Tatars, 
Calmucks, Tungooses, Abipones, &c., the value of this ani- 
mal to the most cultivated people is incalculable lor agricul- 
ture, cavalry, posts, &c. 
* See an Essay on the Proportions of Eclipse, in the Works of Ch. \ ial 
de Sainbee, London, 1795V. 4to. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
6S 
Many of the equestrian nations above-mentioned, live in great 
part on the flesh and milk of the Horse. The latter when co- 
agulated, and still more so when distilled, gives the intoxi- 
cating Koumiss of the Mongols. 
l 2. A sinus. The Ass. Ger. der Esel. Fr. l’Ane. — E. cauda ex- 
tremitate setosa, cruse dorsali nigra. 
The Wild Ass, from which the tame animal is derived, is the 
true Onager of the ancients ; it is found at present principally 
in Tartary, under the name of Kulan *, from whence it emi- 
grates in 'the Autumn of every year in droves, southwards 
towards Persia and India, where it passes the Winter. It 
is longer and lighter than the domestic Ass, and possesses 
much greater speed. The Ass has not yet been introduced 
into the more northern parts of Europe. It degenerates but 
little at most somewhat in colour ; for instance, there are 
white Asses. 
The Horse and Ass copulate together, and produce two 
kinds of Bastards of great strength, and occasionally, though 
rarely, fertile. One is the common Mule fmulusj. Ger. Maul- 
thier. Fr. Mulet f, bred between the Mare and the Male Ass. 
The other is the Hinnus. ( Ger. Maul Esel. Fr. Bardeau ;};,) 
between the Stallion and the She-Ass. The latter is the most 
uncommon, and has given rise to the fables of Jumars, or 
supposed Bastards between the Horse and Ox. 
3. Zebra. The Zebra. — E. zonis fuscis et albidis, maxime 
regularibus. 
The Zebra, of which there are two distinct species, that have 
been improperly considered as the male and female of a single 
one, is a native of South Africa. It lives in herds, is uncom- 
monly swift, but wild and intractable. When tamed, the fe- 
male has produced Bastards, with the male of both the Horse 
and Ass || . 
"VI. BISULCA. ( Pecora ). 
Ruminating animals with cloven feet, including the most valu- 
able domestic animals. 
31. Gamelus. Cornua nulla, labium leporinum, pedes 
sub-bisulci §. Dentes primores inferiores 6, spathi- 
Pallas in slot. Acarl. Petropol. 1777, P. 2. p. 238, &c. 
t Buffos Supplernen. Vol. 3. Tab. I. + Id. Ion. cit. Tab. 2. 
II Sia Joseph Banks in Nicholson’s Journal of Natural Philosophy , 
vol. II. pp. 2f»7. 5 Lf.viticus, Clmp. ii. verse 4. 

64 
OF MAMMALIA. 
formes ; superiorcs 2 ; laniard distantes, superiores 
3, inferiores 2. 
1. Dromedarius. The Dromedary*. Ger. das gemeine Ca- 
mel. Fr. le Dromadaire. — E. tofo dorsi unico. 
(Schreber. Tab. 303.) 
Is still occasionally found wild in Asia, particularly in the de- 
serts between China and India, but has become a most import- 
ant domestic animal throughout the East and in the northern 
and middle parts of Africa ; (the Ship of the Desert, as the 
Arabs call it) . The common load of the Caravan Camels is 
about six hundred weight, and their day’s journey, about 
four German miles. This useful animal eats the thorny shrubs 
which grow in abundance in the Desert, and on which no other 
animal could exist. We are told also, that it can endure thirst 
for several weeks, drinking, however, a vast quantity at one 
time. This, as well as the next species, has a large callus on 
the front of the breast, four smaller ones on the front, and 
two on the hind legs, on which they support themselves in 
lying down when fatigued. 
2. Bactrianus. The Camel. Ger. das Irampelthier. Fr. It 
Chameau.— C. tofis dorsi duobus. 
(Schreber. Tab. 304.) 
In the middle of Asia as far as China, particularly in large 
herds in Bessarabia, &c. It is employed as a beast of burden, 
more than the preceding species, on account of its quick pace, 
and natural saddle. 
3. Llama. The Llama. Ger. die Camelziege. Fr. le Lama. 
— C. dorso Levi, tofo pectorali. 
(Schreber. Tab. 306.) 
Together with the next species in South America, particularly 
in the mountainous parts of Peru. It is employed as a beast ot 
burden, and though of moderate size, will carry a hundred 
weight and a half. 
3. Vicuna. The Vicugna. Ger. das Shafcamel. Fr. le \ i- 
gogne. — C. tofis nullis, cor pore lanato. 
(Schreber. Tab. 307-) 
Smaller than the Llama. Cannot be tamed, but is taken e\ ery 
year in great numbers for the sake of its cinnamon-brown 
hair, which gives the well-known Vicugna wool. The west- 
ern Bezoar is also most commonly found in this species. 
* It is, by many writers and travellers, called the Camel with two humps. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
65 
32. Capua. Cornua cava rugosa scabra. Dentes pri- 
■ mores superiores nulli, inferiores 8, laniarii nulli. 
1 . Ovis. The Sheep. Ger. das Sehaf, Fr. le Brebis. — C. mento 
imberbi, cornibus coinpressis lunatis. 
Is no longer found originally wild ; neither, as it seems, does 
it ever become wild, like the goat. It is considered through- 
out the whole of the Old W orld, as one of the most useful 
domestic animals, and was introduced into America soon after 
its discovery. 
Of the different Races of Sheep, the most remarkable are 
the Spanish, from Segovia, and also the English, for their 
fine wool; the Iceland, with four, six, or eight horns; and the 
Arabian and Egyptian, with fat tails, weighing 40ibs. The 
Marsh-sheep of East Friesland are without horns ; the Lunen- 
berg Heath-sheep, on the contrary, small, and with horns in 
both sexes. Those between the Tropics have, for the most 
part, smooth goat-like hair instead of wool ; and in South 
Africa, long pendant ears in addition. 
2. Ammon. The Moufflon. Ger. das Muffelthier. (Buffon’s 
Moufflon). — C. cornibus arcuatis circumflexis subtus pla- 
niusculis, palearibus laxis pilosis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 268.) 
In Corsica and Sardinia, Greece and Barbary ; a similar, but 
much larger kind (the Argali,) is found in Siberia, as far as 
Kamschatka, and in the north-west of America. The latter 
forms very high- flavoured game ; has very large heavy horns * ; 
and is considered by many Naturalists as the original stock of 
our common sheep. 
3. Hircus. The Goat. Ger. die Ziege. Fr. le Chevre. — C. 
mento barbato, cornibus arcuatis carinatis. 
The domestic Goat appears to be derived from the ASgagrus 
of Caucasus, and the mountains to the East, and in the stomach 
of which, (as well as of many species of Antelope,) the Ori- 
ental Bezoar stone is found, from which circumstance the 
animal has received the name of Bezoar Goat f. The domestic 
Goat (an important animal to the ancient Guanches of the 
Canary Islands,) easily becomes wild again, and is now almost 
as extensively dispersed through the world as the sheep. The 
* A single and imperfect horn of this kind in the Academical Museum, 
of Gottingen, weighs full nine pounds. 
t Pallas Spicileg. Zoolog. 11 Tab. 5. fig. 2, 3. 
F 

6G 
OF MAMMALIA. 
Angora Goat (Ger. Kammelthier,) has long silky hair 3 and 
from the extremely fine woolly hair, which the small but hand- 
some straight-horned goats of Thibet and Cashmire have under 
their long and coarse coat of hair, are manufactured the costly 
shawls of those lands of paradise *. 
4 . Ibex. The Wild Goat. Ger. der Steinbock. Ft. le Bouque- 
tin. — C. mento barbato, cornibus lunatis maximis, supra 
nodosis, in dorsum reclinatis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1803.) 
(Meisner’s Museum der N. G. Helvetiens. No. 1 — 5.) 
On the highest snowy mountains of Savoy, and the Siberian 
Alps. The horns of the full-grown Ibex weigh full 8 lbs, and 
have commonly the same number of knotty rings on each side. 
33. Antilope. Cornu cava, teretia, annulata, vel spi- 
ralia. Dentes ut in capris. 
An extensive genus, of which the numerous species are found 
in the middle and south of Asia and Africa, but particularly at 
the Cape. 
1 . Rupicapra. The Chamois. Ger. die Gemse. Fr . le Chamois, 
l’lzard. — A. cornibus erectis uncinatis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1803.) 
In the Alpine regions of the temperate parts of Europe and the 
west of Asia. When tamed, it has copulated and produced 
bastards with the goat. The concretions (ajgagropilie), for- 
merly so much esteemed, are formed of the indigestible fibres 
of its food. 
' 2. Dorcas. The Gazelle.— A. cornibus teretihus annulatis, 
medio flexis, apicibus laevibus approximate . 
(Schreber. Tab. 269.) 
Throughout the East, and in North Africa. This light and active 
animal is the favourite object of chace for the Eastern nations, 
and has afforded their poets an object of comparison for female 
beauty. , . 
3 . Pygarga. The "White-faced Antelope. Ger. der Spring- 
bock. Fr. la Gazelle de parade. — A. cornibus liratis, linea 
laterali faciei et trunci fusca, clunibus albis. 
(Vosmaer, Descr. de la Gazelle de parade, •) 
In the interior of South Africa, whence it passes every year m 
great herds towards the Cape, and returns after a few months. 
& 4. Oreas. Ger. das Cudu.— A. cornibus subulatis rectis can- 
nato-contortis, corpore griseo. 
* I have given a notice of these beautiful Shawl-Goats in the Gutting. 
Taschenbuch , for 1813. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
G7 
(Vosmaer, Descr. d'un Animal appeU Canna.) 
In South Africa and the East Indies. The form and length of 
its straight horns resemble that of the fabulous Unicorn, to 
which it probably gave origin. 
34. Bos. — Cornua concava, lunata, lsevia. Dentes ut in 
generibus prsecedentibus. 
1 . Taurus. The Ox. Ger. der Ochse. Fr. le Boeuf. — B. cor- 
nibus teretibus extrorsum curvatis, palearibus laxis. 
The Auerochs (Urus, Bonassus and Bison of the Old World,) is 
still found in Poland, Lithuania, and Siberia, and was formerly 
an inhabitant of Germany. It is not probable, however, on ac- 
count of certain peculiarities in its structure, that it is the 
stock of our tame cattle. Among the most remarkable varieties 
of the latter are the half wild race, white, with brown or black 
ears, from the Ladrones, and in some parts of Great Britain ; 
the Sicilian, with extremely large horns ; those of some parts 
of England 'without horns. On the other hand, it is doubtful, 
if the Indian Ox, Bos Indicus, or Zebu, (Schreber. Tab. 298.) 
considered sacred by the Hindoos, be a mere variety of this 
species. 
Balls of hair, which they have licked and swallowed, are 
occasionally found in the stomach of horned cattle. The fright- 
ful and pestilential epidemy peculiar to them has frequently 
prevailed to a great extent since 1711. On the contrary, the 
cow-pox was, in 17'98, proved by Dr. Jenner, to be an effici- 
ent preservative from small-pox. 
2. Buffelus. The Buffalo. Ger. der Biiffel. Fr. le Buffle. — 
B. cornibus resupinatis intortis antice planis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 300.) 
It comes originally from Thibet, but has gradually spread 
through the greater part of Asia and North Africa, also occa- 
sionally in Europe, as, since the seventh Century in Italy, 
Hungary, and the Salzburg, being used for draught. Its skin is 
black, strong, and with a few hairs. 
3. Grunniens. The Grunting Bull. Ger. der Biiffel mitdem 
Pferde-schweif. Fr. le Buffle a queue de Cheval. — B. cor- 
nibus teretibus, introrsum curvatis, vellere propendente, 
cauda undique jubata. 
(Ablnld. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 23.) 
Also a native of Thibet, but domesticated in Hindostan. Smaller 
than our horned cattle 5 distinguished also by its grunting voice, 
by its shaggy, goat-like hair, and by its bushy long-haired tail, 
F 2 

68 
OF MAMMALIA. 
which, when it is fine, is of considerable estimation and value 
in India. 
4. Ami. Arni. Ger. der Kiesenbuffel. — B. cornibus divarica- 
tis, lunatis, longissimis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 63.) 
In the mountainous regions of the north of Hindostan ; im- 
mensely large, so that a young one weighs 1500 weight. 
5. Bison. The Bison of North America. — B. cornibus diva- 
ricatis brevibus, juba longissima, dorso gibboso. 
(Schreber. Tab. 296.) 
The largest land animal of the New World •, lives in herds in 
the marshy woods of the temperate parts of North America. 
In Winter its whole body is covered with hair, but in Spring 
its back and the hinder parts of the body become bare, only 
the great mane of the breast and neck remaining. 
6. Moschatus. The Musk Ox. Ger. der Bisamstier. Ft. le 
Boeuf musqu£. — B. cornibus deflexis, basibus latissimis 
complanatis ad frontem contiguis j apicibus reflexis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 302.) 
It is confined to the extremity of North America, on the west 
of Hudson’s Bay, from 66° to 73° of north latitude. Two of 
its horns will sometimes weigh upwards of half a hundred 
weight. 
35. Giraffa. Cornua simplicissima pelle tecta, fasciculo 
pilorum nigro terminata. Dentes primores superiores 
nulli ; inferiores 8 spathulati, extimo bilobo ; laniani 
nulli. 
1. Camelopardalis. The Giraffe. 
(Carteret in Phil. Trans. Vol. LX. Tab. 1.) 
In the interior of Africa. It has a very peculiar appearance on 
account of its long neck, short body, sloping back, and red- 
dish, beautifully spotted skin. In walking, it moves the tore 
and hind foot of the same side together, like an ambling horse, 
from which circumstance it has a very remarkable motion, 
whence that of the Knight at chess is derived : when it stands 
upright, it is more than sixteen feet high. 
36. Cervus. Cornua solida multifida. Dentes ut in gene- 
ribus prsecedentibus (interdum tamen laniarii solitarii 
superiores). 
1. Alces. The Elk. Ger. das Elenntliier. Fr. l’Elan. — C. Cor- 
nibus planis acaulibus, palmatis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbnch, f. 1805.) 

OF MAMMALIA. 
G9 
In the whole northern World, unless the Moose-Deer *, ( Ger . 
Nord-Amerieanische Elenn, Fr. l’Orignal,) be a distinct species; 
has very long legs ; reaches the size of a horse, weighs 
upwards of 1200tfes, and its horns upwards of 50 5 can be 
tamed and driven in herds to pasturage. The old assertion, 
that the Elk is often attacked by Epilepsy, &c., needs no refu- 
tation. 
2. Dama. The Fallow-Deer. Ger. der Damhirsch. Fr. le 
Daim. — C. cornibus subramosis compressis, summitate 
palmata. 
(v. WlLDUNGEN Taschenbuch, f. 1796.) 
In the milder regions of Europe. Smaller than the common 
stag : varies in colour. 
3 . Tarandus. The Rein-deer. Ger. das Renthier. Fr. le Ren ne. 
— C. cornibus (in utroque sexu) longis, simplicibus, tere- 
tibus summitatibus subpalmatis, juba gulari pendula. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1805.) 
In all the northern parts of the world; sometimes, as in Kams- 
chatka, in herds of a thousand or more; it cannot exist in 
warm climates ; lives on dry leaves, and particularly on the 
Rein-deer moss, which it scrapes from under the snow. It 
furnishes the Laplanders, Samoides, Tungooses, and Koraks, 
with the means of supplying their most urgent wants. 
4 . Elaphus. The Stag. Ger. der Edel-hirsch. Fr. le Cerf. — 
C. cornibus ramosis totis teretibus, recurvatis apicibus 
multifidis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1794.) 
A native of nearly the same regions with the Elk, but extend- 
ing more southwards. The number of points to the horns does 
not exactly correspond to the age of the animal ; after the 
eighth year it becomes uncertain. The largest and finest horns 
have very seldom more than twenty-four true points. The 
Stag lives about thirty years, or somewhat more. 
5 . Capreolus. The Roe. Ger. das Reh. Fr. le Chevreuil. — C. 
cornibus ramosis, teretibus, erectis, summitate bifida. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1797-) 
In the temperate and warmer countries of Europe and Asia. 
The horns of the Roe -buck are more frequently disfigured by 
exostoses, particularly after castration, than those of other spe- 
cies of this genus. 
* Jo. Fr. Miller, Fasc. 2. Tab. 10. 

70 
OF MAMMALIA. 
37* Moschus. Cornua nulla. Dentes primores ut in prae- 
cedentibus generibus ; laniarii superiores solitarii 
exserti. 
1. Moschifer. The Musk. Ger. das Bisanithier. Fr. le Muse. 
— M. folliculo umbilicali. 
(Schreber. Tab. 242.) 
In the pine forests and mountainous regions of Thibet, and 
the south of Siberia. The male has a bag near the navel, almost 
as large as a hen’s egg, and containing the musk, so valuable 
as a medicine. 
2. Pygmceus. The Pigmy Musk. Ger. das Kleine Guineische 
Rehchen. Fr. le Chevrotain. — M. supra fusco-rufus, sub- 
tus albus, ungulis succenturiatis nullis. 
(Seba. Thes. 1 . Tab. 45. fig. 1.) 
In Guinea and the East Indies. The smallest animal of this 
Order. Its legs are not longer than a finger, and about as 
thick as a pipe stem. 
VII. MULTUNGULA. (Bellu*.) 
Mammifera of large size, unshapely, with bristles or few hairs, 
and with more than two toes on each foot. To this Order also 
belong swine, which have in fact four toes. 
38. Sus. Rostrum truncatum, prominens, mobile. Dentes 
primores (plerisque) superiores 4, convergentes, in- 
feriores 6, prominentes ; laniarii superiores 2, infe- 
riors 2, exserti. 
1. Scrofa. The Wild Boar. The Hog. Ger. das Wilde Schwein ; 
das zahme Schwein. Fr. le Sanglier ; le Cochon. — S. dorso 
setoso, cauda pilosa. 
The Wild Boar. (v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1795.) has a 
longer snout than the tame swine ; the form of the skull is 
different, the ears shorter and erect, the tusks larger; it never 
has hydatids, and is almost always of a blackish grey colour. 
Few animals are so generally dispersed through the whole 
world as the Domestic Hog. Its sense of smell is uncommonly 
acute, and it is nearly omnivorous. The Sow frequently pro- 
duces young twice in the year, and often as many as twenty at 
once. The Hog has become partly wild in America, whither 
it was introduced from Europe. (Fr. Cochons Marrons.) In Cuba 
they are as large again as their European stock ; in Cubagua 
they have degenerated into an extraordinary Race, with toes 
half a span long, &c. The Chinese (Fr. Cochons de Siam.) have 

OF MAMMALIA. 
71 
shorter le°s, and the back arched, without any mane. A Vari- 
ety is not uncommonly met with in Sweden and Hungary, with 
an undivided foot, and was known to the ancients, as well as 
that with five toes. 
2. JEthiopicus. African Hog. Emgallo. Fr. le Sanglier du 
Cap Verd. Sanglier de Madagascar.— S. dentibus primo- 
ribus nullis ; laniariis superioribus lunatis extrorsum cui - 
vatisj sacculis verrucosis sub oculis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 92.) 
In the interior of South Africa, and in Madagascar. A formid- 
able wild animal, with a very large head, a snout a span broad, 
and large warty folds of skin under the eyes. 
3. Tajassu. Peccary. Ger. das Bisamschwein, Nabelschwein, 
— S. cauda nulla, folliculo moschifero ad extremum dorsi. 
(Schreber. Tab. 325.) 
In herds, in the warmer parts of South America. It does not 
weigh above 6‘0tbs. 
Babirussa*. The Babiroussa.— S. dentibus laniariis supe- 
rioribus maximis, parallelis retrorsum arcuatis. 
Particularly in the Molucca Islands. It live3 near the water, 
and can easily swim to islands at a pretty considerable dis- 
tance. It is difficult to understand the utility of the almost se- 
micircular tusks of the upper jaw : they are much smallei in 
the female. 
39. Tapir. Dentes primores utrinque 6, laniarii 4, palmse 
ungulis 4, plantse ungulis 3. 
1. Americanus. The Tapir. (Schreber. Tab. 319.) 
The largest land animal in South America, being of the stature 
of a middle sized Ox. The head and legs are nearly the same 
as in the Hog ; the upper lip pointed, and very moveable. It 
commonly sits on its hind feet like a dog. It goes into the 
water readily, and swims well. 
40 . Elephas. Elephant. Proboscis longissima, prehen- 
silis •, dentes primores superiores exserti. 
1. Asiaticus. E. capite elongato, fronte concava, auriculis 
minoribus angulosis; dentium molarium corona lineis 
undulatis parallelis distincta. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 19. fig. B.) 
In the south of Asia, particularly Ceylon. The largest of all 
land animals, being full 15 feet high, and weighing in its 20th 
* Baba, in the Malay language, means Swine ; russa, Stag. 

72 
OK MAMMALIA. 
year 7000ft>s. Its skin, nearly an inch thick on the back, is, 
notwithstanding, sensible to the stings of insects, and com- 
monly of a grey colour. The most important organ of the 
Elephant is his proboscis, which serves him for respiration, 
for his very acute sense of smell, for drawing up water, for 
seizing his food and conveying it into his mouth, and for many 
other purposes, instead of a hand. lie can extend it to the 
length of six feet, and shorten it again to three. At the extre- 
mity, it is provided with a flexible hook, by means of which 
he can perform various tricks, such as untying knots, un- 
loosing buckles, picking up money, &c. His food consists 
principally of the leaves of trees, rice, and other grain. He 
swims with great facility, even through rapid streams. In co- 
pulating, he leaps on the female like most other quadrupeds. 
The young one sucks with the mouth, and not the trunk as 
many have asserted. About the third or fourth year, the two 
large tusks, which furnish ivory, appear in both sexes. They 
are seven or eight feet long, and a single one will weigh as 
much as 200ifcs. It is probable that the Elephant will live 200 
years. It is principally used as a beast of burden, as it is able 
to carry at least a ton, and to drag heavy articles over moun- 
tains, &c. Its step consists in a quick shuffling motion of the 
legs, but so sure that it never stumbles, even on the worst 
roads. 
2. Africanus. E. capite subrotundo, fronte convexa, auriculis 
amplissimis, rotundatis; dentium molarium corona rhom- 
bis distincta. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 19. fig. C.) 
This species, a native of the middle and south of Africa, is a 
domestic animal in the interior only of that Continent j else- 
where it is hunted and killed merely for its flesh, and parti- 
cularly for procuring ivory. 
41. Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros. Cornu solidum, conicum, 
naso insidens. 
1 Asiaticus. The One-Horned Rhinoceros — Rh. dentibus 
primoribus, utrinque quaternis, inferioribus conicis, supe- 
rioribus sublobatis ; laniariis nullis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Ilist. Gegenst. Tab. 7- fig- B.) 
In the East Indies. The (generally) single horn of this spe- 
cies, as well as the double one of the African, is not attached 
to the bone, but merely rests upon it. 

OF MAMMALIA. 73 
2. Africanus. The Two-Horned Rhinoceros. — Rh. dentibus 
primoribus et laniariis nullis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 7- fig- A.) 
In South Africa, at the Cape, &c. For the most part with a 
double horn ; the second small, and placed behind the first. 
42. Hippopotamus. Dentes primores superiores remoti, 
inf'eriores procumbentes ; laniarii inferiores incur- 
vati, oblique truncati. 
I. Amphibius. The River-Horse. Ger. das Nilpferd. Fr. le 
Cheval marin. (At the Cape, called Sea Cow.) 
(Buffon. Supplement Vol. III. Tab. 62, 63. Vol. VI. Tab. 4, 5.) 
Common in South Africa ; formerly also in the Nile. Ex- 
tremely unwieldy, with a large unshapely head, an immense 
mouth, thick body, short thighs, &c. A full grown one weighs 
at least 3500lbs. It feeds on vegetables and fish. 
VIII. PALMATA. 
Mammifera with webbed feet, the Genera being divided (as in 
the order Digitata,) according to the forms of the teeth into 
three Families. (A.) Glires. (B.) Feres. (C.) Bruta. 
(A.) Glires. With chisel-shaped gnawing teeth. 
43. Castor. Pedes postici palmati. Dentes primores 
utrinque2. 
1. Fiber. The Beaver. Ger. der Biber. Fr. le Castor. — 
C. cauda depressa, ovata, quasi squamosa. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 43.) 
In the Northern World, in lonely spots near lakes and great 
rivers. It is valuable to trade for its fine fur, and in medicine 
for the well known castor which is found in both sexes in a 
particular receptacle at the extremity of the abdomen. These 
animals, however, are particularly remarkable for the ingenuity 
with which tbev construct their permanent residences, in those 
countries in which they are still found in numbers together, 
such as the interior of Canada, and above all, for the wonder- 
ful skill with which they make dams when necessary. Allow- 
ing that there is much exaggeration in the accounts which 
many travellers have given of the Beaver, yet the coincident 
testimony of the most unprejudiced observers from various 
parts of the world, proves that these animals are capable of 
directing their operations according to circumstances, in a 
manner far superior to the unvarying mechanical instinct of 
other creatures. 

74 
OF MAMMALIA. 
(B.) Ferae. With the teeth of carnivorous animals. 
44. Phoca. Pedes postici exporrecti, digiti coaliti. 
Dentes primores superiores 6, inferiores 4 ; laniarii 
solitarii. 
With the animals of the preceding Genus, as it were the Am- 
phibia of Mammifera, their whole structure being calculated to 
enable them to exist in both elements *. 
1 . Vitulina. The Seal. Ger. der Seehund, die Robbe, das 
Seekalb. Fr. le Veau marin. — P. capite laevi, auriculis 
nullis, corpore griseo. 
( Abbild Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 73.) 
In the Northern Seas. Is a creature of great importance to the 
Finnish Islanders, the Kamschatkadales, and particularly to 
the Greenlanders and the Esquimaux of Labrador. The two 
latter people live on its flesh, clothe themselves, build their 
Summer huts, make their canoes, &c., of its skin. Its chace 
forms their principal business, and their success in this is at 
once their fortune and their glory. 
2. Monachus. The Hooded Seal. Ger. die Monchsrobbe. Fr. 
le Phoque a ventre blanc. — P. inauriculata, dentibus inci- 
soribus utrinque 4 5 palmis indivisis, plantis exunguicu- 
latis. (Buffon. Supplem. Vol. VI. Tab. 44.) 
Principally in the Mediterranean Sea. Very docile. Remark- 
able for the incessant variation of its features. 
3. Ursina. The Ursine Seal. Ger. der Seebar. Fr. l’Ours 
marin. — P. auriculata, collo laevi. 
(Buffon, Supplem. Vol. VI. Tab. 47-) 
During Summer, in herds on the islands of the Kamschatkan 
Archipelago, but probably winters in the neighbouring and 
more southerly islands of the Pacific Ocean. Lives in poly- 
gamy, each male having from thirty to forty females, which 
he guards with much jealousy, and fiercely defends against 
his rivals f. 
4. Jubata. The Sea-Lion. Ger. der Stellerscbe. See-Lowe. 
Fr. le Phoque a criniere. — P. auriculata, collo jubato. 
* Thus, for instance, in 1784, on dissecting the eye of a Seal, I found a 
remarkable deposition through which the animal is enabled to elongate 
or shorten the axis of the organ at pleasure, and by that means to see equally 
well in two Media of very different density, viz. Water and Air. See my 
Manual of Comparative Anatomy. § 274. Tab. 6. 
f G. W. Steller’s Beschrcibung von sondebaren Meerthieren , Halle, 
1753. 8vo. (from the Nov. Comment. Petropolit.) 

OF MAMMALIA. 
75 
(Buffon, Supplem. Vol. VI. Tab. 48.) 
In the whole of the Pacific Ocean. The largest species of this 
Genus. It has its name from the Lion-like mane of the male. 
5. Proboscidea. (Cristata Linn.) The Sea Elephant. An- 
son’s Sea-Lion. Fr. le Phoque a Trompe. — P. naso pro- 
boscideo retractili. 
(Peron, Vmj. aux Terres Australes. Tab. 32.) 
On the Southern Islands of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
Is about 30 feet in length. The male alone has the remark- 
able proboscis-like nose. 
45. Lutra. Palmas plantajque natatorige. Dentes pri- 
mores utrinque 6, superiores distincti, inferiores con- 
ferti. 
2. Vulgaris. The Otter. Ger. die Fischotter. Fr. la Loutre 
L. plantis midis, cauda corpore dimidio breviore. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbucli, f. 1798.) 
In the temperate parts of the Northern World. The most beau- 
tiful in Canada. 
2. Brasiliensis. The American Otter. Ger. die Brasilische 
Flussotter. Fr. La Loutre d’Amerique. — L. badia, macula 
alba submentali, cauda corpore dimidio breviore. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 93.) 
This Species, commonly confounded with the following one, 
lives in the rivers and lakes of the eastern and inner parts of 
South America. 
3. Marina. The Sea Otter. Ger. die See Otter. Fr. la Loutre 
de mer. — L. nigra, plantis pilosis, cauda corpore quadru- 
ple breviore. 
(Cook s I'oyage to the Northern Hemisphere, Vol. II. Tab. 43.) 
In particular on Kamschatka, and the opposite coasts of the 
north-west of America down to Nootka Sound, also, as far as 
Corea, and especially in the Yellow Sea. Its black and silver- 
grey skin is, with the Chinese, the most valuable of all peltry. 
(C.) Bruta. Without teeth, or at least without front teeth. 
48. Ornituoryncuus. Mandibulae rostratae (anatinae) 
Dentes nulli *. 
* for the organs which Sir E. Home has described as the molar teeth, 
and which neither possess enamel or bony substance, fangs nor alveoli ; the 
structure of which too, he has compared with that of the inner membrane 
of the gizzard in fowls, cannot, according to the scientific terminology of 
Anatomy and Natural History, be considered as actual teeth of a warm 
blooded quadruped. 

76 
OF MAMMALIA. 
1. Paradoxus. The Duck-billed animal. Ger. das Schnabel - 
thier. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 41.) 
This extraordinary creature is distinguished from allmammi- 
ferous animals yet known, by the unprecedented formation of 
its jaws, which resemble in the closest possible manner, the 
broad flat bill of a Duck, are covered in the same way with a 
soft membrane, plentifully supplied with nerves for the purpose 
of tasting, and also like it, serrated at the lateral edges. The 
feet are provided with webs, which in the front ones project 
beyond the claws, and can by that means be folded up or ex- 
panded like a fan. No appearances of teats have been hitherto 
detected in either sex. This wonderful animal lives near the 
lakes about Botany Bay, in the fifth part of the world, so rich 
in creatures of remarkable formation. 
47. Trichechus. Pedes posteriores compedes coadunati. 
1. Rosmarus. The Walrus. Ger. das Wallross. Fr. le Morse. 
— T. dentibus laniariis superioribus exsertis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 15.) 
On the floating ice about the North Pole. Feeds on sea-weed 
and shell-fish, which it detaches with its long tusks. The an- 
cient Normans 'made their almost indestructable cables from 
its skin *. 
2. Manatus. The Manati. Ger. die Seekuh. Fr. le Laman- 
tin. — T. dentibus laniariis inclusis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 80.) 
Found in the rivers and on the coasts of the warmer parts of 
the world, for instance in numbers in the Orinoco. It has 
probably given origin to many of the tales about Syrens and 
Mermaids f. 
IX. CETACEA. 
The mammiferous animals which were formerly so incorrectly 
classed among Fishes % • 
48. Monodon. Dens alteruter maxilla! superioris ex- 
sertus longissimus, rectus, spiralis. 
* See Ohthere’s Voyage in J.Spelmanni Vita Aelfredi magni Anglor. 
B ' e fTh e^Lapides Manati, as they are improperly called, do not belong to 
this animal, but are commonly a part of the auditory passage and tympa- 
num of the whale. 
+ See Prof, Schneider’s V crmischte AbhundL zttr Aufklavung de> Zoo - 
logie,&c. Berlin, 1784, 8vo. p. 175-304. Also, 
C. Lacepbde Histoirc Naturellc dc.s Cetacccs. Fans. An 1~. 4 o. 

OF MAMMALIA. 
77 
1. Narwhal. The Nar whale. Ger. das See-Einhorn. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 44.) 
Principally in the north of the Atlantic Ocean. The young 
animal has originally two teeth (one in each bone of the upper 
jaw,) of unequal size ; both are rarely found in the full grown 
animal. The tooth is occasionally as long as the body, i.e. 18 
feet and upwards. 
49. Baljena. Dentes nulli. Laminae loco superiorum 
corneae. 
1. Mysticetus. The Black Whale. Ger. der Wallfisch. Fr. la 
Baleine. — B. dorso impinni. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 94.) 
The largest of all known animals *, weighing upwards of 
100,000lfes. It is found near the North Pole, in the southern 
parts of the Atlantic, and in the Pacific Ocean. Those that are 
taken at the present day are rarely longer than from 60 to 70 
feet. The vast head forms full a third of the whole length of 
the animal. The skin is mostly black, or marbled with white, 
and shell- fish is often attached to it ; it has a few scattered hairs. 
This monstrous animal furnishes at once food and clothing to 
the Kamschatkadale islanders, and the natives of the north- 
west of America. The Europeans, on the contrary, take the 
Whale (of which a large one may be worth 5000 rix-dollars,) 
for the sake of the oil and bones, of which there are 700 in 
the upper jaw, the middle ones at least 20 feet long. 
2. Rostrata. The sharp-nosed Whale. Ger. der Finnfische. 
B. pectore sulcato, pinna dorsali obtusa. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 74.) 
The skin on the neck, breast, and fore part of the belly in this 
and other species of this Genus, is very regularly furrowed 
longitudinally f. 
50. Physeter. Dentes in maxilla inferiore. 
1. Macro cephalus. The White Whale. Ger. der Pottfiscli. 
Fr. le Cachalot. — B. dorso impinni, dentibus inflexis, 
apice acutiusculo. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. S4.) 
For the supposed Kraken — see the Article Asterias caput Medusa. 
t A fin-fish of this kind (by which name the Whale-fishers designate all 
the speaes of this Genus that have a dorsal fin, as B. physalus— hoops , &c.,) 
winch I had an unhoped for opportunity of seeing stranded in the fresh state, 
wa3 o2 feet long, and had 64 such furrows on the breast, more than a 
thumb s breadth wide and deep. 

78 
OF MAMMALIA. 
Principally in the South Sens, and particularly on the coasts of 
Brazil and New South Wales : it reaches the size of the true 
Whale, has an enormous gullet, and can swallow Sharks six 
feet long. The upper jaw is very broad ; the lower, on the 
contrary, very narrow. It is taken principally for the sake of 
the spermaceti, which is found in the form of a milk white 
oil, partly in the body near the blubber, and in greater quan- 
tity in particular cavities on the head, particularly in front of 
the upper jaw. When exposed to the air, it hardens into a semi- 
transparent kind of tallow. The valuable and odoriferous am- 
bergris is a foecal induration, principally found in the large in- 
testines of the Cachalot when in a state of disease. 
51. Delphinus. Dentes in maxilla utraque. 
1. Phoccena. (Tursio. Plin.) The Porpoise. Ger. das Meer- 
schwein, der Braunfisch. Fr. le Marsouin.-^-D. corpore 
subconiformi, dorso lato pinnato, rostro subobtuso. 
(Schkeber. Tab. 342.) 
Together with the next species, in the European Seas : it is 
also nine feet long, and very destructive to salmon. 
2. Delphis. The Dolphin. Ger. der Delphin. Tiimmler. Fr. le 
Dauphin. — D. corpore oblongo subtereti, dorso pinnato, 
rostro attenuato, acuto. 
fAbbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 95.) 
The true Dolphin of the ancients. 
3. Orca. The Grampus. Ger. der Nordcaper, Speckhauer. Fr. 
l’Epaulard. — D. pinna dorsi altissima; dentibus subco- 
nicis, parum incurvis. 
(Schreber. Tab. 240.) 
Mostly in the Northern Seas, but also in the Mediterranean; 
is 20 feet in length. 

OF BIRDS. 
79 
SECT. V. 
OF BIRDS. 
§ 55. Mammifera present such considerable differences in 
their forms, their mode of life, &c., as to make it difficult to 
generalize on the subject, and consequently, to render it ne- 
cessary to enter more particularly into their individual history. 
The case is otherwise with respect to Birds. Their forms, as 
well as their modes of life are, taken altogether, much more 
uniform, a circumstance by which we are enabled to treat 
more briefly of the particular history of individual Genera and 
Species. 
§ 56. With regard to form, all Birds coincide in having two 
feet, two wings, a bill, either partly or entirely horny, and abody 
covered with feathers. They are distinguished by these four 
characters from all other animals, and constitute as it were an 
isolated class of beings, which does not pass into any other, 
and which cannot, therefore, be introduced without violence 
into the supposed chain or gradation of natural bodies. (§ 4.) 
§ 5/. Of these characters, one is peculiar to Birds, viz. fea- 
thers placed in regular order (in quincunx,) in the skin, pass- 
ing through a considerable quantity of fat, and thrown off and 
again renewed at certain seasons of the year, generally in 
Autumn. Many, such as most water-fowl, the ptarmigan, &c., 
moult twice in the year, in Autumn and in Spring, In many 
Speeies, the young birds, particularly before the first moulting, 
have different marks or colours of the feathers, from those 
which the older ones present. In many instances too, there are 
considerable differences depending on the sex. The feathers 
differ from hair in this respect, that when once cut or other- 
wise injured, they never, as far as is known, are restored. 
§ 58. The strongest feathers are in the pinions and tail : the 
former are called Remiges, the latter Rectrices. The pinion- 
feathers form, when the wing is expanded, as it were, broad 
fans, by which the bird is enabled to raise itself in the air and 
fly. Some few birds (aves impennes) , as the Penguin, &c., have 
scarcely any pinion-feathers, and are therefore unfit for flight. 

80 
OF BIRDS. 
Some others also, as the Cassowary, Diver, &.C., have not any 
tail-feathers. 
§ 59. In their internal structure *, Birds are distinguished 
by the remarkable receptacles for air dispersed through their 
body, and of the utmost importance in assisting their flight. 
They are mostly connected with the lungs, sometimes, how- 
ever, only with the throat, and can be filled or emptied at 
pleasure. To these receptacles belong, in particular, large but 
delicate membranous cells, situated partly in the abdomen, 
partly under the wings, and elsewhere beneath the skin, and 
which can be filled with air through the lungs. The cavities 
in some of the bones, as of the shoulder, and in many cases 
even of the head, contribute to the same objects, to which, 
also, the enormous bills of the Toucan and Rhinoceros bird 
are accessary. 
§. 60. By these notable dispositions. Birds are adapted for 
flight, of which the rapidity, as well as the continuance are 
alike remarkable. A few only, as the Ostrich, the Cassowary, 
Penguin, and other aves impennes, are incapable of flying. 
§. 61. The abode of Birds is nearly as various as that of 
mammifera. Most live in trees ; others in water ; very few 
wholly on the ground : and not a single bird under ground, 
as the Mole in the preceding, and other creatures in the two 
following Classes of animals. The form of the foot in birds, 
as in mammifera, is adapted to the differences of their abodes +. 
§ 62. Many Birds change their residence at certain seasons 5 
the greater number only in so far as that they remove a few 
leagues into neighbouring districts, and speedily return to 
their former situation : others, on the contrary, as Swallows, 
the Crane, the Stork, &c., make long journeys in Autumn over 
seas, and a considerable portion of the earth, and remain in 
warmer regions during Winter, until their return in the fol- 
lowing Spring. 
§ 63. There is not any Bird provided with teeth, but they 
either tear their food with the beak, or swallow it whole. In 
* I have treated more fully of the peculiarities of the internal structure 
of Birds, in the Specimen physiologies comparatee inter animanUa cal oh 
sanguinis vivipara et ovipara — published in the Comment. Societ. Iteg. Scl- 
ent. Gottingen. — Vol. IX. p. 108-128. 
f The technical names of these different forms are explained in Forster s 
Enchiridion, p. 15. ; in Illiger’s Terminology, p. 187.; and in the third 
Part of Bechstein’s Ornithologisches Taschenbuch. 

OF BIRDS. 
81 
Birds that live on seeds, and swallow the grains unbroken, 
they do not pass at once into the stomach, but are previously 
softened in a crop ( ingluvies , prolobus) abounding with glands, 
and thence are gradually propelled into the stomach. The 
latter is in these animals extremely muscular, and so powerful, 
that, according to the remarkable experiments of Reaumur 
and others, it is able to break nuts and olive kernels, and to 
wear the impressions on pieces of money as smooth as paper. 
In addition, many birds swallow little pebbles, which also 
contribute to the division and subsequent digestion of their 
food *. Various carnivorous birds, as Falcons, Owls, the 
King-tisher, &c., are unable to digest the bones, hair, &c., of 
their prey, but vomit them up after each meal, in the form of 
a round ball f. 
§ 64. Among the peculiarities of the organs of sense in birds, 
as compared with mammifera, are the want of an external car- 
tilaginous ear, for the purpose of collecting sounds, a defici- 
encv, however, which is compensated for, especially in noc- 
turnal birds of prey, by the extremely regular circular dispo- 
sition of the feathers in the situation of the ear, and in many, 
by the super-addition of a moveable valve on the external 
auditory passage. 
Remark. Only a very few birds, viz. Ducks, and some similar 
species, appear to possess a real sense of taste; in them 
the organ is the soft covering of the bill, which is sup- 
plied with exceedingly large cutaneous nerves, and is very 
sensible in the living animal. Accordingly it is easy to 
remark the manner in which Ducks probe, as it were, the 
puddles in search of their food, where they cannot be 
guided by their sight or smell. 
§ 65. The voice of Birds, particularly the small Singing 
birds, is varied and agreeable ; but they cannot be so correctly 
said to sing as to whistle, for natural singing is an exclusive 
* Physiologists have differed as to the object and use for which stone 
are thus swallowed. Many have even supposed that? it proceeds from stupi 
dity. According to my own investigations, it is an indispensible measure of 
assistance to digestion, by depriving the seeds swallowed of their vitality, 
without which they would not yield to the digestive powers. 
t From a similar source arise the Star-shoots, as they are called, viz. the 
greyish-white, gelatinous lumps, commonly with the convoluted form of 
intestines, found in meadows, and consisting of half-digested viscera of 
frogs, which have been rejected by crows, marsh and water birds. See 
Dr. Pf.rsoon, in Voigt’s Netie s Magazin, Vol. I. Part 2. p. 56. et seq. 
G 

82 
OF BIRDS. 
privilege of man. Besides the receptacles of air already men- 
tioned, (§ 59.) their song is accomplished particularly by the 
disposition of the larynx, which in birds is not, as in mamrni- 
fera and amphibia, placed wholly at the upper end of the 
wind-pipe, but, as it were, separated into two parts, one 
placed at each extremity. Parrots, Ravens, Starlings, Bull- 
finches, &c. have been taught to imitate the human voice, and 
to speak some words; Singing birds also, in captivity, readily 
adopt the song of others, learn tunes, and can even be made 
to sing in company, so that it has been possible actually to 
give a little concert by several Bullfinches. In general, how- 
ever, the song of birds in the wild state appears to be formed 
by practice and imitation. 
§ 66. Most birds pair in Spring; many, however, as the 
Cross-bill, at the coldest season of the year, after Christmas. 
Our domestic poultry are not confined to any particular time 
in this respect, but are always capable of breeding. Some 
birds remain in company only during the time of pairing ; 
others, as the Dove and house Swallow, constantly ; others 
again, as the domestic fowl, and of wild birds, the Ostrich, 
are polygamous. 
§ 67- The female, when impregnated, is impelled by instinct 
to provide for the future, and to build a nest, to which per- 
haps, besides the Cuckoo, there are very few exceptions, such 
as the Goatsucker. Among polygamous birds, such as the va- 
rious kinds of Poultry, the male has no share in this business ; 
in those, on the contrary, w hich live together, as among the 
Singing birds in particular, he also brings materials for con- 
structing the nest, and feeds his mate during her employment. 
§ 68. The selection of the place in which each species forms 
its nest, corresponds w ith its wants and mode of life. Equal 
care is shewn by each in the choice of materials for the com- 
position of the nest. > 
§ 69. The form of the nest is, in different instances, more 
or less artificial. Many birds, as Snipes, the Bustard, and 
Lapwing, make merely a dry layer of brushwood, straw, &c., 
on the surface of the ground; others make a soft but unarti- 
ficial bed in the holes of walls, rocks, or trees, as the Wood- 
pecker, Jay, Jackdaw, and Sparrow. Many, particularly among 
the Gallinae, Doves, and Singing birds, give their nests the 
form of a hemisphere, or of a plate ; others, as the Wren, the 

OF BIRDS. 
83 
shape of an oven ; others again, as many Titmice, the Haw- 
finch, See., that of a bag, and so forth *. 
§ 70. When the formation of the nest is completed the mo- 
ther lays her eggs, the number of which varies much in dif- 
ferent species. Many Water-birds, for instance, lay each time 
but one egg; most Doves, two; Gulls, three; Ravens, four; 
Finches, five ; Swallows, six to eight ; Partridges and Quails, 
fourteen ; and the domestic fowl, particularly when its eggs 
are taken away, fifty and more +. Many birds, often lay eggs 
without previous impregnation, which cannot produce young, 
and are called wind-eggs ( ova subventanea, cynosura , zephyria, 
hypenemia.) 
§ 71. The formation of the young animal, which in mam- 
mifera is carried on in the womb, in birds, on the contrary, is 
completed by the incubation of the egg after it has been de- 
posited. The Cuckoo alone does not hatch its eggs, but leaves 
them to the Hedge-sparrow, or Water-wagtail, in whose nests 
it lays them. On the other hand, it is known that Capons, 
Dogs, and even Men have hatched eggs J. Chickens too, can 
be easily hatched by artificial means merely, from heated dung ||, 
the lamps of hatching machines, or ovens §. Birds are fa- 
tigued by long continued incubation ; and it is only among 
those which live in pairs, as Doves, Swallows, &c., that the 
male takes any part in the business. The cocks of the Canary 
bird. Linnet, Goldfinch, &c., though they leave the hatching 
altogether to the females, supply them during its continuance 
with food, and in part from their own crop. 
§ 72. During incubation, a remarkable process is going for- 
wards, the chick being progressively formed in the egg, and 
* Ad. L. Wirsing Sammlung von Nestern undEyern verschiedner Vogel, 
beschrieben von Fr. Ciir. Gunther, Niirnb. 1772. folio. 
t In this case too, the laying of eggs appears to be a voluntary function, 
in which respect it differs remarkably from the totally involuntary parturi - 
tion of mammifera. 
X Pun. L. 10. Cap. 55. “ Livia Augusta, prima sua juventa Tiberio Ctesare 
ex Nerone gravida, cum parere virilem sexum admodum cuperet, hoc usa 
est puellari augurio, ovum in sinu fovendo, atque cum deponendum haberet, 
nutrici per sinurn tradendo, ne intermitteretur tepor.” 
i! Aristot. Hist. Animal. Lib. 6. Cap. 2. L'Art de faire iclore des oiseaux 
domestu/ues, par M. de Reaumur. Paris, 1741. 3 Vols. 12mo. L'Abb6 Co- 
pineau, Omithrotrophie artificielle. Paris, 1780. 12mo. 
5 See a precise description of this useful and cheap machine, together 
with interesting and instructive observations in Hollman’s Unterricht von 
Rarornelern and Thermometern. Gottingen, 1785. 8vo. p. 206, 271. et seq. 
G 2 

84 
OK BIRDS. 
brought daily nearer and nearer to maturity *. For this pur- 
pose, not only is the yolk specifically lighter than the white, 
but also that spot on its upper surface (the so called cicatricula) , 
in which the future chick is placed, is lighter than the opposite 
side 5 so that in whatever position the egg is placed, the same 
part is always opposed to the belly of the incubating bird. The 
first trace of the chick is not perceptible until some time after 
the commencement of incubation ; in the hen’s egg, for in- 
stance, scarcely before the end of the first day ; and at the end 
of the second, the remarkable spectacle of the first motions of 
the incomplete heart (punctum saliens) presents itself. At the 
end of the fifth day, the whole jelly-like creature may be seen 
to move. On the fourteenth, the feathers appear ; at the com- 
mencement of the fifteenth the chick attempts to breathe; and 
on the nineteenth it is able to chirp. 
Remark. The first form which the bird assumes in the egg 
differs more from that which it possesses after being 
hatched, than mammifera do in their first and subsequent 
form; we might say that the chick in the egg arrives at 
its more perfect form by a real metamorphosis, and this 
as well with respect to individual organs (the heart for 
example), as the whole form. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 64.) 
§ 73. Among the many organs subservient to the remark- 
able economy of the chick during incubation, the two most 
important are the vascular membranes, which are most con- 
spicuous and beautiful about the middle of the process. These 
are the chorion , which is then expanded under the shell ; and 
the membrane of the yolk fmembrana valvulosa vitelli), which 
communicates with the intestinal canal of the young animal. 
The first serves instead of lungs, for the phlogistic process al- 
ready mentioned (§ 24.) ; and the second for nutrition by 
means of the yolk, which is gradually diluted by mixing with 
the white. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 34.) 
§ 74. Every Species of Bird has a fixed time of incubation, 
of different length in different cases, and capable of being ac- 
celerated or retarded according to the difference of climate, 
and the warmth or coldness of the weather. In the common 
* For this progressive formation of the chick, and the organs in the egg 
belonging to its economy, see the 27th Section of my Manual of Com- 
parative Anatomy. 

OF BIRDS. 85 
fowl, the chick is usually able to creep out of the shell about 
the end of the twenty-first day. 
§ 75. The young birds are fed for some time by the mother 
with great care 3 and among those which live in monogamy, 
also by the father, principally, in the granivorous birds, with 
the reeurffitated contents of the crop, until such time as thev 
are feathered, and capable of providing for themselves. 
§ 76. Birds, in proportion to their size, and as compared 
with mammifera, attain a very advanced age : it is known 
that, even in captivity. Eagles and Parrots will live more than 
a hundred. Chaffinches and Goldfinches more than twenty-four 
years. 
§ 77- Birds are extremely important creatures for the eco- 
nomy of Nature in general, although their immediate utility 
to mankind is infinitely less than that of mammifera. They 
destroy innumerable insects, and the thoughtless extirpation 
of some birds, supposed to be noxious, as Sparrows, Crows, 
&c., in many districts, has generally given rise to an infinitely 
more prejudicial multiplication of vermin. Other birds destroy 
larger animals, as Field Mice, Snakes, Frogs, Lizards, or con- 
sume carrion. Many extirpate weeds. On the other hand, 
thev assist the increase and propagation of animals as well as 
plants. For instance, it is known that wild Ducks, in their 
emigrations, carry impregnated spawn into remote ponds, &c., 
and thus stock them with fish. Many birds swallow seeds, 
which are subsequently expelled whole, and thus extensively 
dispersed, as the Doves of Banda with the nutmeg. The 
excrement of Sea-birds manures bare cliffs and coasts, so as 
to render them capable of producing useful plants. Many 
species of Falcons may be taught for the chace, as well as the 
Cormorant for taking fish. Many birds, together with their 
eggs, fat, &c., serve for food; the entire skins of Sea-birds for 
the clothing of many Northern nations ; the feathers for stuf- 
fing beds, for writing, for various and often costly ornaments, 
in which respect also they form an important article of trade 
among many savage people, particularly the islanders of the 
Pacific Ocean. 
k 78. The injury which birds give rise to, is almost wholly 
confined to the destruction of useful animals and plants. The 
Condor, the Vulture,- and other birds of prey, kill Calves, 
Goats, Sheep, &c. r JTie Osprey, and many Water-birds are as 
injurious to fish and their young, as the Hawk, Sparrow-hawk, 

86 
OF BIRDS. 
and Magpie, to common poultry. Sparrows, and many small 
Singing birds destroy corn, grapes, and fruit. And lastly, they 
assist in propagating weeds as well as serviceable plants. In 
this, as in the preceding class, no actually venomous animals 
are to be found. 
§ 79. As the general form of birds is tolerably uniform, and 
certain parts of their body, as the bill and feet, which are con- 
nected with their mode of life, food, &c., influence their total 
habit very materially, most Ornithologists have grounded their 
classification on the differences of one or other of those parts : 
Kleine, for instance, on the form of the toes ; Mouring, on the 
coverings of the legs ; Brisson, on both, in combination with 
the nature of the bill, &c. Linnaeus, in the plan of his System 
of Birds, also adopts several parts, in combination with, in 
general, a reference to the total habit ; although in its practi- 
cal application, he appears at times to have been forgetful ; at 
least it is impossible to understand how Parrots, Humming- 
birds, and Crows, should be placed in the same Order; or why 
he should have placed Doves and the common Fowl in two 
separate ones, with other approximations and divisions of the 
same nature. 
§ 80. I have, therefore, allowed myself to make some de- 
viations from the Linnean system, and endeavoured to divide 
the whole class among the following nine Orders . 
(A.) LAND BIRDS. 
I. Accipitres. Birds of prey; with strong hooked 
beaks, mostly with short, strong, knotty feet, and 
large crooked sharp claws. 
II. Levirostres. With short feet, and very large, 
thick, but mostly hollow, and therefore light, bills. 
— Parrots, Toucans, &c. 
III. Pici. With short feet; moderately long and small 
bills, and the tongue sometimes worm-shaped, 
sometimes thread-like.— The Wry-neck, Wood- 
pecker, Creeper, Humming-bird, fkc. 
IV. Coraces. With short feet, and the bill moderately 
long, tolerably strong, and convex above.— Ravens, 
Crows, &c. 
V. Passeres. The Singing birds, with Swallows, &c. 
The feet short, the bill more or less conical, point- 
ed, and of various length and thickness. 

OF BIRDS. 
87 
VI. Galling. Birds with short feet, the bill somewhat 
convex above, and having- a fleshy membrane at 
the base.— I have placed the Doves in this Order, 
as they are far more closely connected with the 
Gallinse than the Passeres, among which Linnjeus 
had placed them. 
VII. Struthiones. Large land birds, unsuited for flying. 
— The Ostrich, Cassowary, and Dodo. 
(B.) WATER BIRDS. 
VIII. Grallal Birds found in marshes, with long feet ; 
long, and almost cylindrical, bills, and generally a 
long neck. 
IX. Anseres. Swimming birds with oar-like feet, a 
short bill covered Avith skin, generally serrated at 
the edge, and terminated at the extremity ol the 
upper jaw by a little hook. 
For the Natural History of Birds. 
Conr. Gesxeri. Historic e animalium Lib. 3. qui est de Avium 
natura. Tiguri, 1555. folio. 
Ulyss. Aldrovandi. Ornithologia. Bonon, 1599. 3 Vols. fol. 
F. Willoughby Ornithologice Lib. 3. ex ed. Raii. Lond. 1676. 
folio. 
Jo. Raii. Synopsis methodica avium. Ibid. 1713. 8vo. 
J. Edwards’ Natural History of Birds. Lond. 1743. seq. 
4 Vols. 4to. 
Ej. Gleanings of Natural History. Ibid. 1751. seq. 3 V ols. 4to. 
Brisson Ornithologie. Paris, 1760. 6 Vols. 4to. 
Buffon. 
Daubenton Planches des Oiseaux. Paris, 1775. seq. folio. 
Th. Pennant’s Genera of Birds. Lond. 1781. 4to. 
Ej. Arctic Zoology. Ibid. 1784. 2 Vols. 4to. 
Jo. Latham’s General Synopsis of Birds. Ibid. 1781. 6 Vols. 
4to. and the Supplement. Ibid. 1787- 
F. M. Daudin Traitd elementaire et complet d' Ornithologie. 
Paris, 1800. 2 Vols. 4to. 
C. J. Temminck Tableau Systematique des Oiseaux qui se trou- 
vent en Europe. Amst. 1815. 8vo. 
Jon. Leonii. Frisch. Vorstellung der Vogel in Deutschland. 
Berlin, 1733 bis 1763. folio. (242 Taf.) 

88 OF BIRDS. 
J . M. Bechstein’s Gemeinntitzige Natur-Gescluchte Deutsch- 
lands. Leipz. 1791. 2 Vols. 8vo. 
Dess. Ornitliologisches Taschenbuch von und fur Deutschland. 
Leipz. 1802. u.f. 3 Th. Kl. Svo. 
J. P. A. Leisler’s Nachtrdge zu Bechstein’s Natur-Ges- 
chichte Deutschlands. 1 H. Hanau, 1812. Svo. 
J. Wolf und J. Fr. Frauenholz Abbildungen und Beschrcib- 
ungen der in FranJcen brutenden Vogel. Nurnb. seit 1799. 
folio und 4to. 
Teutsche Ornithologie, herausgegeb. von Borkiiausen, Licii- 
thamjmer und Becker dem Jung. Darmst. seit 1800. folio. 
Taschenbuch der deutschen Vogel Kunde, oder Kurze Beschrei-. 
bung aller Vogel Deutschlands, von Meyer und Wolf. 
Frankf. amM. 1810. 2 B. 8vo. 
Corn. Nozeman Nederlandsche Vogelen, door Chr. Sepp en 
Zoon. Amst. 1770. seq. folio. 
A History of British Birds ; the Figures engraved on Wood, by 
T. Bewick. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1797-1803. 2\ ols.Svo. 
Marc. Catesby’s Natural History of Carolina. Lond. 1731. 
2 Vols. folio. 
Andr. Sparrmann Museum Car Isonianum. Holm. 1786. Fasc.2. 
folio. 
For the Physiology of this Class of Animals. Fr. Tiede- 
mann’s Zoologie. 2 r. u. 3 r Bd. Heidelb. 1810-14. Svo. 
Of Lund Birds in Seveti Orders. 
I. ACCIPITRES. 
Almost all with short, strong feet, large sharp claws, and a 
strong hooked beak, which, for the most part, terminates above 
in two short cutting points, and is commonly covered at the 
root with a fleshy membrane. (Cera.) They live partly on 
carrion, partly on living animals, are monogamous, build 
their nests in elevated situations, and are coarse and disagree- 
able as food. 
1. Vultur. Rostrum rectum, apice aduncum ; plerisque 
caput et collum impenne. Lingua bifida. 
1. Gryphus. The Condor. — V. caruncula verticali longitu- 
dine capitis. 
( De Humboldt’s Recueil d' Observations de Zoologie. Feb. 8-9.) 
Principally in the western parts of South America. It mea- 
sures 12 feet across when the wiogs are expanded, and the 

OF MUDS. 
89 
ion feathers are full as thick as a finger in the quill. Its 
our is blackish brown, with a white circle round the neck.— 
uilds its nest principally on rocky shores, flies at an extra- 
nary elevation, and lives by preying on cattle, and on the 
I fish thrown up by the sea. 
Papa. The King of the Vultures. Ger. der Geyerkonig, 
Sonnengeyer. Fr. le Roi des \autours. V. naiibus ca- 
runculatis, vertice colloque denudato. 
(Buffon. Oiseaux. Vol. I. Tab. 6.) 
? West Indies and South America. Not larger than a 
j ' ypRjj splendid yellow, red, and black colours, pai ticu 
ibout the head, and with a long fleshy fold over the beak, 
completely conceal its naked neck in the thick collar of 
•s about the shoulders. 
arbatus . The Bearded Vulture. Ger. der Lammergeyer, 
irtgeyer. Fr. le Vautour des Agneaux.— V. rostri dorso 
tsus apicem gibboso, mento barbato. 
fAbbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. S5.) 
yrolese and Swiss Alps ; also in Siberia and Abyssinia, 
largest of European birds, the wings, when expanded, 
S 10 feet. It is principally distinguished from other 
by its strong hairy beard, by its feathered neck, and 
by the convexity of the fore part of the upper 
nopterus. The common Vulture. Ger. der Aasgeyer. 
>. petit Vautour. — V. remigibus nigris, margine ex- 
e, praeter extimas, canis. 
' numerous in Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt. It 
ice, Lizards, &c., innumerable. The ancient Egyp- 
ered this, as well as other serviceable animals, 
have frequently represented it in the hieroglyphics 
lisks, the coverings of their Mummies, &c. 
lco. (Span. Acor.) Rostrum aduncum, basi cera 
tructum ; caput pennis tectum ; lingua bifida, 
x. Serpentarius. The Secretary Bird. Ger. der Secretar. Fr. 
le Messager. — F. cera alba, cruribus longissimis, crista 
cervicali pendula, rectricibus intermediis elongatis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 55.) 
* Many modern Naturalists, for example Buffon, Fohtis, togethc 
with Bom a re, Molina, and others, have considered this species identical 
with the Condor, but incorrectly. 

90 
OF BIRDS. 
At the Cape, and farther inland ; also at the Philippines. 
It has long legs like wading birds (Grallae *.) 
2. Melanaetns. The Black Eagle. Ger. der Schwarzbraune 
Adler. Fr. l’Aigle commun. — F. cera lutea, pedibusque 
semilanatis, corpore ferrugineo, nigricante, striis flavis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbucli, f. 1800. 
In Europe. Considerably smaller than the next species. 
3. Chrysaetos. The Golden Eagle. Ger. der Goldadler, Stcin- 
adler. Fr. le Grand Aigle. — F. cera lutea, pedibusque 
lanatis luteo-ferrugineis, corpore fusco ferrugineo vario, 
cauda nigra, basi cinereo undulata. 
(Buffon. Vol. I. Tab. 1 .) 
In the mountainous parts of Europe. Builds its nest on high 
cliffs, and supplies its young with the flesh of hares, &c. 
4 . Ossifragus. The Sea Eagle. Ger. der Seeadler, Fischadler. 
Fr. l’Orfraie. — F. cera lutea, pedibusque semilanatis, cor- 
pore ferrugineo, rectricibus latere interiore albis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1801.) 
On the coasts of Europe 5 also in North America, and some 
parts of the South Seas. About the size of the Golden Eagle. 
Lives almost exclusively on fish. 
5. Haliaetus. The Osprey. Ger. der Entenstosser. Fr. le 
Balbuzard. — F. cera pedibusque cseruleis, corpore supra 
fusco, subtus albo, capite albido. 
(Buffon. Vol. I. Tab. 2.) 
More commonly found on the shores of rivers than on the sea 
coast. Is often confounded with the Sea Eagle. 
6. Milvus. The Kite. Ger. die Weihe, der Gabelgeyer. Fr. le 
Milan. — F. cera flava, cauda forficat.a, corpore ferrugineo, 
capite albidiore. 
(Frisch. Tab. 72.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World. 
7 . Gentilis. The Gentil Falcon. Ger. der Edelfalke. Fr. le 
Faucon. — F. cera pedibusque flavis, corpore cinereo nni- 
culis fuscis, cauda fasciis quatuor nigricantibus. 
(Frisch. Tab. 74.) 
In the mountainous parts of the North. It passes into numc - 
* Hence many writers have classed it among the Grallae. I have now, 
however, an excellent stuffed specimen in the Academical Museum before 
me, and saw the bird alive in London. 1 am convinced, as well from its 
form as its mode of life, that I have here assigned it the most suitable situ- 
ation in the system. 

OF BIRDS. 
91 
rous varieties, some of which have often been taken for distinct 
Species. Together with many other closely connected Species 
of this Genus, it is trained to the chace of small mammifera 
and birds, viz., in the East of the Gazelle, and in Europe of the 
Heron. 
S. Palumbarius. The Goshawk. Ger. der Habicht, Tabenfalke. 
l’Autour. — F. cera nigra, margine pedibusque flavis cor- 
pore fusco, rectricibus fasciis pallidis, superciliis albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 81, 82.) 
A native of nearly the same places with the preceding Species. 
9. Nisus. The Sparrow-hawk. Ger. der Sperber. Fr. l’Eper- 
vier. — F. cera viridi, pedibus flavis, abdomine albo griseo 
undulato, cauda fasciis nigricantibus. 
(Frisch. Tab. 90, 91, 92.) 
In Europe. 
3. Strix. Owl. Ger. Eule. Rostrum breve, aduncum, 
nudum absque cera ; nares barbatae ; caput grande j 
lingua bifida 5 pedes digito versatili ; remiges aliquot 
serratse. 
1. Bubo. The great horned Owl. Ger. der Uhu. die Ohreule. 
Fr. le Grand Due. — S. auribus pennatis, iridibus croceis, 
corpore rufo. 
(v. Wildungen Tcischenbucli, f. 1795.) 
The largest of the Genus. Found in the temperate parts of 
Europe and the west of Asia *. 
2. Nyctea. The Snowy Owl. Ger. die Schnee-Eule. Harfang. 
— S. capite laevi, corpore albido, maculis lunatis distan- 
tibus fuseis. 
( AbbiJd . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 75.) 
In the Northern parts of the World. A splendid looking 
creature. 
3. Flammea. The Barn Owl. Ger. die Schliereule. Kirch- 
eneule. Fr. l’Efiraie. — S. corpore luteopunctis albis, sub- 
tus albido punctis nigricantibus. 
(v. Wn.mjNGEN Taschenbuch, f. 1805.) 
In the temperate regions of the Old and New World. Of ex- 
ceedingly soft and beautiful plumage. 
4. Passerina. The Little Owl. Ger. das Kautzchen. Fr. la 
* Lihnsus, with many other Naturalists and Antiquaries, have supposed 
that this was the bird of Minerva. I have shewn, however, from the ancient 
works of Grecian art, that it was not this, but rather some smooth-headed 
species, probably the little Owl (S. Passerina.) See my Specimen Histories 
Xatnrnlis antique artis operibut illustrates, p. 20. scq. 

92 
OF BIRDS. 
Chev^che. — S. capite laevi, remigibus inaculis albis 
quinque ordinum. 
(Frisch. Tab. 100.) 
In Europe and North America. 
4. Lanius. Rostrum rectiusculum, dente utrinque ver- 
sus apicem, basi nudum ; lingua lacera. 
1. Excubitor. The Great Shrike. Ger. der Wiirger Bergalster. 
Fr. la Pie-grieche grise. — L. cauda cuneiformi, lateribus 
alba, dorso cano, alis nigris macula alba. 
(Frisch. Tab. 50.) 
In Europe and North America. This, as well as the next spe- 
cies, imitates the voice of other birds most closely. 
2. Collurio. The red-backed Shrike. Ger. der Neuntodter. 
Fr. l’Ecorcheur. — E. cauda subcuneiformi, dorso griseo, 
rectricibus quatuor intermediis unicoloribus, rostro 
plumbeo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 60.) 
In Europe. Lives principally on insects, especially Beetles, 
Grasshoppers, &c., of which it makes a provision, by transfix- 
ing them on the spines of the Black -thorn. 
II. LEVIROSTRES. 
The Birds of this Order are almost exclusively confined to the 
warmer regions of the earth, and are recognizable by the bill, 
which is generally very large and thick, but light in compari- 
son, and of which mention has been made above, (§ 59.) in 
speaking of the receptacles for air. 
5. Psittacus. Parrot. Ger. Papagey. Fr. Parroquet. 
— Mandibula superiora dunca, cera instructa, lingua 
carnosa, integra. Pedes scansorii *. 
It is remarkable that many individual Species of this extensive 
Genus, which Ornithologists have therefore divided into nu- 
merous families, are found only in districts of very limited 
extent. In the Philippines, for instance, many of them are con- 
fined to particular islands, and never met with on others lying 
in their immediate vicinity f. Parrots, in general, have strik- 
ing peculiarities in their manners. Thus, they have the power 
* Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets. par F. Levaillant. Paris, 1801, et 
seq. Gr. folio. 
f One cause, at least of this fact, is to be found in the wings of Parrots, 
which are short, and unfitted for long flights. — Translator. 

OF BIRDS. 
93 
of using their feet almost like hands, as for carrying food to 
their mouths, scratching behind the ears, &c. When they walk 
on the ground, they tread not merely on the claws, like other 
birds, but on the whole of the foot. Their hook-shaped upper 
mandible is articulated, very moveable, and serves the purpose 
of a third foot in climbing. Both sexes readily learn to pro- 
nounce words, and they have been even taught to sing, though 
very seldom. 
1. Macao. The Scarlet Maccaw. Ger. der Aras. — P. macro- 
nrus ruber, remigibus supra ceeruleis, subtus rufus, genis 
nudis rugosis. 
(Edwards’ Birds. Tab. 15S.) 
In South America. 
2. Alexandri. The Alexandrine Parrakeet. — P. macrourus 
viridis, collari pectoreque rubro, gula nigra. 
(Edwards. Tab. 292.) 
3. Cristatus. The Great White Cockatoo. Ger. der Cacadu. 
Fr. le Cacatoe. — P. brachyurus, crista plicatili flava. 
(Frisch. Tab. 50.) 
In the East Indies, particularly the Malacca Islands. 
4. Erithacus. The Grey Parrot. Jaco. Ger. der Aschgraue 
Papagey. Fr. le Perroquet cendr6. — P. brachyurus canus, 
temporibus nudis albis, cauda coccinea. 
(Frisch. Tab. 51.) 
From Guinea, Congo and Angola. 
5. Ochrocephalus. The Yellow-headed Amazon. — P. viridis, 
vertice flavo, tectricibus alarum puniceis, remigibus ex 
viridi, nigro, violaceo et rubro variis, rectricibus duabus 
extimis basi intus rubris. 
(Daubenton. PL 312.) 
In the West Indies, &c. 
6. Pullarius. The Guinea Parrot. Fr. 1’ Inseparable. — P. bra- 
chyurus viridis, fronte rubra, cauda fulva fascia nigra, 
orbitis cinereis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 54. fig. 1.) 
In Guinea and the East Indies. Not much larger than a Bull- 
finch. It has its French name from its having been said, but 
untruly, that they must always be kept in pairs, a single one 
not surviving the loss of its mate. 
G. Ramphastos. Toucan. Ger. Pfefferfras. — Rostrum 
maximum, inane, extrorsum serratum, apice incur- 
vaturn. Pedes scansorii plerisque* 

94 
OP BIRDS. 
The enormous bill by which the numerous Species of this sin- 
gular Genus of South American birds are distinguished, is ex- 
tremely light, and of a soft horny substance. Their tongue is 
half a span long, like whalebone, at the root scarcely a line 
broad, and is serrated at the sides from the root forwards. — 
The plumage varies exceedingly, according to the differences of 
sex, age, &e. 
1. Tucanus. R. nigricans, rostro flavescente versus basin 
fascia nigra, fascia abdominali flava. 
7 - Buceros. (Hydrocorax.) Rostrum maximum, inane, 
ad basin versus frontem recurvatum ■, pedes gressorii. 
All the Species of this Genus, equally extraordinary in its 
form, are natives of the East Indies and New Holland. 
1. Rhinoceros. The Rhinoceros Bird. Ger. der Nashornvogel. 
Fr. le Calao. — B. processu rostri frontali recurvato. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 24.) 
III. PICI. 
The birds of this Order have short feet, and commonly a 
straight, but not thick bill, of moderate length. 
8. Picus. Rostrum polyedrum, apice cuneato ; lingua 
teres lumbriciformis, longissima, mucronata, apice 
retrosum aculeato: pedes scansorii. 
The Peckers have a very remarkable structure of the tongue, 
the Os Hyoides extending into two long cartilages, which are 
placed immediately under the skin, running from behind for- 
wards over the skull, and terminating at the forehead near the 
root of the bill. These cartilages are like springs, by means 
of which the bird can more readily protrude its worm-shaped 
tongue, and transfix insects with its horny point. 
1. Martius. The Great Black Wood-pecker. Ger. der 
Schwartzspecht. Fr. le Pic Noir. — P. niger, vertice coc- 
cineo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 34. fig. 1.) 
Together with the following Species, in the temperate parts of 
Europe and the North of Asia. 
2. Viridis. The Green Wood-pecker. Ger. der Griinspecht. 
Fr. le Pic Verd. — P. viridis, vertice coccineo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 35.) 
3. Major. The Greater Spotted Wood-pecker. Ger. der 
Grosse Buntspecht. Fr. l’Epeiche. — P. albo nigroque 
varius, occipite rubro. 

OF BIRDS. 
\ 
95 
(Frisch. Tab. 36.) 
4. Minor. The Lesser Spotted Wood-pecker. Ger. der Kleine 
Buntspecht. Fr. Le petit Epeiche. — P. albo nigroque 
varius, vertice rubro. 
(Frisch. Tab. 37-) 
9. Jynx. Rostrum teretiusculum, acuminatum lingua 
lumbriciformis, longissima, mucronata ; pedess can- 
sorii. 
1. Torquilla. The "Wryneck. Ger. der Drehhals, Wendehals. 
Fr. le Torcol. — I. cauda explanata, fasciis fuscis quatuor. 
(Frisch. Tab. 38.) 
It has its name from the uncommon mobility of its neck, and 
inhabits nearly the same regions as the Peckers. 
10. Sitta. Rostrum subulatum, teretiusculum, apice 
compresso, mandibula superiore paulo longiore ; 
pedes ambulatorii. 
1. Europcea. The Nuthatch. Ger. der Blauspecht. Fr. la 
Sitelle. — S. rectricibus nigris, lateralibus quatuor infra 
apicem albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 39.) 
In the Northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. 
11. Todus. Rostrum subulatum, depressiusculum, ob- 
tusum, rectum, basi setis patulis ; pedes gressorii. 
1. Viridis. The Green Tody. Fr. Le Todier. — T. viridis, 
pectore rubro. 
In the middle regions of America. 
2. Paradisceus. T. capite cristato nigro, corpore albo, cauda 
cuneata, rectricibus intermediis longissimus. 
In the South of Africa, Madagascar, &c. 
12. Alcedo. Rostrum trigonum, crassum, rectum, 
longum ; pedes breves, gressorii. 
1. Ispida. The King-fisher. Ger. der Eisvogel. Fr. le Mar- 
tin-pecheur. — A. supra cyanea, fascia temporali flava, 
cauda brevi. 
(Frisch. Tab. 223.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World. It lives on fish, the 
bones of which it rejects. (§ 63.) The facility with which it 
dries after death, without becoming putrid, is not peculiar to 
this bird, as Paracelsus and many others have supposed, but is 
observed in similar circumstances of the Cross-bill, the Canary, 
and others. 

96 
OF BIRDS. 
13. Merops. Rostrum curvatum, compressum, carina- 
tum ; pedes gressorii. 
1. Apiuster. The Common Bee-eater. Ger. der Immenwolf. 
Fr. le Gufepier. — M. dorso ferrugineo, abdomine caudaque 
viridi ca^rulescente, gula lutea, fascia temporali nigra. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1808.) 
In the South of Europe and the temperate parts of Asia. It 
lives on insects. 
14. Upupa. Rostrum arcuatum, convexum, subcom- 
pressum, obtusiusculum ; pedes ambulatorii. 
1 . Epops. The Common Hoopoe. Ger. der Wiedehopf. Fr. 
la Huppe. — U. crista variegata. 
(Frisch. Tab. 43.) 
In Europe and the East Indies. It lives on earth-worms and 
various insects. It builds its nest in hollow trees, and fre- 
quently, as Aristotle had already remarked, on a layer of hu- 
man excrement*. 
15. Certhia. Rostrum arcuatum, tenue, subtrigonum, 
acutum j pedes ambulatorii. 
1 . Familiaris. The Common Creeper. Ger. die Baumklette. 
Fr. le Grimpereau. — C. grisea, subtus alba, remigibus 
fuscis 5 rectricibus decem. 
(Frisch. Tab. 39. Fig. 1 .) 
In Europe. It climbs like the Wood-pecker on the trunks of 
trees in search of Insects and their Larvae, &c. 
<2. Muraria. The Wall Creeper. Ger. der Mauerspecht. Fr. 
le Grimpereau deMuraille. — C. cinerea, rectricibus roseis, 
remigibus rectricibusque fuscis, maculis alarum fulvis 
niveisque. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 76.) 
This exceedingly beautiful bird is about the size of a Sparrow, 
and lives in solitude in the warmer parts of Europe. It is very 
uncommon in Germany. It builds in old walls, steeples, &c. 
3 . Coccinea. ( Vestiaria .) The Hook-billed Red Creeper. — 
C. coccinea, rectricibus remigibusque nigris. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 16.) 
In the Sandwich Islands, the ingenious natives of which manu- 
facture various articles of ornament and dress, as helmets, and 
even entire mantles with its carmine-red feathers. 
4 . Sanniu. The Mocking Creeper. — C. olivacea, vertice 
subviolaceo, remigibus caudaque subfurcata fuscis. 
* Nozemann en Ciir. Sepp Nederlandsche Vogeln . p . 129. seq. 

OF BIRDS. 
97 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 8.) 
From New Zealand. 
16. Trochilus*. Humming Bird. Fr. Oiseau-mouehe. 
Rostrum subulato-filiforme- longum. Mandibula 
inferiore tubulata, superiore vaginante inferiorem. 
Lingua filis duobus coalitis tubulosa pedes ambu- 
latorii, brevissimi. 
As far as is at present known, the whole Genus is confined to 
America not merely, however, to the warmer parts, but 
northwards as far as Nootka Sound, and southwards to the 
western coast of Patagonia. 
(A.) Curvirostres. (True Humming Birds.) 
1. Pella. The Topaz-throated Humming Bird. Fr. Le 
Colibri-topase. — T. ruber, rectricibus intermediis longis- 
simis, capite fusco, gula aurata uropygioque viridi. 
(Edwards. Tab. 32.) 
In Guiana. Full six inches in length. 
(B.) Rectirostres. 
2. Minimus. The Least Humming Bird. — T. corpore viridi 
nitente, subtus albido ; rectricibus lateralibus margine 
exteriore albis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 105.) 
The smallest bird known, which, when dried, weighs only about 
30 grains. Its nest is of cotton, and about the size of a walnut ; 
its two eggs about as big as peas. 
3. Mosquitus. The Ruby-headed Humming Bird. Ger. der 
Juwelen-Colibri. Fr. le Rubis-topase. — T. viridescens 
vertice purpureo aurato, gutture auroreo rutilo. 
(Seba. Thes. Tab. 37. fig. 1.) 
The forehead and vertex of the male shine like ruby-red fire, 
and the throat like burnished gold. 
IV. CORACES. 
The Birds of this Order have short feet with a strong bill, ton- 
vex on the upper part and of moderate size. They live parJy 
on corn and other seeds, partly zm insects, and on carrion' 
their flesh is for the most part wild tasted and unsavory. 
17- Buphagar. Rostrum rectum, subquadrangulare ; 
mandibulis gibbis, integris, extrorsum gibbosiori- 
bus. Pedes umbulatorii. 
Uutoire A utureUe den Colibris et des Oineaux- Mouches , par J. B. 
Audebf.rt. Paris, 1800. se q. fol. 
H 

98 
OF BIRDS. 
]. Africana. The Ox-pecker. Fr. le Pic-boeuf. 
(Latham. Vol. I. P. I. Tab. 12.) 
In Senegambia, &c. 
IS. Crotoi-haca. Rostrum compressum, semiovatum, 
arcuatum, dorsato-carinatum. Mandibula superiore 
margine utrinque angulata. Nares perviae. 
1. Ani. The Razor-billed Blackbird. Ger. der Madenfresser. 
Fr. le Bout de Petun. — C. pedibus scansoriis. 
(Latham. L. c. Tab. 13.) 
In the West Indies. Lives in a social state, several females 
keeping in company, building a nest, and hatching in common. 
19. Corvus. Rostrum convexum, cultratum, nares my- 
stace tectae ; pedes ambulatorii. 
1. Corax. The Raven. Ger. der Kolk-Rabe. Fr. le Corbeau. 
— C. corpore atronitente, rostri apice subincurvo, cauda 
semirhombea. 
(Frisch. Tab. 63.) 
Together with the next species, inhabits almost the whole of 
both parts of the world. Its srnell is exceedingly acute. It 
preys on fish, crabs, young ducks, and even levrets ; it also 
carries other things not eatable to its nest. 
2. Corone. The Carrion-Crow. Ger. die Raben-Krahe. Fr. la 
Corneille. — C. atro-caerulescens totus, cauda rotundata: 
rectricibus acutis. 
(Buffon. Vol. HI. Tab. 3 ) 
3. Frugilegus. The Rook. Ger. de Saatkrahe. Fr. le Freux, 
— C. ater, fronte cinerascente, cauda subrotunda. 
(Frisch. Tab. 64.) 
In all the temperate parts of Europe. The degree of injury 
which it does to corn is compensated by its much more consi- 
derable destruction of field-mice, grubs, and caterpillars. 
4. Cornix. The Hooded-Crow. Royston-Crow. Ger. die 
NehelkrShe. Fr. la Corneille mantelee. — C. cinerascens, 
capite, jugulo, alis, caudaque nigris. 
(Frisch. Tab. 65.) 
In the milder regions of the Old World. In some situations it 
remains throughout the year; in others, it only appears during 
the Winter, without its being well understood whither it with- 
draws in Spring. It is useful by destroying vast quantities of 
vermin, but is also very injurious to the maize plantations. 
5. Monedula. The Jackdaw. Ger. die Dohle. Fr. le Choucas. 
— C. fuscus, occipite incano, fronte, alis, caudaque nigris. 

OF BIRDS. 
99 
(Frisch. Tab. 67-) 
In the North-west of Europe. 
6. Glandarius. The Jay. Ger. der Holzheher. Fr. le Geai. — 
C. tectricibus alarum cseruleis, lineis transversis albis ni- 
grisque, corpore ferrugineo variegato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 55.) 
In the temperate parts of Europe. 
7- Caryocatactes. The Nut-cracking Crow. Ger. der Nuss- 
lieher. Fr. le Casse-noix. — C. fuscus alboque punctatus, 
alis caudaque nigris : rectricibus apice albis j intermediis 
apice detritis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1805.) 
In the Northern parts of the World. 
S. Pica. The Magpie. Ger. die Aelster. Fr. la Pie. — C. albo 
nigroque varius, cauda cuneiformi. 
(Frisch. Tab. 58.) 
In Europe and North America. Injurious to young poultry, 
and to corn, but also destroying abundance of vermin. 
20. Coracias . Rostrum cultratum, apice incurvato, basi 
pennis denudatum : pedes breves ambulatorii. 
1. Garrula. The Roller. Ger. die Mandelkrahe. Fr. le Rollier. 
— C. eserulea, dorso rubro, remigibus nigris. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1807-) 
In the temperate parts of Europe, and in North Africa. Is found 
in numbers in Autumn, when the corn is placed in sheaves. 
21. Gracula. Rostrum convexo-cultratum, basi nudius- 
culum. Lingua integra, aeutiuscula, earnosa. Pedes 
ambulatorii. 
1. Religiosa. The Minor Grakle. Fr. le Mainate. — G. nigro- 
violacea, macula alarum alba, fascia occipitis nuda, flava. 
(Buffon. Vol. III. Tab. 25.) 
In the East Indies. Has a beautiful voice, and readily learns to 
speak. 
2. Quiscula. The Shining Grakle. Ger. der Maisdieb. — G. 
nigro-violacea, cauda rotundata. 
(Catesby. Vol. I. Tab. 12.) 
In North America. 
22. Paradisea *. (Manucodiatta.) Rostrum basi plumis 
* flistoire Naturelle des Grimpereaux sucriers, des Promerops , el des 
Oiaeaux de Paradis , par L. P. Viellot, J. P. Audf.uf.rt, et C. Sauvages. 
Paris, 1801. seq. folio. 
flistoire Naturelle des Oiseaux de Paradis, des Rolliers et des Prome- 
H 2 

100 
OF BIRDS. 
tomentosis tectum. Pennae hypochondriorum longi- 
ores. Rectrices duce superiores singulares denudatae. 
Ihe many Species of this Genus are confined to very narrow 
limits, being natives of New Guinea only, and emigrating as 
birds of passage from thence to the Moluccas, and other 
islands in the vicinity. These birds are worn as ornaments in 
India, on account of their beautiful plumage, and when sold 
tor this purpose, the Papous still cut off the feet, which led 
our credulous forefathers to suppose them really wanting*. 
1. Apoda. The Great Bird of Paradise. Fr. lEmeraude. — 1\ 
brunnea pennis hypoehondriis luteis corpore longioribus, 
rectricibus duabus intermediis longis setaceis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 110.) 
2. Alba. The White Bird of Paradise. Fr. le Manucode ii 12 
filets. — P. anterius nigra violacea j posterius, alba, humeri- 
bus viride virgatis, rectricibus duodecim nigris. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 96.) 
One of the most beautiful, and at the same time most uncom- 
mon Species of the Genus : in the body about the size of a 
Thrush. 
23. Trogon. Rostrum capite Lrevius, cultratum, adun- 
cum, margine mandibularum serratum. Pedes scan- 
sorii. 
1. Viridis. — T. Viridi aureus, subtus luteus, gula nigra. 
(Edwards. Tab. 331.) 
In Guiana. 
24. Bucco. (Barbet.) Rostrum cultratum, lateraliter 
compressum, apice utrinque emarginato, incurvato ; 
rictu infra oculos protenso. 
1. Atrojlavus. — B. niger, jugulo, pectore et lineis supra et 
infraorbitalibus luteis, abdomine griseo. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 65.) 
I n Sierra Leone. 
25. Cuculus. Rostrum teretiusculum. Nares marigine 
prominulse. Pedes scansorii. 
1. Canorus. The Cuckoo. Ger. der Kukuk. Fr. le Coucou. — 
C. cauda rotundata nigricante albo- punctata. 
(Frisch. Tab. 40.) 
rops, suivie de celle des Toucans et des Barbus, par F. Lf. Vaii i.ant. Paris, 
1801. folio. 
* J. R. Foster oh Paradise Birds and the Phceni.v, in the Indian Zoology. 
3d Edition. Halle, 1795. folio, p. 2fi. seq. 

OF BIRDS. 
101 
In the Northern parts of the Old World, where, however, it is 
visible only in the Spring and Summer. It does not itself hatch 
the six eggs which it lays from time to time in the Spring, but 
places them singly in the nest of the Hedge-sparrow, Water- 
wagtail, &c.* ; the office of incubation being thus transferred 
to the latter. It is remarkable that its eggs, though much 
larger than those of the birds in question, do not stand in need 
of a longer period of incubation. The young Cuckoo grows 
rapidly, and soon expels the young brood of the Sparrow, 
&c., from their own nest. The Winter retreat of this bird has 
not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. 
2. Indicator. The Honey Cuckoo. — C. cauda cuneiformifusco 
et albido maculata, alis fuscis maculis flavis, pedibus 
nigris . 
(J. F. Miller. Fasc. 4. Tab. 24.) 
In the South of Africa, from the Cape northwards. It has its 
name from the dexterity with which, like the Honey-Bear, 
(U. mellivorus.) it obtains its favourite food from the nests of 
the wild Bees. 
3. Persa. The Turaco. — C. capite cristato, corpore viridi- 
cserulescente, remigibus sanguineis, cauda aequali. 
(Buffon. Vol. VI. Tab. 15.) 
In South Africa. 
36. Oriolus. Rostrum conicum, convexum, acutissimum, 
rectum ; mandibula superiore paulo longiore, ob- 
solete emarginata; pedes ambulatorii. 
1. Galbula. The Golden Oriole. Ger. die Gold-drossel. Fr. le 
Loriot d’Europe. — O. Luteus, pedibus nigris, rectricibus 
exterioribus postice flavis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 31.) 
Here and there in the Old World. Lives in a state of bigamy. 
The male is gold-yellow and black, the female olive-green. It 
makes a very artificial, strong, and bowl-shaped nest, fastened 
between two branches. 
2. Phceniceus. The Red-winged Oriole. Ger. der Maisdieb. 
Fr. le Loriot noir. — O. niger, alarum rectricibus coccineis. 
(Catesby. Vol. I. Tab. 13.) 
In the temperate parts of North America. It commonly keeps 
in company with the Gracula quiscula. 
* Or even thrusts them in with its bill. See Weidmann’s Fcicrabendc. 
H. 1. S. 67. 1815. 

102 
OF BIRDS. 
.3. Jupujuba. (Persicus, Linn.) — O. niger, dorso postico ma- 
culaque tectricum alarum basique rectricum luteis. 
(Brisson. Vol. II. Tab. 9. fig. 1.) 
In Brazil, &c. This, like the preceding, and many other Species 
of this Genus, constructs a long bag-shaped nest of reeds 
and rushes *, many hundreds of which are often seen hanging 
on a single tree. 
V. PASSERES. 
Small Birds, with short slender feet, and conical sharp-pointed 
bills, of various size and form. They are monogamous, live on 
insects and the seeds of plants, have delicate, well tasted flesh, 
and for the most part sing. 
27- Alauda. Rostrum cylindrico-subulatum, rectum, 
mandibulis sequalibus, basi deorsum dehiscentibus. 
Unguis posticus rectior digito longior. 
1. Arvensis. The Sky-lark. Ger. die Hemmelslerche. Fr. 
l’Alouette. — A. rectricibus extimis duabus extrorsum longitudi- 
naliter albis; intermediis inferiore latere ferrugineis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 15. fig. 1.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World. It makes its nest on 
the grouud like the Ostrich, Hen, and other birds, thence called 
aves pulveratrices. 
2. Cristata. The Crested Lark. Ger. die Haubenlerche. Fr. le 
Cochevis. — A. rectricibus nigris: extimis duabus raargine 
exteriore albis, capite cristato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 15. fig. 2.) 
In Germany, and the neighbouring countries. 
28. Sturnus. Rostrum subulatum, angulato-depressum, 
obtusiusculum : mandibula superiore integerrima, 
marginibus patentiusculis. 
1. Vulgaris. The Starling. Ger. der Staar. Fr. l'Etourneau. — 
S. rostro flavescente, corpore nigro punctis sagittatis 
albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 217-) 
In most parts of the Old World. Of great utility, by destroying 
innumerable noxious insects. 
29. Turdus. Rostrum tereticultratum : mandibula supe- 
riore apice deflexo, emarginato. 
1. Viscivorus. The Missel Bird. Ger. die Schnarre. Fr. la 
* Particularly of the Tillandia usneoides, which has almost the appear- 
ance of horse hair. 

OF BIRDS. 103 
Draine. — T. dorso fusco, collo niaculis albis, rostro fla- 
vescente. 
(Frisch. Tab. 15.) 
In different spots of the Old World. Lives on the berries of 
the Misteltoe, which it is the principal means of propagating. 
2. Pilaris. The Fieldfare. Ger. der Ivrammetsvogel. Fr. la 
Litorne. — T. rectricibus nigris; extimis margine interiore 
apice albicantibus, capite uropygioque cano. 
(Frisch. Tab. 26.) 
In the North of Europe, but emigrates into the South. Lives 
principally on the berries of the Juniper. 
3. Iliacus. The Redwing. Ger. Weindrossel. Fr. le Mauvis. 
— T. alis subtus ferrugineis, superciliis flavescentibus. 
(Frisch. Tab. 28.) 
In the North of Europe. It smooths its nest with clay and 
rotten wood; and as the latter shines in the dark, it is possible 
that a mistake may have given rise to the idea of the ancients, 
of an “ Avis hercyniea noctu lucens.” 
4. Musicus. The Thrush. Ger. die Sangdrossel. Fr. la Grive. 
— T. remigibus basi interiore ferrugineis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 27-) 
Extends more Southward than the preceding Species. A whitish 
grey variety is occasionally met with. 
5. Polyglottus. The Mocking-bird. — T. fusco-cinereus, sub- 
tus albidus, maculis verticis, alarum et caudse candidis. 
(Catf.sby. Vol. I. Tab. 27 ) 
In Louisiana, Carolina, Jamaica, &c. It imitates the voice of 
other birds easily and perfectly. 
5. Roseus. The Rose-coloured Thrush. — T. subincarnatus, 
capite, alis caudaque nigris, occipite cristato. 
(Edwards. Tab. 20.) 
In the central parts of Europe and Asia. It destroys numbers 
of locusts. 
7. Merula. The Blackbird. Ger. die Amsel. Fr. le Merle. — 
T. ater, rostro palpebrisque flavis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 29.) 
In the temperate parts of Europe. Lives solitary, feeds on the 
Juniper berries, and has a very perfect memory. 
30. Ampelis. Rostrum rectum, convexum; mandibula 
superiore longiore, subincurvata, utrinque emargi- 
nata. 
1. Garrulus. The Bohemian Chatterer. Ger. dcr Seidensch- 

104 
OF BIRDS. 
wanz. </. l e Jaseur tie Boht'-me. — A, occipite cristato : re- 
migum secundarlorum apice coccineo lanceolato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 32.) 
In the North of Europe, but frequently come in numbers to 
Germany, particularly the Hartz, about Autumn. 
31. Loxia. Rostrum conico-gibbum, frontis basi rotun- 
datum ; mandibula inferior margine laterali inflexa. 
1. Curvirostris. The Cross-bill. Ger, der Kreutzschnabel. Fr- 
le Bee Crois£. — L. rostro forficato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 11. fig. 3, 4.) 
In the Pine forests of the Northern parts of the World. It 
breeds in the depth of Winter, at the end of January. 
2. Coccothranstes. The Hawfinch. Ger. der Kernbeisser. Fr. 
le Gros-bec. — L. linea alarum alba, remigibus mediis 
apice rhombeis, rectricibus latere basis tenuiore nigris. 
(Frisch. Tab. 4. fig. 2, 3.) 
In various districts of Europe. 
3. Pyrrhula. The Bullfinch. Ger. der Dompfaff. Fr. le Bouv- 
reuil. — L. artubus nigris, rectricibus caudae remigumque 
posticarum albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 2. fig. 1, 2.) 
In the North of the Old World. Both sexes readily learn to 
whistle tunes, to sing in parts, and even to pronounce words. 
4. Gregaria. — L. ex griseo flavescens, fronte olivacea, nucha, 
humeris, alis et cauda fuscis. 
(Paterson’s Journeys, p. 133.) 
At the Cape, where many hundreds together build their nests 
on a single tree, and cover the singular edifice with a com- 
mon overhanging roof. 
5. Pensilis. The Pensile Loxia.— L. viridis, capite et gutture 
flavis, fascia oculari viridi, abdomine griseo, rostro, pe- 
dibus, cauda remigibusque nigris. 
(Sonnerat. Voy. aux hides. T. 2. Tab. 12.) 
Likewise at the Cape, and also at Madagascar. It builds a 
remarkable nest in the vicinity of water, in shape almost 
like a retort, with a depending neck for ingress and egress, 
and so disposed that the aperture is close to the surface of the 
water. 
6. Philippma. — L. fusca, subtus albido-flavicans, vertice pec- 
toreque luteis, gula fusca. 
(Daubenton, Planches. Tab. 135. fig. 2.) 
In the East Indies: very docile, and in the Indian Peninsula, 

OF BIRDS. 105 
is often taught to perform many little offices. This species too 
builds a very ingenious hanging nest among reeds, &c. 
7. Cardinalis. The Red Bird. Cardinal Bird. Ger. die Virgi- 
nische Nachtigall. — L. cristata rubra, capistro nigro, 
rostro pedibusque sanguineis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 4. fig. 1.) 
In North America, and is brought in great numbers to Europe, 
on account of its red plumage and song. 
S. Chloris. The Greenfinch. Ger. der Griinfink. Fr. le Ver- 
dier. — L. flavicanti-virens, remigibus primoribus antice 
luteis, rectricibus lateralibus quatuor basi luteis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 2. fig. 3, 4.) 
In various parts of Europe. 
9. Oryx. Ger. der Feuervogel.— L. grisea, rostro, fronte 
abdomineque nigris, collo uropygioque fulvis. 
(Daubenton, Planches. Tab. 6. fig. 2. — Tab. 134. fig. 1.) 
At the Cape, & c. In Spring and Summer the male is fine red, 
and glossy black; in Autumn and Winter, on the contrary, of 
the greyish brown colour of the female. 
32. Emberiza. Rostrum conicum, mandibulse basi deor- 
sum a se invicem discedentes j inferiore lateribus 
inflexo coarctata, superiore angustiore. 
1. jStivalis. The Snow Bunting. Ger. die Schneeammer. Fr. 
1 Ortolan de Neige. — E. remigibus albis, primoribus ex- 
trorsum nigris : rectricibus- nigris, lateralibus tribus albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 6. fig. 1,2.) 
In the Northern parts of the World *. It is found in Germany 
only during Winter, and occasionally in innumerable flocks. 
2. Miliaria. I he Bunting. Ger.. die Graue ammer. Fr. le 
Proyer. E. grisea, subtus nigro maculata, orbitis rufis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 6. fig. 4.) 
In almost every part of Europe. 
3. Hortulana. The Ortolan. Ger. der Kornfink. Fr. l’Orto- 
kn- E. remigibus nigris, primis tribus margine albidis: 
rectricibus nigris, lateralibus duabus extrorsum nigris. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1803.) 
In the warmer regions of Europe, and the parts of Asia near 
to it. 
4. C itrinella. I he Yellow-hammer. Ger. die Gold-ammer. 
* The only living creature that is found at the height of 2000 feet above 
the limit of perpetual snow. (Wahlenbf.rg aber die Lappliindischcn Alpem 
mil Anmerk. von Haus.mann. Gottingen, 1812. 4to. § 55.) 

106 
OF BIRDS. 
Fr. le Bruant. — E. rectricibus nigricantibus : extimis dua- 
bus latere interiore macula alba acuta. 
(Friscu. Tab. 5. fig. 1, 2.) 
In nearly the whole of Europe. 
5. Aureola. — E. citrina, vertice, toroque, dorsoque spadiceis, 
crisso albido, rectricibus duabus utrinque extimis fascia 
obliqua alba. 
( Abbilcl . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 56.) 
In Siberia, as far as Kamschatka. 
6. Paradisea. The YVhidah Bird. Gcr. die fVittwe. Fr. la 
Veuve a collier d’or. — E. fusca, pectore rubro, rectricibus 
intermediis quatuor elongatis acuminatis ; duabus longis- 
simis ; rostro rubro. 
(Edwards. Tab. 86.) 
Has its English name, which has been mutilated by a mistake 
when transferred to other languages, from its native country, 
the kingdom of Whidah, on the coast of Guinea. 
33. Tanagra. Rostrum conicum acuminatum, emargi- 
natuin, basi subtrigonum, apice declive. 
1. Jacapa. The red-breasted Blackbird. Fr. le Cardinal pour- 
pr£. — T. atra, fronte, jugulo pectoreque coccineis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 267-) 
In the West Indies, and the neighbouring parts of America. 
34. Fringilla. Rostrum conicum rectum acuminatum. 
1. Calebs. The Chaffinch. Ger. der Buchfink. Waldfink. Fr. 
le Pinion. — F. artubus nigris, remigibus utrinque albis, 
tribus primis immaculatis : rectricibus duabus oblique albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 1. fig. 1, 2.) 
In Europe and Africa: it has a great diversity of song, so that 
frequently the Chaffinches of a district a few miles in extent, 
sing very differently from those of neighbouring situations. 
2. Montijringilla. The Bramble. Ger. der Bergfink. Fr. le 
Pinion d’Ardennes. — F. alarum basi subtus flavissima. 
(Linne. Fauna Suec. Tab. 2. fig. 198.) 
In the North of Europe. When the crop of beech-mast is abun- 
dant, it comes in many thousands to various parts of Germany 
about the end of Autumn. 
3. Nivalis. The Snowfinch. Ger. der Schneefink. Fr. le Nive- 
rolle. — F. fusca, subtus nivea, remigibus secundariis tec- 
tricibusque albis. 
(Brisson. Vol. III. Tab. 15. fig- 1.) 
On Caucasus, and the European Alps. 

OF BIRDS. 
107 
4. Carduelis. The Goldfinch. Ger. der Stieglitz. Fr. le Char- 
donneret. — F fronte et gula coccineis, remigibus antror- 
sum flavis : rectricibus duabus extimis medio, reliquis 
apice albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 1. fig. 3, 4.) 
In almost the whole of Europe, and the contiguous parts of 
the old Continent : produces beautiful bastards with the Canary 
bird. (Frisch. Tab. 12. fig. 5.) 
5. Amandava. The Ahmedabad-finch. Ger. der Fink von Ben- 
galee Fr. le Bengali piquet^. — F. fusca rufescensque albo 
punctata. 
Buffon. Vol. IV. Tab. 2. fig. 1.) 
In the East Indies. In those which I have had the opportunity 
of examining I have not found the bones yellow, as has been 
asserted. 
6. Canaria. The Canary Bird. Ger. der Canarienvogel. Fr. le 
Serin de Canarie. — F. rostro albido, corpore subfusco, 
pectore flavescente, rectricibus remigibusque virescen- 
tibus. 
(Frisch. Tab. 12. fig. 1-4.) 
It appears to have been first brought to Europe from the Ca- 
nary Islands, about the commencement of the 16th century } 
but has since deviated into many varieties. The wild stock- 
race is brownish-grey with a yellow breast. Of the others, the 
most remarkable are those with a plume or tuft on the head, 
and the Albinos with red eyes. 
7. Spinus. The Siskin. Ger. der Zeisig. Fr. le Tarin. — F. re- 
migibus medis luteis : primis quatuor immaculatis, rec- 
tricibus basi flavis, apice nigris. 
(Frisch. Tab. 11. fig. 1, 2.) 
It builds in the tops of lofty pine and fir trees, in the depths of 
pine forests: hence its nests are rarely found. (See Gunther’s 
Nester u. Eyer verschiedener Vogel, durch Wirsing. Taf. X.) 
8. Cannabina. The Greater Linnet. Ger. der Hanfling. Fr. la 
Linotte. — F. remigibus primoribus rectricibusque nigris, 
utroque margine albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 9. fig. 1, 2.) 
In Europe and North America. 
9. Linaria. The Lesser Linnet. Ger. der Flaclisfink. Fr. le 
Sizerin. — F. remigibus rectricibusque fuscis, margine ob- 
solete pallido, litura alarum albida. 
(Frisch. Tab. 10. fig. 3, 4.) 

108 
OF BIRDS. 
lhroughout the Northern parts of the World. 
10. Domestica. The Sparrow. Ger. der Sperling. Ft. le Moi- 
neau. — F. reraigibus rectricibusque fuscis, gula nigra, 
temporibus ferrugineis. 
Dispersed through the whole of Europe, and the neighbouring 
districts of the other portions of the Old World. There are, 
however, individual spots in which it is not met with; as, for 
instance, many parts of Thuringia, and those too by no means 
deficient in foliage or fruits. It breeds four times in the year. 
It is certainly injurious to gardens and fields, but at the same 
time destroys incalculable quantities of vermin. Sparrows are 
occasionally found which are completely white. 
35. Muscicapa. Fly-catcher. Ger. Fliegenfiinger. Fr. 
Gobe-Mouche. • — Rostrum subtrigonum utrinque 
emarginatum, apice incurvo ; vibrissse patentes 
versus fauces. 
1. Atricapilla. 1 he Pied Fly-catcher. Ger. der Fliegenschnap- 
per. Fr. le Gobe-mouche a collier. — M. nigra subtus, 
frontis macula alarumque speculo albis, rectricibus late- 
ral ibus extus albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 24. fig. 1.) 
Scattered through Europe. 
36. Motacilla. Rostrum subulatum rectum : mandibu- 
lis subaequalibus. 
1. Luscinia. The Nightingale. Ger. die Nachtigall. Fr. le 
Rossignol. — M. rufo-cinerea armillis cinereis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 21. fig. 1,2.) 
In the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Comes to Ger- 
many in April, and in August departs again; it is not exactly 
known whither; as far as can be ascertained, not to Africa. 
2. Curruca. The Hedge Sparrow. Ger. die Grasmiicke. Fr. la 
Fauvette.' — M. supra fusca, subtus albida, rectricibus fus- 
cis ; extima margine tenuiore alba. 
(Frisch. Tab. 21. fig. 3.) 
In the temperate parts of Europe. 
3. Ficedula. The Beccafica. — M. subfusca, subtus alba, pec- 
tore cinereo maculato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 22. fig. 3, 4.) 
In the milder and hotter parts of Europe, particularly Cyprus, 
whence it has been widely dispersed on account of the delicate 
flavour of its flesh. 
4. Alba. The White Water-wagtail. Ger. dasAckermannchen. 

OF BIRDS. 109 
Fr. la Lavandtere. — M. pectore nigro, rectricibus duabus 
lateralibus dimidiato-oblique alb is. 
(Frisch. Tab. 23. fig. 4.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World. 
5. Calliope. — M. mustelina, olivaceo-maculata, subtus ex 
iiavescente alba, gula miniata, linea alba nigraque cincta, 
loris nigris, superciliis albis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 45.) 
In Siberia, Kamschatka, &c. 
6. Atricapilla. The Black-Cap. Ger. der Klosterwenzel. Fr. 
la Fauvette a T6te noire. — M. testacea, subtus cinerea, 
pileo obscuro. — (Linn. Faun. Suee. Tab. 1. fig. 236.) 
In temperate Europe. One of the most pleasing singing birds. 
7. Fhcenicurus. The Redstart. Ger. das Rothschwanzchen. 
Fr. le Rosignol de Muraille. — M. gula nigra, abdomine 
caudaque rufis, capite dorsoque cano. 
(Frisch. Tab. 19. fig. 1.) 
Found in nearly the same places as the Nightingale, and comes 
and goes at the same time with it. 
8. Rubecula. The Robin Redbreast. Ger. das Rothbriistchen. 
Fr. le Rouge-gorge. — M. grisea, gula pectoreque ferru- 
gineis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 19. fig. 2.) 
In most parts of Europe. It remains during Winter, and is very 
serviceable by destroying many noxious insects. 
9. Suecica. — M. pectore ferrugineo fascia ceerulea, rectrici- 
bus fuscis versus basin ferrugineis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 19. fig. 2. a. b.) 
Principally near water in the mountainous districts of the tem- 
perate parts of the Old World. 
10. Troglodytes. The Wren. Ger. der Zaunkonig. — M. grisea, 
alis nigro cinereoque undulatis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 24. fig. 3.) 
In the Northern World. It makes a covered nest, almost in 
the shape of an oven *, and lays many eggs. 
11. Regulus. The Gold-crowned Wren. Ger. das Goldhahn- 
chen. Fr. leRoitelet. — M. remigibus secundariis exteriori 
margine flavis, medio albis, crista verticali crocea. 
(Frisch. Tab. 24. fig. 4.) 
Likewise in the Northern World. The smallest European bird. 
* No ZF. man's en Sp.pp Nedprlnnrhrhe Vogelcn. Tab. 59. p. Ill 

110 
OF BIRDS. 
12. Sartoria. The Tailor-bird. — M. tota pallide lutea. 
(J. R. Forster’s Indian Zoology. Tab. 8.) 
In India. Smaller than a Wren. It has its name from the art 
with which it makes its nest, sewing some dry leaves to a green 
one at the extremity of a twig, and thus forming a hollow 
cone, which it afterwards lines with feathers. 
3/ . I ipra. Rostrum capite brevius, basi subtrigonum 
integerrimum, apice incurvum. Pedes gressorii. 
1. Rupicola. The Manakin. Fr. le Coq de Roche. — P. crista 
erecta margine purpurea, corpore croceo, tectricibus rec- 
tricum truncatis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 264.) 
In Guiana, See. 
38. Parus. Titmouse. Ger. Meise. Fr. M^sange. — Ros- 
trum integerrimum, basi setis tectum. 
1. Major. The Great Titmouse. Ger. die Kohlmeise. Fr. la 
Charbonniere. — P. capite nigro, temporibus albis, nucha 
lutea. 
(Frisch. Tab. 13. fig. 1, 2.) 
In almost the whole of the Old World. A bold animal, attack- 
ing much larger birds, and pecking open the heads of the 
smaller singing birds. It has been remarked of this and other 
Species of this Genus which remain with us in the Winter, that 
during that season the bill becomes harder than in Summer, 
and is, consequently, better suited for taking their food 
from the frozen ground. 
2. Cceruleus. The Nun. Ger. die Blaumeise. Fr. la M£sange 
bleue. — P. remigibus caerulescentibus ; primoribus mar- 
gine exteriore albis, fronte alba, vertice caeruleo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 14. fig. 1.) 
Very common in Europe. Destroys innumerable noxious insects. 
3. Caudatus. The Long-tailed Titmouse. — P. vertice albo, 
cauda corpore longiore. 
(Frisch. Tab. 14. fig. 3.) 
In Europe and the West Indies : lays as many as twenty eggs; 
builds a bag-shaped nest, and covers it exteriorly with the moss 
with which the tree it is placed in is overgrown. 
4. Biarmicus. The Bearded Titmose. Ger. das Bartmannchen. 
Fr. le Moustache. — P. vertice cano, cauda corpore longiore, 
capite barbato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 8. fig. 3.) 
In the North-west of Europe, England, &e. 

OF BIRDS. 
Ill 
5. Pendulums. The Penduline Titmouse. Ger. der Remitz. Fr. 
la Mesange de Pologne. — P. capite subferrugineo, fascia 
oculari nigra, remigibus rectricibusque fuscis margine 
utroque ferrugineo. 
(J. D. Titii Parus minimus Remiz descriptus. Lips. 1755. 4to. 
Tab. 1, 2.) 
Here and there in Austria, Upper Italy, Poland, Siberia, &c. 
It builds a bag-shaped nest, and suspends it from a slender twig. 
39. Hirundo. Rostrum minimum incurvum, subulatum, 
basi depressum. 
The Swallows are distinguished from the other animals of this 
Order, as well by their form as by their mode of life. Notwith- 
standing all that has been written on the disputed question of 
the IT inter retreat of the Swallows of our own climates, but 
little appears to be certainly known. It is a pity that in all the 
observations advanced in support of one or other side of the 
disputed points, the species on which they were made, have 
not been determined with precision *. On the whole, however, 
their emigration to warmer regions appears to unite the greater 
number of probabilities in its favour. 
1 . Domestica The House Swallow. Ger. der Rauchschwalbe. 
Fr. 1 Hirondelle de Cheminee. (Hirundo rustica. Linn.) — 
H. rectricibus, exceptis duabus intermediis, macula alba 
notatis, fronte et gula spadiceis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 18. fig. 1.) 
Together with the Sand Martin, one of the most widely dis- 
persed birds. The names of this, and the following Species, 
have been singularly mixed and confounded by systematic 
writers. This Species, with naked legs and speckled tail -fea- 
t lers, builus its open nest, which often swarms with bugs, in 
the roofs of houses, stables, barns, and in villages over doors, 
and m chimneys. 
2. Agrestis. dhe Martin. Ger. die Hausschwalbe. Fr. l’Hi- 
rondelle de fenetre. — H. pedibus hirsutis, rectricibus im- 
macnlatis, dorso nigro cserulescente, tota subtus alba. 
(Frisch. Tab. 17. fig. 2.) 
r ' ,;KVAU DE Monbeillard has collected and examined the proofs of 
their emigration in Buffon's Histoire ties Oiseaux. Vol. IV. p 55 7 
Wirier was n?!*"" ?u W ,orter of th * torpidity of Swallows during 
•rr, rl D Barrington. See his Miscellanies, p. 225. 
mZTtsZ^T^ iH ? PP ° rt ° f thc * arne °P iuion arc contained in the 
P- 494. VVd. II. p -ST ° f Art> ' nnd Scienrf,s > at Boston. Vol. I. 

1 12 
OF BIRDS. 
Principally in the Northern World. It mostly builds in villages, 
under the eaves of houses, church-windows, &c. Its nest is 
made of lumps of clay, and is vaulted above. 
3. Riparia. The Sand Martin. Ger. die Uferschwalbe. Fr. l’Hi- 
rondelle de Ilivage. — H. cinerea, gula abomineque albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 18. fig. 2.) 
Builds in the banks of rivers, in clay-pits, sand-hills, &c. 
4. Esculenta. The Salangane. — FL rectricibus omnibus ma- 
cula alba notatis. 
Of the size of the W ren. It comes from the Sunda, and other 
islands of the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea, &c. It builds 
the celebrated Indian nests, the materials of which resemble 
isinglass, in holes on shores and hills. At least four millions 
of these nests are collected annually, and mostly exported to 
China. 
5. Apus. The Black Martin. Ger. die Mauerschwalbe. Fr. le 
Martinet. — H. nigricans, gula alba, digitis omnibus qua- 
tuor anticis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 17- fig- 1«) 
In all three divisions of the Northern World. 
40. Caprimulgus. Rostrum modice incurvum, minimum, 
subulatum, basi depressum ; vibrissae ciliares. Rictus 
amplissimus ; unguis intermedins introrsum ciliatus. 
1. Europeus. The Goat-sucker. Ger. die Nachtschwalbe. Fr. 
l’Engoulevent. — C. narium tubis obsoletis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 101.) 
In the Old World. A nocturnal animal. It makes a purring 
noise in flying. It lives on insects, particularly moths, &c. The 
old tale that it sucks the milk of Goats, is wholly unfounded. 
VI. GALLINiE. 
The Birds of this Order have short legs, with a convex bill, 
which is covered with a fleshy membrane at its base, and of 
which the upper half overlaps the lower on each side, lhey 
feed mostly on grains, which they soften in the crop : they lay 
many eggs, and form the largest part of our poultry. 
41. Columba. Rostrum rectum versus apicem descen- 
dens *. 
(a.) Cauda aequali modica. 
1. Oenas. The Stock-dove. Ger. die Holztaube. Fr. le Biset. 
* Leu Pigeons— par Madame Knip, le 7'e.vtc par C. J.Themminck. 
Paris, 1811, &c. gr. folio. 

OF BIRDS. 11 3 
— C. caeruleScens, cervice viridi nitante, dorso postico 
albo, fascia alarum apiceque cautlae nigricante. 
( Sylvan , von Laukop und Fischer, f. 1815.) 
The Stock-dove is a native of almost the whole of the Old 
World. Those of the North emigrate in Autumn into more 
Southerly districts. Those of more temperate climates, on the 
contrary, pass the Winter in flocks, in the fissures of rocks, 
hollow trees, &c. The female, in the wild state, breeds twice, 
but when domesticated, nine or ten times in the year; so that 
a single couple would, in four years, produce 14,762. The 
principal varieties (of which some are considered as distinct 
species), are as follows : — 
(a.) Dasypus. The Rough-footed Dove. Ger. die Trommel- 
taube. Fr. le Pigeon pattu. The feet with long feathers. — 
(Frisch. Tab. 145.) 
( b .) Gutturosa. The Cropper. Ger. der Kropfer. Fr. le Grand 
Gosier. With a monstrous crop.— (Frisch. Tab. 146.) 
( c.J Turbita. The Turbit. Ger. das Mowchen. Fr. le Pigeon 
cravate. With frizzly feathers on the breast, and a very short 
bill. — (Frisch. Tab. 147.) 
( d-J Gyratrix. The Tumbler. Ger. der Tiimmler. Fr. le Pigeon 
culbutant. W ith a smooth head, and a bare red circle round 
theorbit: it throws itself over when rising. — (Frisch. Tab. 148.) 
C e.) Cucullata. The Jacobin. Ger. die Schleiertaube. Fr. le 
Pigeon nonain. With a bunch of feathers on the head, turning 
forwards. — (Frisch. Tab. 159.) 
( j •) Laticauda. The Fan-tail. Ger. die Pfauentaube. Fr. le 
Pigeon paon. With upright expanded tail, — (Frisch, Tab.151.) 
( Tabellaria. The Carrier. Ger. die Posttaube. Fr. le Pi- 
geon messager. With red warty growths about the bill and 
eyes. This V ariety has its name from the service to which it 
was formerly applied, particularly in the Levant, of carrying 
letters *, 
2 Coronata. The great crowned Indian Pigeon. Ger. der 
Kronvogel.— C. cserulescens, supra cinerea, orbitis nigris, 
crista erecta, humeris ferrugineis. 
(J. F. Miller. Fuse. III. Tab. 16.) 
Principally in New Guinea, the Molucca Islands, &c. Almost 
as large as a turkey. 
3. Palumbus. The Ring-dove. Ger. die Ringtaube. Fr. le Pi- 
* S. the Gnltingncher Taschen- /Calender , 1790, 
I 

114 . 
OF 13IRDS. 
geon ramier. — C. rectricibus postice atris, remigibus pri- 
moribus margine exteriore albidis, collo utrinque albo. 
( Sylvan , von Laurop und Fisciier. f. 1815.) 
In almost the whole of Europe. 
4. Turtur. The Turtle Dove. Ger. die Turteltaube. Fr. la 
Tourterelle. — C. rectricibus apice albis, dorso griseo, 
pectore incarnato, macula laterali colli nigra lineolis 
albis. 
(Sylvan, von Laurop und Fischer, f. 1815.) 
In the hotter and more temperate parts of the Old World. As 
to its so highly prized fidelity and chastity, setting aside idle 
fables, it presents nothing superior to other birds, which lead 
the same mode of life. 
5. Risoria. The Indian Turtle. Ger. die Lachstaube. Fr. la 
Tourterelle a collier. — C. supra lutescens lunula cervicali 
nigra. 
(Frisch. Tab. 141.) 
In the milder parts of Europe, and in the East Indies. 
( b.J Cauda longiore cuneato. 
6. Migratoria. The Migratory Pigeon. Ger. die Zugtaube. — 
C. orbitis denudatis sanguineis, pectore rufo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 142.) 
In the North-east of America. At the time of their emigra- 
tions they furnish a copious supply of food to the Indians, by 
whom they are smoked and dried in thousands. 
42. Tetrao. Macula prope oculos nuda, papillosa. 
1. Coturnix. The Quail. Ger. die Wachtel. Fr. la Caille. — 
T. Pedibus nudis, corpore griseo maculato, superciliis 
albis, rectricum margine lunulaque ferruginea. 
(v. Wildungen Tctschenbuch, f. 1802.) 
In almost every part of the Old W orld : a bird of passage, oc- 
casionally seen in vast numbers. 
2. Perdix. The Partridge. Ger. das Rebhuhn. Fr. la Perdrix 
grise. — T. pedibus nudis calcaratis, macula nuda coceinea 
sub oculis, cauda ferruginea, pectore sub fusco. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1799.) 
In the middle parts of Europe, and the warmer districts of 
Asiatic Russia. 
3. Rufus. The Red Partridge.— T. pedibus nudis calcaratis 
rostroque sanguineis, gula alba cincta fascia nigra albo 
punctata. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch , f. 1797 ) 

OF BIRDS. 
115 
In the South of Europe and the Levant. It is domesticated in 
the Islands of the Archipelago. 
4. Bonasia. The Hazel-hen. Ger. das Haselhuhn. Fr. la Ge • 
linotte. — T. pedibus hirsutis, rectricibus cinereis punctis, 
nigris fascia nigra ; exceptis intermediis duabus. 
(v. Wildungen Tcisclienbuch, f. 1796. 
Lives solitary in the hazel-bushes of the middle of Europe : 
the Swedish (Hiarpe) is the most delicate of all game. 
5. Lagopus. The White Game. Ger. das Sehneehuhn. Fr. la 
Gelinotte blanche. — T. pedibus lanatis, remigibus albis, 
rectricibus nigris, apice albis : intermediis albis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1800.) 
In the Alpine and Northern regions of the Old and New 
Worlds : is of a grey colour in Summer : and is of great value 
to the European Colonists of Labrador and Greenland. 
6. Tetrix. The Black Cock. Ger. der Birkhahn. Fr. le petit 
Tetras. — T. pedibus hirsutis, cauda bifurcata, remigibus 
secundariis versus basin albis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1795.) 
In the North of the Old World. 
7. Urogallus. The Cock of the Wood. Ger. der Auerhahn. 
Fr. le Coq de Bruyere. — T. pedibus hirsutis, cauda rotun- 
data, axillis albis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1794.) 
In the North of Europe. Its sight and hearing are extremely 
acute : its tongue and upper larynx are placed low down in 
the neck. 
43. Numida. Caput cornutum; collum compressum co- 
loratum ; palearia carunculacea ad latera maxilla 
utriusque. 
1. Meleagris. The Guinea Hen. Ger. das Perlhuhn. Fr. la 
Peintade. — N. rostro cera instructo nares recipiente. 
(Frisch. Tab. 126.) 
This creature, so remarkably spotted with white, is a native 
of the North and West of Africa; but has long been natu- 
ralized in Europe, and many parts of America. 
44. Menura. Cauda elongata, plana, rectricibus 16; 
duabus intermediis angustis, longioribus ; duabus 
externis apice dilatato exterius recurvo : reliquis 
laxis. 
1. Superba. (Audebert et Vieillot.— O weaw* de Paradis. 
Tab. 14, 15, 16.) 

116 
OF BIRDS. 
From New Holland. The male bird, on account of his large, 
wonderfully formed, and beautifully coloured tail, is one of 
the most splendid animals of the whole class. 
45. Piiasianus. Gense cute nuda laevigata. 
1 . Gallus. The Cock. Ger. der Haushahn. Fr. le Coq. — Ph. 
caruncula compressa vcrticis geminaque gulae, auribus 
nudis, cauda compressa ascendente. 
That which is probably the original stock, is found wild in Hin- 
dostan * ; it is of a reddish brown colour, and is distinguished 
by the flat horny plates at the points of the neck and wing 
feathers, and which resemble the vermilion red plates on the 
wings of the Bohemian Chatterer. The domestic fowl is dis- 
persed over almost the whole of the globe : it was first intro- 
duced into America by the Spaniards ; whilst, on the contrary, 
it was found in many of the South Sea Islands on their disco- 
very by the Europeans. From the number of its eggs, and the 
frequency which it lays them, it is one of the most useful 
animals of the whole class. — Cock-fights have long been a 
favourite amusement in many parts of the world. 
Among the animals of this Class, the domestic fowl is that 
which has deviated into the most numerous and most remark- 
able Races and Varieties : certain monstrosities have become 
hereditary f j as well per defectum, ( — § 12. ) as the fouls 
without tails ; as per excessum, (1. c.) as those with five or even 
six toes J. 
Of others these deserve notice : — 
(a.) The Paduan Fowl, as large again as the common one. 
(&.) The Dwarf Fowl, scarcely one half of its size. 
(c.) The Friesland Fowl, with frizzly feathers turning out- 
wards. 
(d.) The Japan Fowl, from Japan, China, &c. Its feathers 
are smooth, almost like hair, and hence have arisen the fables 
of bastards between fowls and rabbits. 
* Sonnerat, Voyage aax Index. Vol. II. r J ab. 94, 95. 
f Thus, in the crested fowl, as it is called, with a thick tuft of feathers 
on the head, the frontal part of the skull is expanded into a monstrous 
hollow shell covering the brain ; an hereditary aberration of the A isus/or- 
mativus, unequalled in its way, and which I have described an l ustiate 
by anatomical representations in my Commentatio de Nisus formatwt aber- 
rationibus. . , , 
+ On the well known, but still, in a physiological point, of view, remar - 
able experiment, of procuring the adhesion of the spur of a cock to its 
comb. See Dumamet. in the Mem. de I'Acad. dee Sciences de Pane, 1/4G. 
p. 349, &C. 

OF BIRDS. 
117 
( e.) The Negro Fowl, with a black skin. Principally from 
St. Jago, in the Cape de Verd Islands, where other species of 
birds are also said to present the same peculiarity. 
2. Colchicus. The Pheasant. Ger. der Fasan. Fr. le Faisan. 
Ph. rufus, variegatus, capite viridi caerulescente, cauda 
cuneata, genis papillosis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1797-) 
Has its name from the river Phasis, in Mingrelia, whence it 
was first brought to Europe by the Argonauts. 
3. Argus. The Chinese Pheasant. — Ph. fusco-flavescens, 
nigro punctatus et undulatus, remigum 11 interiorum 
latere exteriore ocellato, genis nudis, occipite nigro sub- 
cristato, rectricibus 2. intermediis longissimis. 
( Philos . Trans. Vol. LV. Tab. 3.) 
In its kind one of the most wonderfully beautiful and splendid 
creatures in nature. In particular, the large eyes on the inner 
wing feathers are shaded in an indescribably beautiful manner, 
with, as it were, a spot of light on each. It measures nine 
feet from the bill to the point of the tail, and, together with 
the two next species, is a native of China. 
4. Pictus. The Golden Pheasant. — Ph. crista flava, pectore 
coccineo, remigibus secundariis cseruleis, cauda cuneata. 
(Edwards. Tab. 68, 69.) 
In this and the following Species the adult males are distin- 
guished by the remarkable beauty of their plumage. 
5. Nycthemerus. The Silver Pheasant. — Ph. albus, crista ab- 
domineque nigris, cauda cuneata. 
(Edwards. Tab. 66.) 
46. Crax. Rostrum basi cera obductum in utraque 
mandibula. Pennai caput tegentes revolutae. 
1. Alector. The Curasso. — C. cera flava, corpore nigro, 
ventre albo. 
(Buffon. Vol. II. Tab. 13.) 
In Guinea, &c. 
47- Meleacris. Caput carunculis spongiosis tectum, 
gula caruncula membranacea longitudinali. 
1. Gallopavo. The Turkey. Ger. der Walsche Hahn. Fr. le 
Dindon. — M. maris pectore barbato. 
In the middle and Northern parts of America, living on trees, 
in flocks of many hundreds. It was brought to Germany in 
1530, where it has become domestic, and has deviated into 
many varieties of white and other colours. 

118 
OF BIRDS. 
48. Pavo. Caput pennis revolutis tectum, pcnnae cau- 
dales elongatae, ocellatae. 
1. Cristatus. The Peacock. Ger. der Pfau. Fr. le Paon. — 
P. capite crista compressa, calcaribus solitariis. 
Is originally a native of the East Indies, and was introduced 
into Europe in the time of Alexander the Great. The male is 
distinguished from its third year, by the splendour of its 
tail, or rather its back feathers. Of the varieties, the white 
is the most remarkable. 
49. Otis. Rostrum mandibula superiore fornicata ; 
pedes cursorii. 
1. Tarda. The Bustard. Ger. der Trappe. Fr. l’Outarde. — 
O. maris capite juguloque utrinque cristato. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch. f. 1796.) 
This, the largest bird of our own countries, is a native of the 
temperate parts of Europe. The male weighs full 30lbs, and 
has a large pouch in front of the neck, concealed, and opening 
under the tongue. 
VII. STRUTHIONES. 
Large land birds, with loose unconnected toes, and short 
wings or pinion feathers, unsuited for flight. 
50. Struthio. Rostrum subconicum ; pedes cursorii. 
1. Camelus. The Ostrich. Ger. der Straus. Fr. l’Autruche. 
— S. pedibus didactylis, digito exteriore parvo mutico, 
spinis alarum binis. 
(Latham. Vol. III. p. 1. Tab. 71. — Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. 
Tab. 77-) 
The largest of all birds, which reaches the height of eight feet 
and upwards, and is almost confined to Africa and Arabia : its 
incapability of flying is compensated by the exceeding speed 
with which it runs * : each of its eggs, of which it lays about 
30, contains as much as 24 hen’s eggs : it is principally valu- 
able on account of its feathers. 
The American Ostrich (Str. rhea,) is a native of Chili in par- 
ticular. 
2. Casuarius. The Cassowary. — S. pedibus tridactylis, galea 
palearibusque nudis, remigibus spinosis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 97-) 
In the East Indies : has great force in its middle claws : its 
feathers are horny, and look like horse hair, two of them be- 
ing attached to each quill. 
* Volat curricula. Plaut. 

OF BIRDS. 
119 
A peculiar species of Cassowary without a helmet, (Str. 
australis.) has been lately discovered in the fifth part of the 
World, in New South Wales. 
51 . Pidus. Rostrum medio coarctatum rugis duabus 
transversis : utraque mandibula inflexo apice ; facies 
ultra oculos nuda. 
1. Ine R tus. The Dodo. Ger. der Dudu. Fr. le Dronte. (Cyg- 
nus cucullatus.) — D. pedibus ambulatoriis, cauda bievis- 
sima, pennis incurvis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 35.) 
Formerly in the Isles of France and Bourbon : but, according 
to the assurances of Morel, who made his inquiries on the 
spot, it exists no longer : nor is this improbable, as it is one 
of the most unwieldy awkward animals of the whole Class, con- 
sequently easily taken ; and yet, on account of the indifferent 
flavour of its flesh, of little use *. 
So far of Land Birds. — Next of Water Birds, in 
Two Orders. 
VIII. GRALLiE. 
These Birds have cylindrical bills of various lengths, long 
stilt-like legs, for the most part a long neck, and a short tail. 
They mostly live in moist marshy grounds, feed on Amphibia, 
Fish, Insects, and Water-plants, build on the ground or among 
reeds, and are mostly valuable on account of the delicate fla- 
vour of their flesh and eggs. 
52. Phcenicopterus. Rostrum denudatum, infracto-in- 
curvatum, denticulatum, pedes tetradactyli. 
1. Ruber. The Flamingo. — S. ruber, remigibus nigris. 
( Sylvan , von Laurop und Fischer, f. 1814.) 
On the Sea-coasts of the warmer parts of the World : its body 
is of moderate size, but its neck and legs so long as to make 
it full as tall as a man. 
53. Platalea. Rostrum planiusculum ; apice dilatato, 
orbiculato, piano. Pedes tetradactyli semipalmati. 
] . Leucorodia. The Spoon-bill. Ger. die Loffelgans. Fr. la 
Spatule. — P. corpore albo,gula nigra, occipite subcristato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 200, &c.) 
Scattered through different parts of the Western World. 
* I have spoken of this and other proofs of the changes which take place 
in the Creation, in my Beytrdge zur Nalur- Uetchichtc. Th. 1. S. 24, &c. 

120 
OF BIRDS. 
5>. Palamedea. Rostrum conicum, mandibula superiore 
adunca. Pedes tetradactyli, fissi. 
1* Cornuta. The horned Screamer. — P. alulis bispinoeis, fron* 
teque cornuta. 
(Latham. Vol. III. p. 1 . Tab. 74.) 
In the Savannahs of the Eastern parts of South America. 
55. Mycteria. Rostrum subadscendens, acutum : man- 
dibula superiore triquetra : inferiore trigona acumi- 
nata adscendente : frons calva : nares lineares : pedes 
tetradactyli. 
1 . Americana. The Jabiru. Fr. la Cicogne du Brezil. 
(Latham. 1. c. Tab. 26.) 
A native of the same places with the species above. 
56. Cancroma. Rostrum gibbosum ; mandibula supe- 
riore cymbse resupinatse forma. 
1. Cochlearia. The Boat-bill. Ger. der Hohl-schnabel. Fr. la 
Cuilliere. — C. ventre rufescente. 
(Latham. 1. c. Tab. 26.) 
Also in Brazil, &c. 
57- Ardea. Rostrum rectum, acutum, longum, sub- 
compressum ; pedes tetradactyli. 
1 . Pavonina. The Royal Crane. Ger. der Kron-Kranich. Fr. 
l'Oiseau Royal. — A. crista setosa erecta, temporibus pa- 
learibusque binis nudis. 
(Buffon. Vol. VII. Tab. 11.) 
In South Africa. The feathers in its beautiful crown are wound 
spirally in a remarkable manner. 
2. Grus. The Crane. Ger. der Kranich. Fr. la Grue. — A. oc- 
cipite nudo papilloso, corpore cinereo, alis extus testaceis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1797-) 
In the Northern parts of the Old World. 
3. Ciconia. The Stork. Ger. der Storck. Fr. la Cicogne. — A. 
alba, orbitis nudis remigibusque nigris 5 rostro, pedibus 
cuteque sanguineis. 
In the more temperate parts of almost the whole of the Old 
World : it lives not only on Amphibia, but also destroys use- 
ful animals, whole broods of partridges for instance j it fre- 
quently carries linen, thread, &c., to its nest, for the purpose 
of lining it *. 
4. Major. The Heron. Ger. der Reiher. Fr. le Heron. — A. 
* For some good observations on the Stork, see the Hanoverian Maga- 
zine, 1809. ]). 96. 

OF BIRDS. 121 
occipite crista nigra dependente, corpore cinereo, collo 
subtus linea fasciaqne pectorali nigris. 
(Frisch. Tab. 199.) 
In almost every part of both Worlds. Noxious animals, par- 
ticularly destructive to fish ponds, and the young brood in 
them : they build in lofty trees, oaks, &c * * * § . 
5. Garzetta. The Egret. Fr. 1’ Aigrette. — A. occipite cristato, 
corpore albo, rostro nig.ro, loris pedibusque virescentibus. 
(Buffon. Vol. VII. Tab. 25.) 
Particularly in Persia : the feathers of the back are long, silver 
white, silky, and very valuable. 
6. Stellaris. The Bittern. Ger. die Rohrdommel. Fr. le Butor 
A. capite lseviusculo, supra testacea maculis transversis, 
subtus pallidior maculis oblongis fuscis. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1808.) 
In the temperate regions of the Northern World. 
58, Tantalus. Rostrum longum, subulatum, teretius- 
culum, subarcuatum : facies nuda ultra oculos : 
pedes tetradactyli, basi palmati. 
1. Ibis. (Tantalus cEthiopicus . Latham. Numenius ibis. Cu- 
vier.) — T. albus remigum apicibus, rostro et pedibus 
nigris, remigibus secundariis elongatis nigro-violaceis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 86.) 
This is the animal so famed among the ancient Egyptians, as 
the symbol of the overflowing of the Nile f : it has been fre- 
quently represented on their hieroglyphical monuments, and 
prepared, like the human bodies, in the form of Mummies \, 
great numbers being placed in certain vaults. At present it is 
rather uncommon there, at least in Lower Egypt §. The 
smaller black Ibis appears to be identical with the Tantalus 
* The Heron’s feathers from the Levant, which I have seen, differ from 
those of our own countries, in being of a finer colour, but not at all in 
their form or flexibility. Those, on the contrary, which are so different in 
form and colour, are procured from the Garzetta. 
t For its arrival, breeding season, and departure, coincided with the 
commencement, & c., of the fertilizing inundation of that river. See J. C. 
Savigny, Hist. Nat. et Myth, de l' Ibis. 
X I have given an account in the Phil. Trans. 1794, of two such Mum- 
mies, which I had an opportunity of examining in London. See also C. A. 
Langouth, de Mum. avium in labyrintho apud Sacaram repertis. Viteb. 
1803. 4to. with plates. 
§ On the other hand, this Ibis is found in South Africa, whence (from 
Lape Town) I have received specimens, by the kindness of the Rev. M. Hesse. 

12!2 
OF TURDS. 
falcinellus, met with in the South of Germany and other parts 
of Europe. 
69. Scolopax. Rostrum teretiusculum, obtusum, capite 
longius, facies tecta, pedes tetradactyli, postico 
pluribus articulis insistente. 
1. Arquata. (Numenius.) The Curlew. Ger. die Brachscb- 
neife. Fr. le Courlis. — S. rostro arcuato, pedibus cserules- 
centibus, alis nigris maculis niveis. 
(v. Wiedungen Taschenbuch, f. 1809.) 
Widely dispersed over the coasts of the Northern World. 
2. Rusticula. The Woodcock. Ger. die Waldschnepfe. Fr. la 
Becasse. — S. rostro basi rufescente, pedibus cinereis, fe- 
moribus tectis, fascia capitis nigra. 
(v. Wildungen Taschenbuch, f. 1801.) 
In the warmer parts of the North of the Old World. 
3. Gallimgo. The Snipe. Ger. die Heersclinepfe. Fr. la Be- 
cassine. — S. rostro recto, tuberculato, pedibus fuscis, 
frontis lineis fuscis quaternis. 
(v. Wildun gen Taschenbuch, f. 1803.) 
In almost every part of the Northern World. 
60. Tringa. Rostrum teretiusculum longitudine ca- 
pitis, digito postico uni-articulato, a terra elevato. 
1. Pugnax. The Ruff. Ger. der Rampfhahn. Fr. le Combat- 
tant. — T. rostro pedibusque rubis, rectricibus tribus late- 
ralibus immaculatis, facie papillis granulatis carneis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 232.) 
In the North of the Old World. It has its name from the fero- 
city with which the males attack each other at the pairing 
time. 
2. Vanellus. (Gavia.) The Lapwing. Ger. der Kybitz. Fr. le 
Vanneau. — T. pedibus rubris, crista dependente, pectore 
nigro. 
(Frisch. Tab. 213.) 
Also in the Northern parts of the Old World. 
61. Charadrius. Plover. Ger. Regenpfeiffer. Fr. Plu- 
vier. — Rostrum teretiusculum, obtusum. Nares line- 
ares. Pedes cursorii, tridactyli. 
1 Hiaticula. The Sea-Lark. Ger. die See-lerche. Fr. le Plu- 
vier a collier.— C. pectore nigro, fronte nigricante fasci- 
ola alba, vertice fusco, pedibus luteis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 214.) 

OF BIRDS. 123 
On the banks of rivers in different parts of the Old World : 
found also on the Sandwich Islands. 
62. Recuryirostra. Rostrum depresso-planum, subu- 
latum, recurvatum, acuminatum, apice Jiexili. Pedes 
palmati, tridactyli. 
1 . Avosetta. The Avosette. — R. albo nigroque varia. 
(Buffon. Vol. VIII. Tab. 38.) 
In the temperate parts of the Old World. It lives principally 
on water insects and worms, which it seizes very dexterously 
with its singularly shaped bill. 
63. H.ematopus. Rostrum compressum, apice cuneo 
sequali ; pedes cursorii tridactyli. 
1- Ostralegus. The Sea Pie. Ger. der Austerdieb. Fr. l’Hui- 
trier. — H. rostro pedibusque rubris. 
(Latham. Vol. III. p. 1. Tab. 84.) 
On different parts of the Sea-coasts of every part of the 
World : it lives principally on shell-fish. 
64. Fulica. Rostrum convexum, mandibula superiore 
margine supra inferiorem fornicata ; frons calva, 
pedes tetradactyli, subpinnati. 
1 . Porphyrio. The purple Water-hen. Fr. la Poule Sultane. — 
F. pedibus fissis, fronte pedibusque rubris, corpore viridi 
subtus violaceo. 
(Buffon. Vol. III. Tab. 17-) 
On many shores and islands in the warmer regions of all the 
five parts of the World. Its shape is slight and elegant, and 
its plumage a splendid violet and glittering green. It is easily 
tamed. 
2. Atra. The Coot. Ger. das schwarze Blasshuhn. Fr. la 
Foulque. — F. pedibus pinnatis fronte incarnata, armillis 
luteis, corpore nigricante. 
(Frisch. Tab. 209.) 
In the temperate parts of the Northern World. 
65. Parra. Rostrum teretiusculum, obtusiusculum. Na- 
res ovatae in medio rostri. Frons carunculata, ca- 
runculis lobatis. Alulae spinosae. 
1. Jacana. The Spur-winged Water-Hen. Fr. lc Chirurgien, 
Chevalier. — P. unguibus posticis longissimis, pedibus 
viridescentibus. 
(Bufpox. Vol. VIII. Tab. 16.) 
In the West Indies, Brazil, &c. 
66. Ram.us. Rostrum basi erassius, compressum, dorso 

124 
OF BIRDS. 
attcnuatum apicem versus, aequale, acutum ; pedes 
tetradactyli, fissi. 
1. Crex. The Rail. Ger. der Wachtelkonig. Fr. le Rhle dc 
genet. — R. alis rufo-ferrugineis. 
In the temperate parts of the Old World. It has received the 
name of King of the Quails (in German), from the erroneous 
idea formerly entertained that it led them in their migrations. 
67. Psopiiia. Rostrum cylindrico-conicum, convexum, 
acutiusculum, mandibula superiore longiore. — Nares 
ovatae, patulae. Pedes tetradactyli, fissi. 
1 . Crepitans. The Trumpeter. Ger. der Agami. Fr. l’Oiseau 
trompette. — P. nigra, pectore columbino. 
(Latham. Vol. II. p. 2. Tab. 68.) 
In South America, and in great numbers along the River 
Amazon. It is very doc andile, much attached to its master. 
IX. ANSERES. 
The Birds of this Order are distinguished by their webbed feet, 
which are placed far back, and are thereby better adapted 
for rowing, but less so for walking. The upper mandible 
mostly ends in a little hook, and, together with the lower, is in 
most instances covered by a membrane plentifully supplied 
with nerves. ( See Remark to § 64.) They have for the most 
part a fleshy tongue, a rough prickly palate, and in many in- 
stances in the male, a peculiar long or gristly capsule in front 
of the wind-pipe. Their plumage is thick and oily, not ab- 
sorbing water. They are mostly polygamous, and live on the 
shores of seas, lakes and rivers, on islands, cliffs, among reeds, 
&c. They commonly lay but one or a small number of eggs ; 
but are useful in various ways — for their flesh, their fat, 
feathers, & c. 
68. Rhinchops. Rostrum rectum, mandibula superiore 
multo breviore 5 inferiore apice truncata. 
1 . Nigra. The Sea Crow. Cutwater. Ger. der Wasser- 
schneider. Fr. Le Bee en Ciseaux. — R. nigricans, subtus 
alba, rostro basi rubro. 
(Brisson. T. 6. Tab. 21. fig. 2.) 
In North America. The upper mandible is shorter than the 
lower, and is embraced by it like the blade of a pocket-knife 
by its handle. 
69. Sterna. Rostrum edentulum, subulatum, subrectum, 

OF BIRDS. 12 !) 
acutum, compressiusculum. Nares lineares ad basin 
rostri. 
1. Stolida. The Noddy. Fr. le Fou, le Diable. — S. corpore 
nigro, fronte albicante, superciliis atris. 
(Brisson. T. (>. Tab. 18. fig. 2.) 
In <dl the Seas between the Tropics. 
2. Hirundo. The Silver-Bird, Sea-Swallow. Ger. die See- 
schwalbe. Fr. le Pierregarin. — S. cauda forficata : rectri- 
cibus duabus extimis alho nigroque dimidiatis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 119.) 
In all the Northern parts of the World. 
70. Colymbus. Rostrum edentulum, subulatum, rectum, 
acuminatum, pedes compedes. 
1. Grylle. The Sea-Turtle. Ger. die Gronlandische Taube. 
— C. pedibus palmatis tridactylis, corpore atro, rectricibus 
alarum albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 185.) 
Likewise in all the most Northern parts of the Earth. 
2. Troile. The Guillemot. Ger. die Lumer. Fr. le Guille- 
mot. — C. pedibus palmatis tridactylis, corpore fusco, 
pectore abdomineque niveo, remigibus secundariis ex- 
tremo apice albis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 185.) 
On the Sea-coasts of the Northern World. 
3. Urinator. The Grebe. Fr. La Gr4be. — C. capite lievi, 
palpebra inferiore lutea, macula alarum alba. 
(Edwards. Tab. 306- fig. 2.) 
In the hotter parts of Europe. The silver-white down on its 
abdomen, as well as that of the C. cristatus, is employed for 
making muffs, trimmings, &c. 
71- Larus. Gull. Ger. Mowe. Fr. Mouette. Rostrum 
edentulum, rectum, cultratum, apice subadunco. 
Mandibula inferiore infra apicem gibba. 
Mostly on the coasts of the North World, but also in the 
South Seas, and often in large fiocks. 
1. Tridactylus. The Tarrock. Ger. die weisse Mowe. — L. 
albicans, dorso canescente, rectricum apicibus, excepto 
extremo, nigris, pedibus tridactylis. 
(Brissox. T. 6. Tab. 17- fig- 2.) 
On the North Sea. 
72. Pi.otus. Rostrum rectum, acuminatum, denticulatum. 
Facies tecta, pedes palmati omnibus digitis oonnexis. 

126 
OP BIRDS. 
1. Anhinga. The Darter. — P. ventre albo. 
( Willoughby. Tab. 72.) 
In Brazil, &c. In the body as large as a duck, but with a very 
long neck, which the animal can roll up spirally, and by that 
means dart its head at the fish it wishes to seize. 
73. Piiaetiion. Rostrum cultratum, rectum, acuminatum, 
fauce pone rostrum hiante. Digitus posticus an- 
trorsum versus. 
1. JEthereus. The Tropic-Bird. Ger. der Tropikvogel. Fr. la 
Paille-en-queue. — P. rectricibus duabuslongissimis,rostro 
serrato, pedibus sequilibribus : digito postico connexo. 
(Brisson. Vol. VI. Tab. 42. fig. 1.) 
On the open seas between the Tropics. Lives chiefly on the 
Flying-fish. 
74- Procellaria. Rostrum edentulum, subcompres- 
sum : mandibulis aequalibus, superiore apice adun- 
co ; inferiore apice compresso-canaliculato. Pedes 
ungue postico sessili, absque digito. 
1. Pelagica. The stormy Petrel, Mother Carey’s Chicken. 
Ger. der Sturmvogel. Fr. le Petrel. — P. nigra, uropygio 
albo. 
(Linne Fauna Suecica. Tab. 2. fig. 143.) 
As well in the Northern as the Southern Ocean. It is found in 
the open seas at a distance from land, and seamen consider its 
approach to their vessels a sign of a coming storm. The in- 
habitants of the Faroe Islands use them as lamps : they pass a 
wick through their bodies, which, when lighted, burns a long 
time, from the quantity of fat they contain. 
75. Diomedea. Rostrum rectum : maxilla superiore 
apice adunca ; inferiore truncata. 
1. Exulans. The Albatross. Ger. der Albatros. Fr. l’Alha- 
trosse. — D. alis pennatis longissimis, pedibus aequilibri- 
bus tridactylis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 88.) 
Of the size of a Swan, and when the wings are expanded, mea- 
sures eleven feet across. It is met with 500 German miles 
from land, but seldom flies more than ten or twenty feet above 
the surface of the sea. The Flying-Fish forms its principal 
food*. 
76. Pelecanus. Rostrum rectum : apice adunco, un- 
* See Pennant’s Arctic Zoology, Vol. II. p. 507. 

OF BIRDS. 127 
guieulato ; pedes lequilibres ; digitis omnibus qua- 
tuor simul palmatis. 
(a) Rostro edentulo. 
1. Onocrotalus. The Pelican. — P. gula saccata. 
(A Plate by J. E. Ridinger, 1740.) 
In the warmer parts of all five divisions of the World, unless the 
American Pelican be specifically distinct. It has its Greek 
name from its ass-like voice, and its German ( Kropfgans ) from 
the enormous bag-like crop hanging from the lower mandible, 
and so extensible as to be capable of containing full twenty 
pounds of water. 
2. Aquilus. The Man of War-Bird. Ger. die Fregatte. Fr. 
3e Tailleur. — P. alis amplissimis, cauda fortificata, cor- 
pore nigro, rostro rubro, orbitis nigris. 
(Edwards. Tab. 309.) 
It has much similarity to the Albatross in its form and mode of 
life ; the wings are still longer, measuring fourteen feet when 
expanded, and giving it a remarkable appearance when flying. 
3. Carbo. The Cormorant. Ger. die Scharbe. Fr. le Cormo- 
ran. — P. cauda rotundata, corpore nigro, rostro edentulo, 
capite subcristato. 
(Frisch. Tab. 187.) 
In all five parts of the World. Is very noxious to fish. It oc- 
casionally increases in a few years to many thousands, on 
coasts where it was previously unknown. 
A very similar species (Pelecanus sinensis ) is employed in 
China for taking fish. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 25.) 
(b) Rostro serrato. 
4. Bassanus. The Gannet. Soland Goose. Ger. die Rothgans. 
Fr. le Fou de Bassan. — P. cauda cuneiformi, corpore al- 
bo, rostro remigibusque primoribus nigris, facie cterulea. 
(Brisson. T. 6. Tab. 44.) 
In great numbers in the North of Europe and America, parti- 
cularly the Scottish Islands, from one of which (Bass*) it has 
its name. It is the principal food of the poor Islanders of St. 
Kilda, whose women wear the skin instead of shoes, which 
only last about five days, but are immediately replaced by 
others f. 
* Harvey De Generat. Animal, p. 30. 
+ See Mart. Martin’s y oyage to St. Kilda, the remotest of all the He- 
brides. 8vo. London, 1C98. 

128 
OF BIRDS. 
77. Anas. Rostrum lamelloso-dentatum, convexuru, ob- 
tusum ; lingua ciliata, obtusa. 
1. Olor. The Swan. Ger. der Schwan. Fr. le Cygne. — A. ros- 
tro semicylindrico atro, cera nigra, corpore albo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 152.) 
In the North of the Old World : lives on frogs, aquatic weeds, 
&c. This, the mute or tame Swan, must be distinguished 
from the wild one. — A. cygnus, with a yellow membrane at the 
root of the bill, and a very long contorted trachea. The latter 
has a clear far-sounding voice, by no means disagreeable. 
The black Swan, with white pinion feathers (A. nigra), is 
found in the fifth part of the World, at Botany-Bay, as well as 
on the West coast, where this beautiful animal was seen and 
described in 1697*- 
2. Cygnoides. The Chinese Goose. Ger. die Spanische Gans. 
Fr. l’Oie de Guinee. — A. rostro semicylindrico ; cera gib- 
bosa, palpebris tumidis. 
(Frisch. Tab. 153, 154.) 
In Guinea, at the Cape, in Siberia, China, and, as it seems, 
also in the Sandwich Islands. There are several Varieties. 
3. Anser. The Goose. Ger. die Gans. Fr. l’Oye. — A. rostro 
semicylindrico, corpore supra cinereo, subtus pallidiore, 
collo striato. 
Wild in almost all five parts of the World. Has the most ra- 
pid growth of any warm-blooded animal. Among the tame 
ones, the male is very commonly snow-white, but the female 
scarcely ever. 
4. Canadensis. The Hudson’s-Bay Goose. — A. cinerea, capite 
colloque nigris, genis gulaque albis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 151.) 
In the coldest parts of North America. Its down is much 
prized for beds. It also affords excellent quills. 
5. Berniela. The Barnacle-Goose. Ger. die Baumgans. 
A. fusca, capite collo pectoreque nigris, collari albo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 156.) 
In the coldest countries of the Northern World. It comes to 
pass the Winter in Scotland and other milder spots. Among 
others, it lives on the Barnacle (Lepas analiferaj, and hence 
arose the singular fable that it was produced, not from an egg, 
but from a shell, &c. A similar popular fable also formerly 
* See Valf.ntyn’s Oo.it Indien. 3. D. 2 St. p. 69. 3 D. 

OF BIRDS. 
129 
prevailed of a connected Species, Anas erythropus, of a grey 
colour with a white forehead, (Frisch. Tab. 198.) which, 
therefore, is by many ornithologists called Bernicla. 
6. Mollissima. The Eider-duck. Ger. der Eidervogel. Fr. 
l’Oie a Duvet. — A. rostro cylindrico, cera postice bifida, 
rugosa. 
(Bruxnichs Nat. Hist, des Eidervogels. Tab. 1, &c.) 
In the Northern World, and particularly numerous in Iceland 
and Greenland. Its flesh and eggs are very well flavoured. 
Its skin, which is used for lining clothes, and the well known 
Eider-down, are of great value. 
7- Boschas. The Duck. Ger. die Ente. Fr. le Canard. — A. 
rectricibus intermediis (maris) recurvatis, rostro recto. 
(Frisch. Tab. 158, &c.) 
The wild Duck is found in almost the whole of the Northern 
World, often in very beautiful varieties. The tame (A. domes- 
tica .) appears to have a great tendency to unnatural copulation, 
so that the Drake will tread the common fowl, and the Duck 
run after, and endeavour to excite, the Turkey-cock. 
8. Clypeata. The Shoveler. Ger. die LofFelente. Fr. le Sou- 
chet. — A. rostro extremo dilatato rotundatoj ungue in- 
curvo. 
(Frisch. Tab. 161, &c.) 
A native of nearly the same countries with the last Species. 
The inner edges of the bill are furnished with horny bristles 
almost like whalebone. 
78. Mergus. Rostrum denticulatum, subulato-cylindri- 
cum, apice adunco. 
1. Merganser. The Goosander. Ger. der Kneifer. Fr. l’Harle. 
— M. crista longitudinali erectiuscula : pectore albido 
immaculato, rectricibus cinereis, scapo nigricante. 
(Frisch. Tab. 190.) 
In the whole of the Northern World. Together with other 
Species of this Genus, injurious to fish ponds, particularly at 
the time of spawning. 
79. Alca. Rostrum edentulum, breve, compressum, con- 
vexum, transverse sulcatum : mandibula inferior 
ante basin gibba. 
The whole genus is found on the coasts and cliffs of the North- 
ern World. 
1. Arctica. The Puffin. Ger. der Papagey-Taucher. Fr. le 
Macareux. — A. rostro compresso-ancipiti, sulcato sulcis 4, 
K 

130 
OF BIRDS, 
oculorum orbita temporibusque albis, palpebra superiore 
mucronata. 
Makes its nest in hollows in the ground, or in burrows, which 
it scratches itself. 
SO. Aptenodytes. Rostrum compressiusculum, subcul- 
tratum, longitudinaliter oblique sulcatum : mandi- 
bula inferior apice truncato: alte impennes, pinni- 
formes. 
Their smooth glossy plumage, their fin-like, scaly wings, and 
their almost perpendicular carriage render the appearance of 
these animals very singular, i he different Species are nati\es 
of the Southern Coasts and Islands of Africa and America, as 
well as others about New Holland, New Guinea, and New 
Zealand *. They are occasionally found in vast numbers to- 
gether. 
1. Chrysocome. The Crested Penguin.— A. rostro rufo-fusco, 
pedibus flavescentibus, crista frontali atra erecta, auricu- 
lari deflexa flava. 
(. Abbilcl . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 4G.) 
On the Falkland Islands, New Holland, &c. 
2. Demersa. The Black-footed Penguin.— A. rostro pedibus- 
que nigris, superciliis fasciaque pectoralis albis. 
(Edwards. Tab. 94.) 
In numbers at the Cape of Good Hope, &c. 
* J. R. Forster. Hist. Aptenodyta in Comment. Soc. Sc. Gott. 1/JO.— 
Vol. III. page 181, &c. 

OK AMPHIBIA. 
131 
SECT. VI. 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
§ SI. Mammifera and Birds are distinguished from Amphi- 
bia and Fishes, by the warmth and the greater quantity of 
their blood. (§ 23 and 40.) 
§ 82. Amphibia, however., resemble Mammifera, and differ 
from Fishes, in so far as they breathe with lungs; although 
these are of a much looser texture, and their respiration much 
more indeterminate, and less regular than in the two Classes 
of warm-blooded animals. They are also capable of living 
much longer without respiring, or in a vacuum, (as for in- 
stance, Toads in cavities within trees or blocks of stone ; ) 
they can even endure for a time an atmosphere of carbonic 
acid gas, and exposure to the extremes of heat and cold ; for 
example there are undoubted proofs of Newts and Frogs 
having lived in the stomach and intestines of human be- 
ings, or that have recovered, after having been frozen per- 
fectly hard. 
§ 83. And as Amphibia are provided with lungs, they are 
also capable of uttering sounds ; although some, as the true 
Salamander, the Green Lizard, the Blind-worm, appear to be 
altogether mute. 
§ 84. With regard to form , it is, in the Amphibia at large, 
of two kinds ; either they have four feet, as Tortoises, Frogs, 
Lizards, &c.j or, as in Serpents, they have a long cylindrical 
body, without any external organs of motion. 
§ 85. The external coverings are in the Amphibia more va- 
rious than in warm-blooded animals. Some are protected by 
a bony shell ; others have horny rings, or numerous small 
plates or scales ; and others have a bare skin protected only 
by slime. The greater number change their coverings from 
time to time. Many, as the Tree-frog, and various Lizards, 
but particularly the Cameleon, change colour suddenly. 
§ 86. Most Amphibia, as the name indicates, are adapted for 
living in water as well as on land. Many seek their prey, &c., 
K 2 

\?>2 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
voluntarily in both ; others, on the contrary, pass either a cer- 
tain period of their life, or of each year, in one of the two. 
Lastly, there are many which are suited only for living on land 
or in water, but not in both. 
§ 87. Many Amphibia, especially among Tortoises and Ser- 
pents, live on various kinds of food : others, on the contrary, 
as the Tree-frog, Cameleon, &c., are very precise in the choice 
of their food ; attacking, for instance, only some few species 
of Insects. Many, when in a state of captivity, do not take 
any food, and can fast for an astonishing length of time : I 
myself have often kept Salamanders for eight months togethei 
without food, and yet without their appearing materially re- 
duced : as to Tortoises, it is known that they can exist full 
a year and a half without eating. 
§ 88. The remarkable facility and strength of the power of 
reproduction in Amphibia (§ 19.) depends, if I am not mistaken, 
on the before mentioned force of their nerves, and on the 
comparatively small size of the brain; (§29.) as a conse- 
quence of which, the former (the nerves,) are less dependent 
on the latter (the brain) ; the whole machine has less mobi- 
lity, presents fewer indications of sympathy ( consensus ), and 
the whole life is more simple, and more purely vegetative 
than in warm-blooded animals; whilst, on the other hand, 
the separate parts are endowed with a greater share of peculiar 
and independent vital power : and consequently, from this 
peculiar and independent vitality of individual parts, a stimulus 
applied to one part, or one system of parts, does not, as in 
warm-blooded animals, excite others by sympathy (consensus). 
We thus have an explanation of the tenacity of life in animals 
of this class (Frogs are known to leap about after the heart 
has been torn out, and Tortoises to live for months after the 
brain has been removed,) : and a similar explanation will apply 
to the long continued power of motion, in parts of Amphibia 
when separated from their bodies ; as, for example, the tails 
of Newts, Blind-worms, &c *. 
§ 89. In many Amphibia, particularly Serpents, tlieir venom 
serves as a weapon and means of defence ; in Salamanders, 
the milky slime which they exude when necessary'; and in 
* I have investigated this subject more fully in my Specimen Physiol. 
Comparator inter animantia calidi et frigidi sanguinis— n\ Comment. Soc. 
He*. Srient. Getting. Vol. VIII. 

of amphibia: 138 
many others, as Serpents, Toads, Lizards, the peculiar odour 
that they diffuse. 
§ 90. The external senses in the greater number of Amphibia 
do not appear to be very acute. Of the internal, memory is in 
many very remarkable j for there are instances in which loads, 
and even Crocodiles, have become tame, and learned to know 
their benefactors ; whilst it is well known that many Serpents 
are capable of being taught a variety of tricks. On the other 
hand, there are in this class of animals but few traces of con- 
structive instinct. (§ 36.) 
§ 91. But few Amphibia appear to require daily sleep ; but, 
on the other hand, nearly all become torpid during the Winter 
months j and that sometimes singly at others, as is the case 
with the Frogs and Salamanders of Europe, in heaps together. 
Even these, however, can easily dispense with this Winter 
sleep, and continue awake the whole year through, when kept 
in our chambers. 
§ 92. The mode of propagation of Amphibia is generally re- 
markable. The sexual impulse is in many so violent, that 
Frogs, for instance, have been seen, in defect of females, to 
leap on male Frogs, or on Toads, or even on the dead female. 
In most Frogs and Sea-Tortoises, the act of copulation lasts 
for several days, or even weeks. Vipers, in copulating, en- 
twine the posterior parts of their bodies very closely together, 
and by bending their necks, dart their tongues at one another. 
Salamanders, on the contrary, do not embrace, but the male 
swims about the female, and sprinkles the eggs that she lays 
with his semen. 
§ 93. Amphibia are, with few exceptions, oviparous. Many, 
however, particularly among Serpents, do not deposit the egg 
until such time as the young animal contained in it is nearly 
perfect. The Pipa hatches its eggs on its back. 
Remark. A Salamander, which I kept from the end of the 
Summer, at least four entire months, perfectly isolated 
in a glass vessel, about the beginning of the next year, 
unexpectedly produced thirty-four young ones within a 
few days : hence we may conclude that a previous im- 
pregnation retains its efficacy much longer even than in 
the common fowl. 
§ 94. Frogs and Lizards, which are hatched in water, do 
not enter the world in their perfect form, but as larva:, and 
must undergo a kind of metamorphosis before they attain their 

134 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
destined form, and the use of all their limbs. The young Frogs, 
for instance (Gyrini, Ang. Tadpoles. Ger. Kaulquappen. Fr. 
T^tards.), have not orginally any feet, but, instead, a long 
rudder-like tail ; so also, the young Salamander, a kind of gills 
(Bronchi®, or Appendices fimbriat® of Swammerdam), on each 
side of the neck, with a kind of sucking-tube on the under 
lip ; parts which are clearly destined only for the larva state 
of the young animal, and disappear with its increasing growth. 
Remark. Two animals, as yet but imperfectly known, which 
have a general resemblance to Lizards, but which cannot 
be easily classed systematically; (one, the Proteus anguinus, 
found in the subterraneous lakes of Carniola ; the other, 
the Siren lacertina, from the lakes of Carolina;) present 
the anomaly of lungs, together with gills, such as in the 
reptiles already mentioned, are found only in the larva state. 
For the Proteus — which has three toes on the fore- feet ; 
two on the hinder ; no opening of the eyelids, but yet 
rudiments of an eyeball under the skin — see Professor 
Schreiber (to whom I am indebted for an excellent spe- 
men of this rare and singular animal), in the Phil. Trans. 
for 1801 ; P. Con fig li ach i e M. Rusconi del Proteo an- 
guino. Pavia, 1819. 4to. and M. Treviranus, senior, in 
the Comment Soc. Scient. Gotting. recent. Vol. IV. For the 
Siren, see Ellis and J. Hunter, in Phil. Trans. Vol. LVI. ; 
and for both, M. Cuvier in his Recherches anatomiques snr 
les Reptiles regarde's encore comme douteux. Paris, ISO?. 4to. 
§ 95. The Amphibia are slow in growth ; so that, for ex- 
ample, the Frogs of these climates are incapable of producing 
until their fourth year ; and yet reach what must be consi- 
dered in proportion to the late period of puberty, the incon- 
siderable age of from twelve to sixteen years. On the other 
hand, it is known that Tortoises, eA r en in captivity, have lived 
upwards of 100 years ; so that by analogy, it may be supposed 
that Crocodiles, and the large Serpents reach a still more ad- 
vanced age. 
§ 96. The utility of Amphibia to the human race is but li- 
mited ; in many places, however, it is pretty considerable. 
Tortoises and their eggs afford food, as do also various Frogs, 
and Lizards. Tortoises also furnish the well knoAvn shell and 
oil. The Alligator’s skin, Avhen dressed, makes beautiful 
saddles, & c. 
§ 97- Many monstrous animals of this Class are noxious 
from their bulk, as Crocodiles, Water-snakes, &c. ; others, as 

OK AMPHIBIA. 
135 
Serpents, from their venom, which is more dangerously active 
than in any other class of animals. 
§ 9S. The whole class is divided into two Orders only : — 
I. Reptiles. Amphibia with four feet. (Ihe quadru- 
peda ovipara of the old naturalists.) lortoises. 
Frog's, Lizards. 
II. Serpentes. Serpents without any external organs 
of motion (§ 84.) 
Authorities for the Natural History of this Class. 
Alb. Seba. Rerum naturalium Thesaurus. Amst. 1734. 1765. 
Vol. IV. fol. (the tw r o first volumes.) 
Jo. Nic. Laurenti. Synopsis reptilium emendata. Vindob. 
1786. 8vo. 
C. de Lacepede. Histoire naturelle des quadrupedes ovipares et 
des serpens. Paris, 17 SS. 2 Vols. 4to. and translated into Ger- 
man, with remarks and additions by M. Bechstein. Weimar, 
1S00. 5 Th. 8vo. 
G. Ad. Suckow. Anfangsgrimde der N. G. der Thiere. 3 Th. 
Leipzig, 1798. 8vo. 
J. Gott. Schneider. Histories amphibiorum naturalis et lite- 
rarice, Fasc. I. II. Jen. 1799. 1S01. 8vo. 
Fr. Tiedemann, M. Oppel, und Jos. Liboschitz. Natur-Ges- 
chichte der Amplnbien. Heidelberg, seit 1817- fol. 
B. Merrem. Teniamen Systematic Amphibiorum. Marburg, 
1820. 8vo. 
I. REPTILES. 
All the animals of this Order possess (at least when they have 
arrived at their perfect state,) four feet, the toes of which are, 
according to their mode of life, either separate, (pedes digitati), 
connected by membranes (palmati ), or confounded with one 
another in the form of a fin (pinnati.) 
1. Testudo. Turtle. Tortoise. Ger. Schildkrote. Fr. 
Tortue. Span. Galapago. — Corpus testa obtectum, 
cauda (plerisque) brevis, os mandibulis nudis * 
edentulis. 
Most Tortoises are covered with a firm long shell, the upper 
part of which is connected with the spine and ribs, and is 
covered by the broad horny plates, which in many species are 
* J. G. Schneider’s N. G. der Sehildkriiten. Leipzig, 1783. 8vo. J. D. 
Schoepff. II is tor in lesludinum iconibus illustrata. Erlang. 1792. 4to. 

1 36 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
so firm und of such beautiful colours as to be employed for 
various purposes of art. There are usually thirteen such plates 
in the middle, and twenty-four round the edges. The under 
shell, covering the belly, is somewhat smaller than the upper, 
with openings for the head, the tail, and the feet. — The very 
peculiar and distinct form of this consequently isolated Genus 
forms a very strong proof of the non-existence of the supposed 
gradation of objects in nature. 
1. Membranacea. T. pedibus palmatis, unguiculis tribus, 
testa orbiculari ovata, membranacea, grisea, striata scabra. 
(Schneider. 1. c. Tab. 1.) 
In Guiana. 
2. Imbricata. The Hawks-bill Turtle. Ger. die Carette. Fr. 
le Caret. — T. pedibus pinniformibus, testa cordata subca- 
rinata, margine serrato : scutellis imbricatis latiusculis, 
cauda squamata. 
(Bruce’s Travels to the Source of the Nile. App. pi. 42.) 
In both Indies : also in the Red Sea. Gives the best Tortoise- 
shell * 
3. My das. The Green Turtle. Ger. die Grime Schildkrote. 
Fr. la Tortue tranche, ( viridis Schneider.) — T. pedibus 
pinniformibus, marginibus maxillarum dentatis, testa 
ovata. 
(Schopff. Tab. 17. fig. 2.) 
This Species sometimes weighs eight hundred weight. It has 
its common name from the pale olive green colour of the shell, 
and the still more remarkable green colour of its delicately 
flavoured fat : It feeds solely on sea weeds, whence its flesh is 
so well tasted, without being in the least oily. 
4. Orbicularis. The common Tortoise. (Europea. Shnei- 
der.) — T. pedibus palmatis, testa orbiculata planiuscula. 
In the temperate parts of Europe. 
5. Grceca. T. pedibus subdigitatis, :esta postice gibba: mar- 
gine laterali obtussissimo, scutellis planiusculis. 
t Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 66.) 
In the South of Europe and North of Africa. 
6. Geometrica. — T. pedibus posticus palmatis, testae scutellis 
elevatis truncatis. 
( Schopff. Tab. 10.) 
In the East Indies and at the Cape. About as large as the palm 
* Beckman’s Vorbcrcilung zur (Vaarenkunde. 1 Th. S. 63. u. f. 

OF AMPHIBIA. 137 
of the hand. Its high arched shell, very regularly marked with 
black and yellow, gives it a very pleasing appearance. 
2. Rana. Frog. Toad. Ger. Frosch Krote. Fr. Grenouille. 
Crapaud. — Corpus nudum pedibus quatuor posticis 
longioribus *. 
1. Pipa. — R. corpore piano, rostro spathiformi, digitis anticis 
muticis quadridentatis, posticis unguiculatis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 36.) 
In the Lakes of Guiana. Is remarkable for the singular and 
anomalous manner in which the mother hatches the young 
ones. The male places the spawn, which the female lays in 
the usual manner, on her back, and then impregnates it with 
his semen. The ova then grow, as it were, in the substance of 
the skin of the mother, until at the end of nearly three months, 
the Tadpoles f, which at first have tails, have arrived at their 
full period, and the tail having been replaced by four feet, they 
quit the mother’s back. 
2. Coniuta. The Horned Toad. — R. palpebris conicis. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 72. fig. 1,2.) 
In Virginia; its large bull- eyes and monstrous horn-like eye- 
lids give it a frightful appearance. 
3. Ocellata. The Bull-Frog. — R. auribus ocellatis, pedibus 
muticis. 
(Catesby. Vol. II. Tab. 72.) 
In North America. Almost as large as a Guinea-pig. It has 
its English name from its loud voice. 
4. Paradoxa. (Rana piscis .) — R. femoribus postice oblique 
striatis. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 7S.) 
In South America. The Larva ( § 95.) is almost a span long ; 
is then much larger than the perfectly formed animal, and has 
given rise to the fable of Frogs which change into fishes. 
The animal retains its tail for some time after the four legs 
have acquired their perfect form and size. 
5. Bufo. The Toad* Ger. die Krote. Fr. le Crapaud. — R. 
corpore ventricoso verrucoso lurido fuscoque. 
(Rosel. Tab. 20, 21.) 
There is no truth in the assertion that its urine is poisonous. 
* For the species of these climates see Rosel’s Nat. Hist, tier F r use he 
hiesigen LaruJes Nurnberg, 1758. gr. fol. 
f Camper, in Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Getting. Vol. IX. p. 129, &c. 

138 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
On the other hand, it is indisputable that living Toads have 
been found in sawing through blocks of stone, trees, &c. 
G. Bombina. Ger, die Feuerkrote. — 11. corpore verrucoso, 
abdomine aurantio-ccesio maculato, pupilla triquetra. 
(Rosel. Tab. 22.) 
The belly beautifully marbled with blue and yellow. It leaps 
almost like a frog. 
7. Portentosa. ( Bufo calamita. Laurent.) Ger. die Haus- 
Unke. — R. verrucosa, linea dorsali flava, lateralibus ru- 
fescentibus. 
(Rosel. Tab. 24.) 
It lives in damp cellars, holes on the banks of rivers, &c., and 
seldom shews itself : it makes a dull peculiar noise, which has 
given rise to a variety of sayings. 
8. Temporaria. The common Frog. — R. subfusca dorso 
planiusculo subangulato. 
(Rosel. Tab. 1-8.) 
Lives in grass, among bushes, &c., whence the young ones 
come out in vast numbers after warm summer-showers, a cir- 
cumstance which has given rise to the old tales of its raining 
frogs. 
9. Esculentn. The Edible Frog. Ger. der Grime Wasserfrosch . 
- — R. viridis, corpore angulato, dorso transverse gibbo, 
abdomine marginato. 
(Rosel. Tab. 13-16.) 
In ponds and marshes. The males croak very loud, particu- 
larly on fine evenings, and in so doing, expand two large blad- 
ders placed at the angles of the mouth. They are bold and 
cunning, and destroy mice, sparrows, young ducks, trout, &c., 
and can even master pike. In this and the last species, the 
male is provided during the season of copulation, with black 
warty balls on the thumbs of the fore-feet, by means of which 
it embraces the body of the female very firmly. 
10. Arborea. The Tree-Frog. Ger. der Laubfrosch. Fr. le 
Graisset. (Calamites. Hyla.) — R. corpore laevi,subtusgra- 
nuiato, pedibus fissis, apicibus digitorum lenticulatis. 
(Rosel. Tab. 9-12.) 
In almost the whole of Europe, England excepted, also in 
America. The clammy slime with which it is covered, 
like serpents, serves to support it among the leaves of the 
trees in which it lives. The adult males, which are recog- 
nizable by their brown throats, have a loud voice, and are heard 

OF AMPHIBIA. 
139 
when the weather is about to change, but particularly during 
the season of copulation. In croaking, they expand the throat 
like a large bladder. 
3. Draco*. Corpus tetrapodum caudatum, alatum. 
1. Volans. The Dragon. Ger. die Fliegende Eidechse. — D. 
brachiis ab ala distinctis. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 98.) 
In the East Indies and Africa. 
4. Lacerta. Lizard. Ger. Eidechse. Fr. Lizard. — Cor- 
pus elongatum, pedibus quatuor sequalibus. 
1 . Crocodilus. (Crocodilus vulgaris. Cuvier.) The Crocodile. 
— L. rostro aequali, scutis nuchee 6, squamis dorsi quadra- 
tis, sex-fariam positis, pedibus posticis palmatis. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 26, 27-) 
Very common in the great rivers of Africa, particularly the 
Upper Nile and the Niger. It is the largest animal inhabiting 
fresh water, attaining to full thirty feetf in length, notwith- 
standing which, its eggs are scarcely as large as a goose’s. 
When full grown, it attacks men and other large animals. 
When taken young, it may be tamed f. 
2. Alligator. The Alligator. Cayman. (Crocodilus sclerops. 
Cuv.) — L. porca transversa inter orbitas, nucha fasciis 
osseis 4 cataphracta, pedibus posticis semipalmatis. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 104. fig. 10.) 
In the central parts of America. The body and tail are more 
round and smooth than in the true Crocodile it is also smaller 
and has smaller eggs. Like it, however, it has five toes on 
the fore-feet, and four on the hinder, of which only the three 
inner ones are provided with claws. The skins of this species 
are excellently tanned in the Brazils. 
3. Gangetica. The Gavial. — L. mandibulis elongatis subcy- 
lindricis, pedibus posticis palmatis. 
(Edwards in Phil. Trans. Vol. XLIX.) 
Principally in the Ganges. 
4. Monitor. Fr. La Sauve-garde. — L. cauda carinata, cor- 
pore mutieo squamis marginatis, maculis ocellatis. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 94. fig. 1 , 2, 3.) 
* Fr. Tiedemann. Amt. und N. G. des Drachm. Niirnberg, 1811. 4to. 
t Norden says fifty. — Voyage d' Egypte. p. 165. 
X For the different species of Crocodile, see M. Cuvier in Annates du 
Museum rT Histoire Naturelle. T. 10. 1807. — And M. G. St. Hilaire in the 
same work, on two species of Crocodile in the Nile. 

MO 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
In botli Indies. Is about three feet long, and very regularly 
spotted with black and white. It has obtained its name, be- 
cause it is said to keep in company with the Crocodile, and to 
warn by its whistling noise, of the proximity of its formidable 
associate. 
5. Iguana. The Guana. Ger. der Leguan. Fr. l’lguane. — L. 
cauda tereti longa, sutura dorsali dentata, crista gulae 
denticulata. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 95. Tab. 98. fig. 1.) 
In the West Indies. An active animal, with very well fla- 
voured flesh and eggs. 
6. Chamcdeon. — L. cauda prehensili, digitis duobus tribus- 
que coadunatis. 
(J. F. Miller. Fasc. 2. Tab. 11.) 
In the East Indies, North Africa, and Spain. It is indolent 
and slow in its motions, lives among trees and hedges, feeds 
on insects, which it very dexterously catches with its long vis- 
cous tongue, which is club-shaped, and hollowed in front. Its 
lungs are very large, and by expanding them, the animal can 
at pleasure make itself appear large or small ; hence, probably, 
arose the saying that it feeds on air. Its eyes have this pecu- 
liarity, that they can be directed in different ways; for in- 
stance, one upwards, the other backwards, and that with 
great rapidity. Its natural colour is greenish grey, which, 
however, changes at times, particularly when it is irritated. 
The reflection of coloured objects, in its vicinity, on the glit- 
tering scales of the living animal, probably gave origin to the 
fable, that its colour is regulated by that of the bodies near 
which it is placed. 
7- Gecko, (probably the true stellio or saurus of the an- 
cients.) — L. cauda tereti mediocri, digitis muticis subtus 
lamellatis, corpore verrucoso, auribus concavis. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 109.) 
In Egypt, the East Indies, the South Sea Islands, and even in 
some parts of Europe, as the Kingdom of Naples. It has a 
poisonous fluid between its scaly toes, which it communicates 
to the eatables over which it passes. 
8. Scincus. (Crocodilus terrester.) — L. cauda tereti mediocri, 
apice compressa, digitis muticis lobato-squamosis margi- 
natis. 
(Jbbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 87-) 
In Arabia Petrosa, &c. 

OF AMPHIBIA. 
141 
9. Agilis. The common Lizard. Ger. die GriineEidechse. Fr. 
le Lezard gris. — L. caiula verticillata longiuscula, squa- 
mis acutis, collari subtus squamis constricto. 
(Rosel. Geschichte der Frdsche. Titelkupf.) 
In the w armer parts of Europe, and, as it seems, also in both 
Indies, and the South Sea Islands. Its eggs shine for a time 
in the dark. 
10. Lacustris. The Newt. Ger. der Wasser-Molch. — L. nigra, 
dorso lateribusque verrucosis, abdomine flavo, nigro ma- 
culato. 
(Laurent. Tab. 2. fig. 4.) 
In Spring, the males have a projecting notched membrane, ex- 
tending along the back, from the head to the tail. I have al- 
ready spoken of its surprising powers of reproduction. 
11. Salamandra. The Salamander. Ger. die Molle. Fr. le 
Sourd. — L. cauda tereti brevi, pedibus muticis, corpore 
flavo nigroque vario, nudo, poroso. 
(Rosel. Gesclilchte der Frdsche. Titelkupf.) 
A span long, as thick as a man’s thumb, and spotted with 
black and yellow. It is not true that it is poisonous, that it 
can live in fire, &c. 
II. SERPENTES. 
Serpents * have not any external organs of motion, but 
merely a long cylindrical body, which they move in an undu- 
lating manner, and which is covered with scales, plates, or 
rings. Many live in water, in which they can easily swim, on 
account of their very long and bladder-like lungs ; others on 
the ground ; and others principally on trees. Their eggs are 
commonly connected together ; their jaws are not, as in other 
animals, articulated with each other, but are unsuited for 
chewing, since they admit of being very widely separated, so 
that serpents are enabled to swallow entire animals much 
larger than themselves. Their slender, and, for the most part, 
cloven tongue, serves them for tasting f. Many are provided 
with an active venom, contained in little bags on the front 
of the upper jaw secreted by particular glands, and conveyed 
Blas. Merrem Bcytrdge zur Geschichte der Amphibien . — Duisb. 
4to. Patr. Russel’s Account of Indian Serpents, together with Experi- 
ments on their several poisons. London, 1796. fol. 
t Aug. Hellmann ueber den Tastsinn der Schlungen. Gottingen, 1817. 
t The number of known venomous Species, compared to those which are 
not so, is reckoned as one to six. 

142 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
into the wound made in biting, by means of isolated teeth, 
which are tubular, with a longitudinal opening at the point 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 37* fig. 1.) These poison- 
teeth, placed on the anterior edge of the upper jaw, with the 
corresponding increase in the size of the latter, afford the 
most certain means of distinguishing the venomous serpents 
from those which are not so, as in the latter, the whole of the 
outer edge of the upper jaw is furnished with teeth even to 
the very back part. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 37. fig. 
2.) Serpents of all kinds agree in having a double row of 
small teeth in the palate. 
Among the other characters of distinction between the ser- 
pents that are, and those that are not venomous, (which, how- 
ever, are not altogether free from exceptions) are, 1st, the 
broader and heart-shaped head of the former, with small flat 
scales, instead of a single plate \ 2d, the keel-shaped ridge on 
the back ; and 3d, the shorter tail, which measures less than 
one-fifth of the animal. (See Dr. Gray, in Phil. Trans. Vol. 
LXXIX. p. 1. 
5. Crotalus. Rattle-snake. Ger. Klapperschlange. Fr. Serpent 
a sonnettes. — Scuta abdominalia. Scuta squamseque sub- 
caudales. Crepitaculum terminale caudae. 
1. Horridus $ .* — C. Scutis 167, scutellis 23. 
(Seba. Vol. II. Tab. 95. fig. 1.) 
Principally in the warmer parts of North America : grows to 
the length of six feet, and the thickness of a man’s arm. The 
Species of this Genus are distinguished from all other serpents, 
and indeed from all animals in the Creation, by the singular, 
horny, articulated rattle at the end of the tail. The number of 
pieces in this wonderful and anomalous organ, increases with 
the age of the animal, and in old ones, may amount to forty. 
We are assured by credible eye-witnesses, that squirrels, small 
birds, &c., fall from the trees on which they stand, as it were, 
spontaneously, into the throat of the Rattle-snake below f; 
* The Serpents marked thus $ are venomous. 
f As the Rattle-snake is very inactive, and cannot climb up trees. 
Mead’s supposition is by no means improbable, that the Rattle peculiar to 
them, may serve to bring birds, &c. within their reach, from the effects of 
the fear its sound produces : in the same manner that the horns of the Ce- 
rastes were formerly imagined, and probably not without justice, to be em- 
ployed, — Major Gardner, a correct and faithful observer, who had long 
lived in East Florida, affirms, that the young Indians of that country were 
accustomed to imitate the noise of this Serpent, for the purpose of taking 

OF AMPHIBIA.' 
14a 
the circumstance is, however, not by any means confined to 
this Genus, as it has been remarked in many other serpents of 
both the Old and New Worlds. Rattle-snakes are eaten by 
hogs and birds of prey. They may also be tamed, and render- 
ed docile. 
6. Boa. Scuta abdominalia et subcaudalia. 
1. Constrictor. Ger. die Riesenschlange. Fr. le Devin. — B. 
scutis 240, scutellis 60. 
(Mkrrkm. 2 Heft. Tab. 1.) 
In the East Indies and Africa. According to Adanson’s assu- 
rances, is from forty to fifty feet long. It breaks the ribs and 
other bones of living Antelopes, &c., which it covers with a jel- 
ly-like saliva, and swallows.. It is, however, easily rendered 
docile, and, together with the Cobra de Capello, is taught a 
variety of tricks by the Indian jugglers. — The Amaru of South 
America, which was worshipped by the Antis of Peru, and is 
thirty feet long, appears to differ but little from it. On the 
contrary, theJuda, considered sacred in Guinea, is a distinct 
species. 
7. Coluber. Scuta abdominalia, squamse subcaudales. 
1. Vipera. — C. scutis 118, squamis 22. 
The name Viper has been applied to many serpents. This one, 
so named by Linnaeus, is a native of Egypt, and is not 
venomous. 
2. Cerastes. The Horned-Adder. Ger. die Gehornte Schlan- 
gerf . — C. tentaculis superciliaribus, scutis 145, squamis 
44. 
(Bruce’s Travels to the Source of the Nile. Append. Tab. 40.) 
This Serpent, which has its name from the little horns pro- 
jecting above the eyes, is a native of the same country with 
the last, and is undoubtedly venomous. 
3. Berus. The Adder. Ger. die Otter. Fr. la Vipere com- 
munej . — C. scutis 146, squamis 39. 
(Laurenti. Tab. 2. fig. 1.) • 
This Viper, formerly used in medicine, is of a brownish colour, 
and a native of the warmer parts of the Old World, as well as 
Germany and Switzerland Its bite causes violent inflamma- 
tion, but is rarely fatal. This is the Species with which Redi, 
and subsequently Fontana, performed so many experiments. 
squirrels, &c. I have treated this subject more fully in Voigt's News Mtr~ 
gazin. B. 1. St. 2. S. 37. — On the power of fascination in the Rattle-snake, 
in reference to an Kssav by Dr. Barton. 

144 
OF AMPHIBIA. 
4. Natrix. The Ringed Snake. Ger. die llingel-Natter. Fr. 
la Coleuvre h. Collier. — C. scutis 170, squamis 60. 
Steel-grey, with lateral white spots, particularly upon both 
sides of the neck. Even in Europe it has been found ten feet 
in length and upwards, which has given rise to the frightful 
tales of Dragons, &c. 
5. Coccineus. The Red-Snake. Ger. die Carmoisin-Schlange. 
Fr. le Serpent dcarlate. — C. scutis 175, squamis 35. 
(Voigt’s Magazin. 5 ten ‘ B. l ste «. S. — Tab. 1.) 
This beautifully coloured and harmless Snake is a native of 
Florida and New Spain. It is as thick as a finger, and about 
two feet long. Along the back are about twenty large and 
very regular carmine-red spots with black edges, sepa- 
rated from each other by cross bands of a lemon-yellow co- 
lour. The young females in Florida wear it as a necklace, or 
twisted into their hair as an ornament. 
6 Naja. The Cobra de Capello. Ger. die Brillenschlange. 
Fr. le Serpent a lunettes $. — C. scutis 193, squamis 60. 
(Russel’s Indian Serpents. Tab. 5, 6.) 
In the East Indies. The neck is capable of being very much 
expanded, and is marked at the back part with a figure re- 
sembling a pair of spectacles. It is one of the most venomous 
snakes, but is destroyed in great numbers by the Ichneumon, 
and can be easily taught a variety of tricks. 
8. Anguis. Squamae abdominales et subcaudales. 
1. Fragilis. The Blind-Worm. Slow-worm. Ger. die Blind- 
schleiche. Fr. l’Orvet. — A. squ. abd. 135, totidemque 
subcaud. 
In marshy spots, old buildings, &c. When handled, it easily 
breaks in two, and the pieces continue to move for some 
hours. There are many varieties of it, often very beautifully 
marked. 
2. Platurosg . — A. cauda compressa obtusa. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 28.) 
In the Indian Ocean and South Seas. 
9. Ampiiisba:na. Annuli trunci caudaeque. 
1. Fuliginosa. — A. ann. tr. 200, caudae 30. 
(Seba. Vol. I. Tab. 88. fig. 3, &c.) 
In America. — Spotted with black and white. 
10. Cecilia. Rugae trunci caudaeque. Labrum superius 
tentaculis 2. 
1. Tentaculata . — C. rugis 135. 

OF FISHES. 
145 
(Sera. Vol. II. Tab. 25. fig. 2.) 
Also in America. It has not any scales, but merely rings in 
its smooth skin, almost like an earth worm. 
SECT. VII. 
OF FISHES. 
§ 99. Fishes are those animals which possess red cold blood, 
which move by means of true Jins (with bony or cartilaginous 
fibres,) and which breathe by true gills lying deep at each side 
of the neck ; and not, as in the larvae of Frogs, &c., projecting 
beyond it. 
Remark. I say true gills and true fins, in order to distinguish 
them from organs to a certain degree analogous in young 
Frogs, Salamanders, &c. (§ 94.) 
§ 100. These gills (branchiae), in fishes, almost perfectly 
supply the place of lungs. They are placed on each side behind 
the head, for the most part under one or more large semilunar 
plates, hence called opercula branchialia, and in most instances 
connected with the membrane of the gills, membrana branchi- 
ostega. The gills themselves are filled with innumerable very 
delicate vessels, and are mostly divided on each side into four 
layers, which somewhat resemble the beard of a quill, and 
which are attached at their bases to a corresponding number 
of little bones. 
§ 101. Respiration, which fishes are nearly as incapable of 
dispensing with as those animals which possess lungs, is in 
them effected by introducing the air, which the water holds in 
solution, through the mouth into the gills, and then expelling 
it again through the branchial aperture, (apertura branchialis); 
consequently not by inspiring and expiring through the same 
passages, as in those animals which possess lungs. 
§ 102. Not having lungs, it is evident that they cannot have 
any voice, although some, as Cottus cataphractes, Cobitis fos- 
silis, c., can make a noise. 
§ 103. The form of the body in fishes, in general, is infinitely 
L 

146 
OF FISHES. 
more varied than in the two preceding classes. In most, how- 
ever, the body has a vertical direction, i.e. is flattened at both 
sides, (corpus compressuvij ; in some, on the contrary, as the 
Rays, it is horizontal and extended laterally ( corpus depres- 
sion sive plagioplateuni) ; in others, as the Eel, See., it is more 
rounded; in others, prismatic or quadrangular, &e. 
In all, the head and trunk are connected immediately, with- 
out being separated by a neck. 
§ 104. With only a few exceptions, fishes are covered with 
scales ; in the osseous fishes the scales are real, are formed of 
a peculiar substance, and in different Species present a great 
number of varieties in point of form, marks, and colours, 
which latter sometimes shine like gold and silver. On the 
other hand, the cartilaginous fishes, in general, are covered 
with several bone-like plates, hook-shaped prickles, &c. 
The scales are covered externally with a kind of slime, 
which appears to be in a great measure excreted from small 
cavities, which, in most fishes, are placed in a line along each 
side of the body. 
§ 105- The fins, the organs of motion in fishes *, in which 
a very great power of reproduction has been remarked, consist 
of their bony or cartilaginous spines or rays, connected to- 
gether by a particular membrane, fastened to a bone, and set 
in motion by certain muscles. They are called, according to 
their position, the upper dorsal fins ; those at the side, behind 
the gills, pectoral fins ; those on the belly in front of the 
anus, abdominal fins ; those behind this opening, anal fins ; 
and lastly, those on the tail, which always have a vertical 
direction, caudal fins. 
The Flying-fish, as they are called, have very long and stiff 
pectoral fins, by means of which they can raise themselves 
above the surface of the water, and fly for a short time. 
§ 106. Another auxiliary in the motion of fishes, parti- 
cularly in rising and sinking, is the swim-bladder, with which 
fresh -water fish in particular are supplied, and which commu- 
nicates by a particular canal, (ductus pneumaticus ) generally 
with the oesophagus, seldom with the stomach. 
* On the Mechanism of the swimming of fishes, as well as the flight of 
Birds- see A.W. Zacharja’s Elemente der Luftschwimmkunst. Witten- 
burg ’l807 — And on the share that their breathing by gills has in it; 
S.J Brugman’s over de Middden door welke de Vhclicn zich bewegm. 
Amst. 1813. 4to. 

OF FISHES. 
147 
§ 107 . With regard to their place of abode, fishes in general 
are divided into sea-fish and fresh -water fish. Many can live 
for some time out of water, as the Eel, Muraena, &c. Others 
in hot mineral springs *. 
§ 10S. Most fishes, especially those of the sea, are noc- 
turnal animals, that is, they are active during the night, and 
in the day remain in a state of repose. Hence the inhabitants 
of Islands and Coasts, who live on fish, choose the night for 
catching them. 
§ 109. A great many Species of fish change their place of 
abode at certain seasons of the year. Many sea fish ascend the 
mouths of rivers and creeks to spawn ; many, as the Herring 
for instance, in the North Atlantic, make extensive migrations 
at certain seasons of the year in incalculable numbers between 
the Coasts of the West of Europe, and North-East of Ame- 
rica f. 
§ 110. Fishes are in great proportion carnivorous animals, 
and as they have no feet with which to hold their prey, are 
supplied with a variety of other contrivances for mastering it. 
Some have long fibrous threads (cirri) about the mouth, for 
the purpose of enticing other small marine animals, as with a 
bait, as in the Stargazer, Frog-fish, &c. Others, as the Chae- 
todon rostratus, have a kind of syringe with which they strike 
down insects flying over the surface of the water ■, others, as 
the three sea-fish, the Electric Ray, the Tetrodon electricus, 
and Trichiurus indicus, and the two fresh-water fish, the 
Electric Eel and Silurus electricus, possess a peculiar benumb- 
ing paralyzing power, &c. 
§ 111. As to the external senses of fishes, smelling must in 
many be very acute, from the distance at which they discover 
a bait. Their hearing, also, is good, and they have organs 
similar to those of the internal ear in other red-blooded 
animals. Above all, however, there are many peculiarities in 
their eyes, numerous membranes, parts not found elsewhere, 
&cj. 
§ 112. From the deficiency of correct observations, little 
can be said decidedly on their instincts, and other mental 
* Sohnehat, in Rozier’s Journal de Physique. Avr., 1774. p.256. And 
Buffos, Supplement, Vol. V. p. 540, &c. 
t See Gilpin’s Chart in the Transactions of the American Philos. Soc. 
at Philadelphia, Vol. II. Tab. 5. B. 
X See my Manual of Comparative Anatomy, p. 418, &c. 2d Edit. 
L 2 

148 
OF FISHES. 
faculties. It is known, however, that many, Trout* for ex- 
ample, become very docile; and that others, as old Carp, are 
very wary and cunning. 
§ 113. As to their sleep, the observation that was made 
with respect to the Amphibia (§ 91.) is applicable, viz. that 
probably most have a Winter sleep, but only a very few a fixed 
daily sleep, as is said to be the case with the Gold-fish. 
§ 114. Except the small number of viviparous fishes, such 
as the Eel, the Blennius viviparus, but very few actually co- 
pulate. In most instances, the female lays the unimpregnated 
eggs, the male coming afterwards and sprinkling them with 
his semen. 
Advantage of this circumstance has been taken in rural 
economy, young fish having been procured by the artificial 
mixture of the ova and semen of Trout, &c t . 
Remark. Among other peculiarities in the mode of genera- 
tion in fishes, many, as the Lamprey, possess the organs 
of both sexes in perfection : whilst in others, as the 
Carp, anomalous instances of Hermaphrodites are found. 
§ 115. The increase in the numbers of most fishes is won- 
derfully great, so that although the ova are in most instances 
proportionally much smaller than in any other class of animals, 
the ovaria of many are larger than the whole of the body. 
Thus, in the Herring, there have been counted from 20,000 to 
37.000 ova; in the Carp, upwards of 200,000; in the Tench, 
383.000 ; in the Flounder, upwards of a million. 
§ 116. In some cases, the young fish have not their perfect 
form when they escape from the egg ; but must, as in the 
Amphibia, (§ 94.) undergo a kind of metamorphosis by which 
they obtain fins, &c. 
§ 117- In proportion to their size, fishes reach a very ad- 
vanced age. Examples are known of Carp, Pike, &c., living 
150 years. On the other hand, some small fishes, as the 
Stickleback, live only a few years. 
§ 118. The utility of fishes to man is not very various ; for the 
most part only as food, but in this respect of the utmost impor- 
tance to a great part of the human race, who live only on this 
class of animals. Savage nations, as the Kamschatkadales, Bra- 
* Uaster, Opuscula subseciva. T. 1- L- 2. p. 88. 
f Jacohi, in the Hanoverian Magazine, 1765. p. 978, &c. 
X Phil. Trans. Vol.LVIl. p. 280. 

OF FISHES. 
149 
zilians, &c., possess the art of preparing fish in a great variety 
of ways, even as a kind of flour, bread, &c. With many, as 
the Islanders of the Pacific Ocean, fishing forms a principal 
occupation, and a serious kind of study with reference to the 
ingenious methods and instruments which they have invented. 
To a great part of the cultivated world, the taking of the 
Herring, the Cod, Tunny, &c., is of still greater value. The 
oil of the Shark, Cod and Herring, is used for burning in lamps, 
&c. The inhabitants of the Eastern Coasts of the middle of 
Asia, clothe themselves with the tanned skin of the Salmon. — 
Many parts of other fish are employed for purposes of art, 
as the scales of the Bleak for making false pearls. — Shagreen 
is made from the skin of Sharks and Rays ; isinglass from the 
Sturgeon, &c. 
§ 119. Fishes of prey are the most noxious, particularly the 
Shark in the Ocean, and the Pike in fresh water. Many 
fishes, at least in certain spots, are poisonous, and prove fatal 
when eaten. Such, in particular, are certain Species of the 
Genus Tetrodon. 
§ 120. The systematic classification of fishes appears to 
stand in need of much improvement. In the mean time they 
are arranged in two principal divisions, viz : — 
(A.) Cartilaginous fishes (Pisces cartilaginei ) , without true 
bones : and 
(B.) Bony fishes (Pisces spinosi), having bones, fishes pro- 
perly so called. 
The cartilaginous fishes are divided into the following two 
Orders, which M. deLACEPEDE has established, according to the 
presence or absence of the covering of the gills (operculum ) , 
and has divided the genera which they include accordingly : — 
Order I. Chondropterygii. Without an operculum. 
II. Branchiostegi. With an operculum. 
Linn^us has arranged the osseous, or true fishes, 
according to the character and position of the ven- 
tral fins : viz. 
III. Apodes. Without ventral fins. 
IV. Jugulares. Having the ventral in front of the 
pectoral fins. 
V. Thoracici. Having the ventral immediately below 
the pectoral fins. 
VI. Abdominales. Having the ventral behind the pec- 
toral fins. 

150 
OF FISHES. 
On the Natural History of Fishes. 
Guil. Rondelet de Piscibus. Lugduu, 1554. p. 2. 1555. fol. 
Conr. Gesner de Piscium et aquatilium animantium Nalura. 
Fig. 1558. folio. 
Steph. a Schonevelde Ichthyologia, #c. Hamburg, 1G24- 
4to. 
F. Willougiibeix Historia Piscium. ex ed. Raii. Oxon, 1680'. 
folio. 
Jo. Raii Synopsis Methodica Piscium. Lond. 1713. 8vo. 
Laur. Theod. Gronovii Zoophylacium Gronovianum. Lugd. 
Bat. 1781. p. 1-3. folio. 
Ant. Gouan Historia Piscium. Argent, 1770- 4to. 
Du Hamel et De Marre Histoire des Poissons (Traits des 
pdches, Use.) Paris, 1770, &c., 3 Vols. folio. 
M. El. Bloch ceconomische N. G. der Fische. Deutschlands. 
Berlin, 1782. 3 B. 4to. 
Dess. N. G. auslandischer Fische. ib. 1785. 9 B. 4to. 
Ej. Systema ichthyologies, inchoatum absolvit J. G. Schneider. 
Berol, 1801. 8vo. 
De Lacepede Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. Paris, 1798. 5 
Vols. 4to. 
G. Ad. Suckow Anfangsgrunde der N. G. der Thiere. 4ter. 
Th. Leipz. 1799. 2 B. 8vo. 
Patr. Russel’s Descriptions and Figures of 200 Fishes of 
the Coast of Coromandel. London, 1803. 2 Vols. folio. 
Al. Monro Vergleichung des Baues und der Physiologie der 
Fische mit dem Bciu des Mensclicn und der ubrigen Thiere. Mit 
vielen Zusatzen von P. Camper und J. G. Schneider. Leipzig, 
1787- 4 to. 
I. CHONDROPTERYG1I. 
The cartilaginous fishes of this Order have no branchial 
operculum, and in most, the mouth is placed on the under 
side of the head. 
1. Petromyzon. Spiracula branchialia 7 ad latera colli. 
Fistula in nucha. Pinnae pectorales aut ventrales 
nullae. 
1. Marinus. The Lamprey. Ger. die Lamprete. Fr. la Lam- 
proye. — P. ore intus papilloso, pinna dorsali posteriore a 
cauda distincta. 
(Bloch. Tab. 77-) 
In the Northern Ocean, the Mediterranean, and other seas. It 

OF FISHES. 151 
also ascends rivers twenty (German) miles or more. It is 
about three feet long. 
2. Fluviatilis. The lesser Lamprey. Ger. die Prick e, Neu- 
nauge. — P. pinna dorsali posteriore angulata. 
(Bloch. Tab. 7S.) 
In the great rivers. Only half as large as the last Species. 
2. Gastrobranchus. Spiracula branchialia 2 ventralia. 
Fistula in rostro. Pinnae pectorales aut ventrales 
nullae. 
This obscure Genus was formerly classed among the Vermes, 
under the name of Myxine. 
1 . Ccecus. The Hag-fish. Ger. der Blindfisch. Schleimaal- 
(Myxine glutinosa. Linn.) 
(Bloch. Tab. 413.) 
On the Coasts of the North Atlantic. It is without eyes. 
3 . Raia *. Ray. Ger. Roche. Fr. Raie. Spiracula 
branchialia 5, subtus ad collum 3 corpus depres- 
sum 3 os sub capite. 
This Genus is remarkable for many wonderful peculiarities in 
its form and organization. Many Species have been dried and 
metamorphosed by a variety of artifices, into supposed Basi- 
lisks, &c. Many also appear to have, in some degree, contri- 
buted to the fables of Sirens, by a certain similarity of the 
lower part of their head to the human face f . Although they 
lay but one egg at a time, they increase so rapidly, that the 
Ocean in some spots actually swarms with them. Their eggs 
have a horny covering with four points, and are called Sea- 
mice. 
1 . Torpedo. The Electric Ray. Ger. der Zitterroche. Fr. la 
Torpille. — R. tota laevis maculis dorsalibus 5 orhiculatis. 
('Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 57-) 
Principally in the Mediterranean. The best knoAvn of all the 
electric fishes. (§ 110.) It is eaten in some places. 
2. Batis. The Skate. Ger. der Glattroche. Fr. la Raie lisse. 
— R. varia, dorso medio glabro, cauda unico aculeorum 
ordine. 
(Bloch. Tab. 79.) 
O 11 this and the two following Genera, together with the Chimera — 
see Ed. Eichwald de Selachin Aristot.— Viln., 1819. 8vo. 
t As for example, the Pence donna of the Capucin Cavazzi, in his Des- 
crizione di Congo, &c. p. 52. 

OF FISHES. 
152 
In the European Seas. Weighs as much as two hundred 
weight, and is very well flavoured. 
3. Pastinaca. The Sting-ray. Ger. der Stachel-roche. Fr. le 
Pastenaque. — R. Corpore glabro, aculeo longo anterius 
serrato in cauda, et dorso apterygio. 
(Bloch. Tab. 82.) 
In many parts of the Ocean. The sting of its tail is not veno- 
mous, but is used as a weapon by the animal, and even by some 
savage nations. 
4. Squalus. Shark. Ger. Hay. Fr. Clhen de Her. — Spi- 
racula branchialia 5 ad latera colli. Corpus oblon- 
gum teretiusculum. Os in inferiore capitis parte. 
1. Acanthias. Ger. der Dornhay. Fr. l’Aquillat. — S. pinna 
anali nulla, dorsalibus spinosis, corpore teretiusculo. 
(Bloch. Tab. 85.) 
In the European Seas. It has three rows of teeth in each jaw. 
2. Zygcena. The Balance-fish. Ger. der Hammer-fisch. Fr. 
le Marteau. — S. capite latissimo transverso malleiformi. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 99.) 
In most parts of the Ocean. 
2. Carcharias. The White Shark. Fr. le Requin. — S. dorso 
piano, dentibus serratis. 
( Bloch. Tab. 120.) 
Particularly numerous in the Atlantic Ocean. It weighs some- 
times as much as 10,000lbs. and even whole horses have been 
found in its stomach. It has six rows of teeth in the jaws, 
which, as is the case with most Sharks, are not fixed in the 
bone, but connected with it by a kind of joint. The front row 
is that which is actually employed in biting. The hinder ones, 
at least in the young animal, are directed backwards, forming 
a reserve, from which accidental losses in the front row are 
supplied as occasion requires. 
4. Pristis. The Saw-fish. Ger. der Sage-fish. Fr. la Scie 
de Mer. — S. pinna ani nulla, rostro ensiformi osseo piano 
utrinque dentato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 120.) 
In the North Atlantic Ocean, &c. The broad, sword-like 
weapon in front of the head, is often several ells long, and has 
24 or more strong teeth inserted into its lateral edges. 
5. Lopiiius. Sea-devil. Ger. Seetufel. Fr. Baudroie. 
— Pinnae pectorales branchiis insidentes. Spiracula 
solitaria pone brachia. 

OF FISHES. 
153 
1. Piscatorius. (Rana piscatrix.) The Frog- fish. Ger. der 
Frosch-fisch. Fr. la Grenouille pecheuse. — L. depressus 
capite rotundato. 
(Bloch. Tab. S7-) 
On the coasts of Europe. Its monstrous head, which forms 
more than half the bulk of the creature, and the fleshy fibres 
about its mouth, give this animal a singular appearance. 
6. Balistes. Caput compressum. Apertura supra pin- 
nas pectorales. Corpus compressum, squamis corio 
coadunatis. Abdomen carinatum. 
1. Tomentosus. The little old Wife.— B. pinna capitis bira- 
diata, corpore posterius subvilloso. 
(Bloch. Tab. 148. fig. 1.) 
In both Indies. 
7. Chim.era. Spiracula solitaria, quadripartita, sub collo. 
Oris labium superius quinquepartitum. Dentes pri- 
mores incisores bini supra inftaque. 
1. Monstrosa. The Sea-ape. — C. rostro subtus plicis pertusis. 
( Bloch. Tab. 124.) 
In the North Atlantic Ocean. 
II. BRANCHIOSTEGI. 
Cartilaginous fishes with opercula to the gills. 
8. Accipenseb. Spiracula lateralia solitaria, linearia. 
Os sub capite, retractile, edentulum. Cirri quatuor 
sub rostro ante os. 
1. Sturio. The Sturgeon. Ger . der Stor. Fr. l’Esturgeon. 
— A. squamis dorsalibus 11. 
(Bloch. Tab. 88.) 
In all the European and the Caspian Seas ; also in the Wolga, 
the Nile, &c. This, together with other Species of the Genus, 
forms an important object of fishery to many nations, as well 
for its flesh, as for the Caviare prepared from its roe. It 
sometimes weighs near l,000ft>s. It often happens that many 
of them follow in a row one after another, a circumstance 
which has given rise to the fabulous tales of monstrous Sea- 
Serpents in the North. 
2. Ruthenus. The Caviar Sturgeon. Ger. der Sterlet. — A. 
squamis dorsalibus 15. 
(Bloch. Tab. 89.) 
This fish, the flesh of which is of a very excellent flavour, is 

154 - 
OF FISIIES. 
found in numbers in the Wolga and Caspian Seas. It rarely 
weighs more than 30lbs. 
3. Huso. The Beluga. Ger. der Hausen. — A. squamis dor- 
salibus 13, caudalibus 43. 
(Bloch. Tab. 129.) 
In the same places as the former. Is one of the largest fresh 
water fish. Isinglass is prepared principally from the swim- 
bladder of this Species, but also from the A. sturio — A. stella- 
tus, and others. The latter gives the best Caviare. Isinglass 
is also procured from the Silurus glanis. 
9. Ostracion. Ger. Panzer-fisch. Fr. Poisson coffre. 
— Corpus osse integro loricatum. Pinnae ventrales 
nullae. 
1. Bicuspis. — O. trigonus spinis dorsalibus duabus. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 58.) 
On the Coast of China, and also, (unless the O. stellifer be a 
distinct Species) of America. 
2. Triqueter. The Trunk-fish. — O. trigonus muticus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 130.) 
In the East Indies. 
3. Cornutus. — O. tetragonus, spinis frontalibus subcaudali- 
bus binis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 133.) 
Also in the East Indies. A very elegant little animal, and very 
regularly marked with hexagons, like a honey-comb. 
10. Tetrodon. Corpus subtus muricatum. Pinnae ven- 
trales nullae. 
1. Lagocephalus . The Globe-fish. Fr. le Poisson souffleur. 
— T. abdomine aculeato, corpore laevi, humeris promi- 
nentibus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 140.) 
Very common in Senegal : those which are taken at some dis- 
tance up the country are very good eating, whilst those near 
the sea, at the mouth of the river, are very poisonous. 
2. Electricus. — T. corpore maculoso ; pinnis viridibus. 
(Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXVI. p. 2. Tab. 13.) 
One of the five electric fishes at present known. (§ 110.) In 
the East Indies and Island of St. Johanna. 
3. Hispidus. The Moon-fish. Ger. der Kugelfisch. — T. totus 
hispidus, papillis setaceis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 142.) 

OF FISHES. 155 
In the Red Sea, and also in the fresh waters of the countries 
in its vicinity. 
4. Mola. (Luna) The Sun-fish. Ger. der Klumpfisch. Fr. 
la Lune de Mer. — T. lsevis compressus, cauda truncata : 
pinna brevissima dorsali analique annexa. 
( Hamburg Magazin. B. 18. Tab. 1.) 
Numerous in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Weighs, occa- 
sionally, as much as five hundred weight. It has its German 
name from its unshapely form, and the English and French 
from the phosphorescent light of the sides and belly of the 
living fish. 
11. Diodon. Corpus spinis acutis mobilibus undique 
adspersum. Pinnae ventrales null®. 
1. Hystrix. The Porcupine-fish. Ger. der Stachelfisch. — D. 
oblongus, aculeis teretibus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 126.) 
Principally in the Atlantic, particularly on the Coasts of North 
America. 
12. Cyclopterus. — Caput obtusum. Pinnae ventrales in 
orbiculum connatae. 
1. Lumpus. The Lump-sucker. Ger. der See-Hase. Fr. le 
Lievre de Mer. — C. corpore squamis osseis angulato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 90.) 
In the Northern Seas of the Old World. Fastens itself to 
rocks, ships, &c., with great force, by means of the flat 
grooved plate on the thorax. 
13. Centriscus. Caput produetum in rostrum angus- 
tissimum. Abdomen carinatum. Pinnae ventrales 
unit®. 
1. Scolopax. The Snipe-fish. Ger. die Meer-Schnepfe. — C. 
corpore squamoso scabro, cauda recta extensa. 
(Bloch. Tab. 123. fig. 1.) 
In the Mediterranean Sea, &c. 
14. Syngnathus. Rostrum subcylindricum, ore oper- 
culato, maxilla inferiore mobiliore. Corpus cata- 
phractum. Pinn® ventrales null®. 
1. Acus. The Pipe-fish. Ger. die Meer-nadel. — S. pinnis 
caud®, ani, pectoralibusque radiatis ; corpore septem- 
angulato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 91. fig. 2.) 
In the North Sea, the Baltic, &c. 
2. Hippocampus. The Sea-horse. Ger. das Sce-Pferdchen. 

150 
OF FISHES. 
Fr. lc Cheval marin. — S. pinna caudae quadrangular nulla, 
corpore septemangulato tuberculato. 
( Bloch . Tab. 116. fig. 3.) 
One of the most generally diffused sea-fish. It has its name 
from the resemblance of its front part to a horse’s head and 
neck. In dying it bends itself like an S, and then resembles 
the Knight at Chess. 
15. Pegasus. Os proboscide retractili. Rostrum ensi- 
forme, lineare. Corpus articulatum osseis incisuris, 
cataphractum. Pinnae ventrales abdominales. 
1. Draeonis. The Sea-Dragon. Ger. der See-draehe. — P. 
rostro conico. 
(Bloch. Tab. 109. fig. 1, 2.) 
In the East Indies. The large and wide pectoral fins resemble 
expanded wings, and have probably given origin to its name. 
III. APODES. 
This and the three following Orders include the osseous fishes, 
or fishes properly so called. — First those which are without 
ventral fins. 
16. Mursna. Caput laeve. Nares tubulosae. Membrana 
branchiostega radiis 10 ; corpus teretiusculum lu- 
bricum. Pinna caudalis coadunata dorsali anique. 
Spiracula pone caput vel pinnas pectorales. 
1. Helena. The Murena. — M. pinnis pectoralibus nullis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 153.) 
A very voracious fish of prey, found in the seas of both hemis- 
pheres. 
2. Anguilla. The Eel. Ger. der Aal. Fr. l’Anguille. M. 
maxilla inferiore longiore, corpore unicolore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 73.) 
One of the common fresh water fishes in both hemispheres. 
It occasionally goes on the land among grass, &c. It is very 
tenacious of life, its heart when removed from the body re- 
taining its irritability for forty hours. According to the most 
correct observations it is certainly viviparous *. 
17. Gymnotus. Caput operculis lateralibus. Tentacula 
duo ad labium superius. Membrana branchiostega 
radiis 5. Corpus compressum, subtus pinna cari- 
natum. 
* Voigt’s Neues Mugazin. B. 12. S. 519. 

OF FISHES. 
157 
1. Electricus. The Electric Eel. Ger. der Zitteraal. — G. nu- 
dus, dorso apterygio, pinna caudali obtussissima anali 
connexa. 
(Bloch. Tab. 156.) 
Particularly in Surinam and Cayenne, where it was first made 
known by Van Berkel*. About as long as a manf. 
IS. Trichiurus. Caput porrectum, operculis lateralibus. 
Dentes ensiformes, apice semisagittati : primores 
majores. Membrana branchiostega radiis 7- Corpus 
compresso-ensiforme. Cauda subulata, aptera. 
1. Lapturus. — T. mandibula inferiore longiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 15S.) 
In both Indies. 
2. Indicus. — T. mandibulis aequalibus. 
In the East Indies. Also an electrical fish. (§110.) 
19. Anarrhichas. Caput obtusiusculum. Dentes pri- 
mores supra infraque conici, divergentes, sex plu- 
resve, molares inferiores palatique rotundali. Mem- 
brana branchiostega radiis 6. Corpus teretiusculum, 
pinna caudae distincta. 
1. Lupus. The Sea- Wolf. Ger. der Klippfisch. — A. pinnis 
pectoralibus amplis subrotundis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 74.) 
On the Coasts of the North of Europe. 
20. Ammodytes. Caput compressum. Labium superius 
duplicatum, dentes acerosi. Membrana branchios- 
tega radiis 7- Corpus teretiusculum, cauda distincta. 
1. Tobianus. The Sand-Lance. Ger. der Sandfisch. — A. 
maxilla inferiore longiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 75. fig. 2.) 
Also in the North of Europe. It conceals itself in the sand, 
whence it is taken in numbers on the Coasts of England and 
Holland. 
21. Ophidium. Caput nudiusculum. Dentes maxillis 
paiato, faucibus. Membrana branchiostega radiis 7 
patula. Corpus ensiforme. 
* See S ammlung seltener und merkmirdiger ReisegescMchten. 1 Th. 
Memmingen, 1789. S. 220. 
+ For an admirable description of the manner in which the Indians ex- 
haust the electric power of these animals, and then take them without 
danger, by driving horses and mules into the ponds in which they abound, 
see Alex. v. Humboldt’s Amichten der Nat ur. 1 B. S. 37, &c. 

158 
OF FISHES. 
1 . Imberbe. — O. maxillis imberbibus, cauda obtusiuscula. 
('British Zoology. Appen. Tab. 93.) 
On oyster banks, in great numbers. It is the most destructive 
enemy of oysters, and is often found held between their shells. 
22. Stromateus. Caput compressum. Dentes in max- 
illis, palato. Corpus ovatum, latum, lubricum. Cauda 
bifida. 
1. Paru. — S. unicolor. 
(Bloch. Tab. 160.) 
In America. 
23. Xiphias. Caput maxilla superiore terminatum rostro 
ensiformi. Os edentulum. Membrana liranchiostega 
radiis 8. Corpus teretiusculum. 
1. Gladius. The Sword-fish. Ger. der Schwertfisch. — X. 
mandibula inferiore acuta, triangulari. 
(Bloch. Tab. 76-) 
Iu the Northern and Southern Ocean : with its sword is about 
eighteen feet long, and weighs about 500fts. Its flesh is 'well 
tasted, and it forms an important object of fishery to the Cala- 
brians and Sicilians*. 
24. Leptocephalus. Caput exile. Corpus elongatum, 
tenuissime compressum. Pinnae pectorales minutae. 
1. Morrisii. (Leach’s Zoolog. Miscell. Vol. III. Tab. 126.) 
On the English Coasts. — Like a small transparent band. A 
very similar Species of this remarkable Genus has been sent to 
me from the Coast of South Africa, by the Reverend M. Hesse. 
IV. JUGULARES. 
Fishes having the ventral in front of the pectoral fins. 
25. Callionymus. Caput labio superiore duplicato : 
oculi approximate Membrana branchiostega radiis 
6 : apertura nuchae foraminibus respirante. Oper- 
cula clausa. Corpus nudum. Pinnae ventrales re- 
motissimae. 
1. Lyra. The Piper. — C. dorsalis prioris radiis longitudine 
corporis. 
Bloch. Tab. 161.) 
In the Atlantic. 
26. Uranoscopus. Caput depressum, scabrum, majus. 
Os simum, maxilla superior brevior. Membr. 
branch, radiis 5 ■, anus in medio. 
* Jac. Ph. D’Orville. Sieula. T. 1. p. 272, &c. 

OF FISHES. 159 
1 . Scaber. The Stargazer. Ger. der Sternseher. Fr. le Boeuf. 
— U. cirris multis in maxilla inferiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 163.) 
Very numerous in the Mediterranean. 
2~. Tkachinus. Capnt seabriusculum, compressum. 
Membr. branch, radiis 6 ; anus prope pectus. 
1 . Draco. The Sting-fish. Ger. das Petermannchen. Fr. la 
Vive. (Trachinus.) 
(Bloch. Tab. 61 .) 
In the Mediterranean, the North Sea, &c. 
2S. Gadcs. Corpus keve. Membr. branch, radiis 7 tere- 
tibus ; pinnoe cute communi vestitse, pectorales acu- 
minatse. 
1 . /Eglefinus. The Haddock. Ger. der Schellfisch. Fr. l’Anon. 
— G. Tripterygius cirratus albicans, cauda biloba, maxilla 
superiore longiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 62.) 
In all the Northern European Seas, but particularly on the 
coasts of England and Scotland. — Many fishes are phosphores- 
cent after death, in certain circumstances 5 in this, however, 
the phenomenon in question is occasionally of unusual extent 
and duration *. 
2. Callarias. — G. tripterygius cirratus varius, cauda integra, 
maxilla superiore longiore. 
Bloch. Tab. 63.) 
In nearly the same situations as the first Species. 
3 . Morrhua. The Cod. Ger. der Kabeljau. Fr. la Morue 
(Asellus) . — G. tripterygius cirratus, cauda subsequali, ra- 
dio primo anali spinoso. 
(Bloch. Tab. 64.) 
Under this general name are included many closely connected 
Species of this Genus, which are of extreme value, on account 
of their immense numbers, the variety of methods of preserv- 
ing them, and the length of time they may be kept. They are 
found in the Northern parts of both the Atlantic and Pacific 
Oceans, and form a most important fishery on the Coasts of 
Labrador, Newfoundland, Iceland, and the North of Great Bri- 
tain f. 
4. Merlangus. The Whiting. Ger. der Witling. Fr. le Mer- 
Osiander’s Denkiniirdh'keitm fur (lie Heilkunde , &c. B. 1. S. 417, &c. 
+ Du Hamel Trniti giniral den HSche.i. P. 2. Sect. p. 56, &c. 

1G0 
OF FISHES. 
Ian. — G. tripterygius imberbis albus, maxilla superiore 
longiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 65.) 
In the European Seas. 
5. Lota. The Burbot. Ger. die Quappe. Fr. la Lote. — G. 
dipterygius cirratus, maxillis aequalibus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 70.) 
Principally in the Lakes of Switzerland. The most delicate 
German fish. 
29. Blennius. Caput declive, tectum. Membr. branch, 
radiis 6 ; corpus lanceolatum, pinna ani distincta. 
]. Viviparus. The Eel-pout. Ger. der Aalmutter. — B. ore 
tentaculis duobus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 72.) 
In the Mediterranean, the North Sea, &c. It is viviparous. 
V. THORACICI. 
Fishes with the ventral immediately below the pectoral fins. 
30. Cepola. Caput subrotundum compressum. Os 
simum, dentes curvati, simplici ordine. Membr. 
branch, radiis 6 ; corpus ensiforme, nudum, abdo- 
mine vix capitis longitudine. 
1. Tania. The Ribbon-fish. Ger. der Randfisch. Fr. le Ru- 
ban. — C. pinna caudse attenuata, capite obtusissimo. 
(Bloch. Tab. 170 ) 
In the Mediterranean. 
31. Echeneis. Caput depressum, supra planum margi- 
natum, transverse sulcatum. Membr. branch, radiis 
10 . 
1. Remora. The Sucking-Fish. Ger. der Saugefisch. Fr. le 
Sucet. — E. cauda bifurca, striis capitis 18. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 78.) 
In the temperate parts of the Ocean. This singular animal 
can attach itself most firmly, by means of the grooves on the 
back part of its head, to ships, sharks, & c. Hence, the fable, 
that it was able to stop a ship in full sail. 
32. Cok vphasna. Caput truncato-declive. Membr. branch, 
radiis 5 5 pinna dorsalis longitudine dorsi. 
1. Hippurus. The Dolphin. Ger. der Goldkarpfe. Fr. la Do- 
rade. — C. cauda bifida, radiis dorsalibus 60. 
(Bloch. Tab. 174.) 

OF FISHES. 161 
In the Atlantic. A splendid animal, which displays a variety 
of colours in dying, as yellow, blue, purple, red, &c. 
33. Gobius. Caput poris 2 inter oculos approximates, 
altero anteriore. Membr. branch, radiis 4 j pinnae 
ventrales unitae in ovatum. 
1. Niger. The Sea Gudgeon. Ger. die Meergrundel. — G. 
pinna dorsali secunda radiis 14. 
(Bloch. Tab. 3S. fig. 1, 2, 5.) 
In the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 
34. Cottus. Caput corpore latius, spinosum. Mem- 
brana branchiostega radiis 6. 
1. Cntaphractus. The Pogge. Ger. der Knurrhahn. — C. lori- 
catus rostro vernicis bifidis, capite subtus cirroso. 
(Bloch. Tab. 38. fig. 3, 4.) 
On the Northern Coasts of Europe and America. 
2. Gobio. The Miller’s dhumb. Ger. der Kaulkopf. Fr. le 
Chabot. — C. laevis, capite spinis duabus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 38.) 
Very common in the rivers of Europe. The female deposits 
her spawn in a hole, and watches it until the young ones are 
hatched. 
35. ScoRPiENA. Caput magnum, aculeatum. Oculi vi- 
cini. Dentes maxillis, palato, faucibusque. Mem- 
brana branchiostega radiis 7- 
1. Horrida. — S. tuberculis callosis adspersa. 
In the East Indies. 
(Bloch. Tab. 183.) 
36. Zeus. Caput compressum, declive. Labium su- 
perius membrana transversa fornicatum. Lingua 
subulata. Membr. branch, radiis 7 perpendiculari- 
bus : infimo transverso. Corpus compressum. 
1. Vomer. The Silver-Fish. — Z. cauda bifurca, spina ante 
pinnam analem dorsalemque recumbente. 
(Bloch. Tab. 139.) 
2. Faber. The Dory. — Z. cauda rotundata ; lateribus mediis 
ocello fusco : pinnis analibus duabus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 41.) 
Both in the Atlantic. 
37. Pleuronectes. (Flounder. Ger. Butte. Scholle. Fr. 
Sole.) Oculis utrisque in eodem latere frontis. 
Membr. branch, radiis 4-7 ; corpus compressum, 
latere altero dorsum, altero abdomen referente. 
M 

162 
OF FISHES. 
These are the only animals in which, both eyes are on one side 
of the head ; in some Species on the right, in others on the left- 
It is uncommon to find monsters among them, in which the 
eyes are on the wrong side of the head. Both the nostrils, 
also, open obliquely to one side. They swim in an inclined 
position, the eyes being turned uppermost. 
1. Platessa. The Plaice. Ger. die Scholle. Fr. la Plie. — P. 
oculis dextris, corpore glabro, tuberculfi capitis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 42.) 
With the following, principally in the Northern Seas. 
2. Flesus. The Flounder. Ger. der Fliinder. Fr. le Flet. — P. 
oculis dextris, linea laterali aspera, spinulis ad pinnas. 
(Bloch. Tab. 44.) 
3. Limanda. The Dab. Ger. die Glahrke. — P. oculis dextris, 
squamis ciliatis, spinulis ad radicem pinnarum dorsi ani- 
que, dentibus obtusis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 46.) 
4. Hippoglossus. The Halibut. Ger. die Heiligbutte. Fr. le 
Fletang. — P. oculis dextris, corpore toto glabro. 
(Bloch. Tab. 47-) 
It often weighs as much as four hundred weight. Among 
other places, in great numbers in the North of the Pacific 
Ocean. 
5. Maximus. The Turbot. Ger. die Steinbutte.— P. oculis si- 
nistris, corpore aspero. 
(Bloch. Tab. 49.) 
Much smaller. One of the best tasted fishes. 
38. Ch^todon. Dentes (plurimis) setacei, flexiles con- 
fertissimi, numerosissimi. Membr. branch, radiis 
6 ; corpus pictum ; pinna dorsi anique carnosa squa- 
mosa. 
1 . Rostratus. — C. cauda integra, spinis pinnse dorsalis 9 ; 
maculaque ocellari ; rostro cylindrico. 
(Bloch. Tab. 202.) 
In the East Indies. The upper-jaw ends in a tube, through 
which the fish throws water on the insects upon aquatic plants, 
so that they may fall and become its prey. 
2. Macrolepidotus. — C. cauda integra, spinis dorsalibus 11, 
radio dorsali quarto filiformi longissimo. 
(Bloch. Tab. 200.) 
In the East Indies. 
39 Sparus. Dentes primores robusti, molares obtusi, 
conferti. Labia simplicia. Membr. branch, radiis 

OF FISHES. 163 
5 5 corpus compressum. Pinnae pectorales acumi- 
natae. 
1 . Aurata. The Gilthead. Ger. der Goldbrachsen. — S. lunula 
aurea inter oculos. 
(Bloch. Tab. 266.) 
In the Mediterranean and Atlantic. It has its name in almost 
ever)’ language, from the golden crescent before its eyes. 
2. Sargus. The Sea Bream. Ger. der Greissbrachsen. — S. 
ocello subcaudali, corpore fasciis nigris. 
(Bloch. Tab. 264.) 
In the Mediterranean. At the season of copulation, the males 
dispute the possession of the females, like birds, &c. 
3. Pagrus. — S. rubescens, cute ad radicem pinnarum dorsi 
et ani in sinum producta. 
(Bloch. Tab. 267-) 
One of the most common Sea-fish : occasionally poisonous. 
40. Labrus. Dentes acuti, labia duplicata magna. 
Membr. branch, radiis 6 3 pinnae dorsalis radii pos- 
tice ramento filiformi aucti. Pectorales rotundatse. 
1 . Julis. The Rainbow-fish. Ger. der Meerjunker. Ft. la Gi- 
relle. — L. lateribus cserulescentibus, vitta longitudinali 
fulva utrimque dentata. 
(Bloch. Tab. 287.) 
In the Mediterranean. As long as a finger, and with very 
beautiful colours. Its bite makes it very troublesome to 
bathers. 
41. Sci^n^:. Caput totum squamis obtectum. Membr. 
branch, radiis 6 ; opercula squamosa. Corpus fos- 
sula dorsi pro pinna dorsali recondenda. 
1 . Nigra. — S. tota nigra, ventre fusco-albescente. 
(Bloch. Tab. 297-) 
Together with many other Species of this Genus, in the Red 
Sea. . . ■ 
42. Perca. Opercula spinosa antrorsum serrata. Membr. 
branch, radiis 7 3 corpus pinnis spinosis. Linea 
lateralis cum dorso arcuata. 
1 . Fluviatilis. The Perch. Ger. der Barsch. Fr, la Perche. — 
P. pinnis dorsalibus distinctis, secunda radiis 16. 
(Bloch. Tab. 52.) 
In Europe and the North of Asia. 
2. Lvcioperca. Ger. der Zander. — P. pinnis dorsalibus dis- 
tinctis, secunda radiis 23. 
M 2 

1'64 
OF FISHES. 
(Br.ocu. Tab. 51.) 
Together with the following Species in the North of Europe. 
It is of excellent flavour in the Lakes of Hungary, and of great 
size in the Danube. 
3. Ccrnua. The Ruff. Ger . der Kaulbarsch. Fr. le Post. — 
P. pinnis dorsalibus unitis radiis 27 j spinis 15 \ cauda bi- 
fida. 
(Bloch. Tab. 53. fig. 2.) 
43. Gasterosteus. Membr. branch, radiis 3 ; corpus 
ad caudam utriuque carinatum. Pinnae ventrales 
pone pectorales, sed supra sternum. 
1. Aculeatus. The Stickleback, Ger. der Stichling. — G. spi- 
nis dorsalibus tribus. 
(Bloch. Tab. 53. fig. 3.) 
In Europe. Only used as food for swine, and as manure. 
2. Ductor. The Pilot-fish. Ger. der Lootsmann. Fr. le Pilote. 
— G. spinis dorsalibus 4 j membrana branchiostega 7 ra- 
diata. 
This celebrated little fish is always found accompanying, or pre- 
ceding, the formidable Shark, Squalus carcharias. Some exag- 
geration excepted, the fact has recently been confirmed by 
authentic observation*. 
44. Scomber. Caput compressum, laeve. Membr. branch, 
radiis 7 ; corpus laeve, linea laterali postice carina- 
tum. Pinnae spuriae ssepe versus caudam. 
1. Scomber. The Mackerel. Ger. die Makrele. Fr. le Maque- 
reau. — S. pinnulis 5. 
(Bloch. Tab. 54.) 
In the Northern and Atlantic Ocean, &c. With the following 
Species very voracious, but very well tasted. The ancients 
made the dish called “ garum,” from both. 
2. Pelamys. The Boneto. Ger. die Bonite. — S. pinnulis inie- 
rioribus 7 ; abdomine lineis utrinque 4 nigris. 
In the Seas of the warmer parts of the World. It is some- 
times very phosphorescent after death, and may, probably, 
with other fish and their oil, contribute to the shining ot sea- 
water. 
3. Thynnus. The Tunny. Ger. der Thunnfisch. Fr. le Thon 
— S. pinnulis utrinque S. 
(Bloch. Tab. 55.) 
* G. St. Hilaire in his Memoires d’Histoire Naturelle, p. 5, &c 

OK FISHES. 
165 
In the North Sea, the Mediterranean, East and West Indies, 
&c. It is longer than a man, and may weigh more than five 
hundred weight. It is sometimes poisonous*. The Albicore, 
made known by the South Sea voyages, resembles it. 
45. Mullus. Caput compressum, declive, squaniis tec- 
tum. Membr. branch, radiis 3 ; corpus squamis 
magnis facile deciduis. 
1. Barbatus. The Red Mullet. Ger. die Rothbarbe. Fr. le 
Rouget. — M. cirris geminis, corpore rubro. 
(Bloch. Tab. 348. fig. 2.) 
Principally in the Mediterranean. About a foot long. Famous 
as an article of luxury among the ancient Roman Epicures, 
and also for the splendid colours which it, together with the 
true Dolphin (p. 160.) and other fishes display in dying f- 
The M. surmuletus (Bloch. Tab. 47 ) appears to me, after a 
strict comparison, not to be specifically distinct. 
46. Trigla. Caput loricatum lineis scabris. Membr. 
branch, radiis 7 j digiti liberi ad pinnas pectorales. 
1 . Volitans. The Flying-fish. — T. digitis vicenis membrana 
palmatis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 351.) 
One of the Flying-fish of the Seas of temperate climates. 
VI. ABDOMINALES. 
Fishes in which the abdominal are placed behind the pectoral 
fins. Most fresh-water fish belong to this order. 
47. Cobitis . Oculi in suprema capitis parte. Membr. 
branch, radiis 4-6 : cauda versus pinnam minus 
angustata. 
1. Andbleps. — C. cirris 2 ; capite depresso, oculis promi- 
nulis- 
(Bloch. Tab. 361.) 
In Surinam. Is viviparous, and is remarkable for the form 
of the cornea, which appears as though divided into two sec- 
tions, together with the peculiar direction of the pupil 
2. Barbatula. The Loach. Ger. der Schmerling. Fr. la Loche. 
— C. cirris 6, capite inermi compresso. 
* For an account of its fishery, see Houel, Voyage pittoresque de Sidle, 
&c. Paris, 1782. fol. Vol. I. Tab. 28-30. 
f Seneca. Qucestion. Natural. 1. 3. c. 17, &c. 
I D. VV. Summering de oculor. hominis et animal, sect, horizont. 
Gutting. 1818. fol. p. 68. scq. Tab. 3. 

166 
or FISHES. 
(Ulocii. Tab. 31. fig. 8.) 
In many varieties, with and without cirri, See. The largest 
are found in the Aar, in Switzerland. 
3. Fossilis. The Mud-fish. Ger. der Wetterfisch. — C. cirris 
6 , spina supra oculos. 
(Bloch. Tab. 31. fig. 1 .) 
In Europe. Like the Cottus cataphractus, it can make a noise. 
When kept in a glass with sand at the bottom, it becomes un- 
easy on a coming change of weather *. 
48. Silurus. Caput nudum. Os cirris filiformibus ten- 
taculatum. Membr. branch, radiis 4-14 ; radius pin- 
narum pectoralium aut dorsalis primus spinosus, 
retrodentatus. 
1 . Glanis. Ger. der Weis. — S. pinna dorsali unica mutica, 
cirris 6. 
(Bloch. Tab. 34.) 
In the temperate regions of the Old World. With the Beluga, 
one of the largest fresh-water fishes, weighing as much as 
three hundred weight. It has a remarkable appearance from 
its large unshapely head, and its long cirri. 
2. Cataphractus. — S. pinna dorsali posticau niradiata, squamis 
ordine simplici ■, cirris 6 5 cauda integra. 
(Catesby. Vol. III. Tab. 19.) 
In North America. 
3. Electricus. Ger. der Zitter-Wels. Fr. Trembleur. — S. pinna 
dorsali unica lumbari, remota absque radiis, cirris 6. 
(Broussonet, in Mem. de V Acad, des Sc. de Paris. 1792. Tab. 20 .) 
An Electric fish. (§ 110 .) Found in the Nile and other African 
rivers. It is twenty inches long, and may be eaten. 
49. Loricaria. Caput lseve depressum. Os edentulum re- 
tractile. Membr. branch, radiis 6 ; corpus cata- 
phractum. 
1 . Plecostomus. The Harness-fish. — L. pinnis dorsi duabus. 
In South America. 
(Bloch. Tab. 374.) 
50. Salmo. Caput lseve. Dentes in maxillis, lingua. 
Membr. branch, radiis 4-10 ; pinna dorsalis postica 
adiposa : pinnse ventrales multiradiatse. 
1 . Salar. The Salmon. Ger. der Lachs. Fr. le Saumon. — S. 
rostro ultra inferiorem maxillam prominente. 
* Leisler, in Sylvan, von Laurop u. Fischer, f. d.j. 1814. 

OF FISHES. 
167 
(Blocii. Tab. 20-98.) 
In the Northern seas anil rivers, anil occasionally, as in La- 
brador anil the country of Amur, in vast numbers. In Summer 
it inhabits rivers, anil in Winter the sea. It is one of the fishes 
which increases most rapidly. The males only have the lower 
jaw bent. The women of the Orotchys-Tungooses have the 
art of tanning its skin so as to be flexible, for the purposes of 
clothing. 
2. Trutta. The Salmon Trout. Ger. die Lachs-Forelle. Fr. 
la Truite saumonee. — S. ocellis nigris iridibus brunneis, 
pinna pectorali punctis (5. 
(Bloch. Tab. 21.) 
On the coasts, and in the rivers of Europe. Weighs eight or 
ten pounds. 
3. Fario. The Trout. Ger. die Forelle. Fr. la Truite.— S. ma- 
culis rubris, maxilla inferiore sublongiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 22-23.) 
In shaded brooks of the mountains of the temperate regions of 
Europe and Asia. Seldom weighs more than two pounds. 
Varies much in colour and taste. 
4. Alpinus. The Char. Ger. die Bergforelle.— S. dorso nigro 
lateribus caeruleis, ventre fulvo. 
(Bloch. Tab. 104.) 
In the Alpine and Northern parts of Europe. Of great value to 
the Swedish Laplanders, who occasionally subsist almost en- 
tirely upon it. Lives principally on Gnats (culex pipiens.) 
5. Eperlanus. The Smelt. Ger. der Grosse Stint. — S. capite 
diaphano, radiis pinnae ani 17- 
(Bloch. Tab. 28. fig. 2.) 
In the North of Europe. Is almost transparent. The Green- 
land Herring (Salmo arcticus), of which the Greenlanders make 
their principal nourishment next to the Seal, resembles it. 
6. Lavaretus. Ger. der Gang-fiseh. — S. maxilla superiore 
longiore, radiis pinnae dorsi 14. 
(Blocii. Tab. 25.) 
In the North Sea, Baltic, Hudson’s Bay, & c .To this also pro- 
bably belong the Felchen and Aalbock of the Lake of Thun, which 
appear to be the same with the Ferra of the Lake of Geneva. 
7- Thymallus. The Grayling. Ger. die Aesche. Fr. l’Ombre. 
— S. maxilla superiore longiore, pinna dorsi radiis 23. 
(Blocii. Tab. 24.) 
In temperate Europe and Siberia. 

168 
OF FISHES. 
51. Fistularia. Caput: rostrum cylindricum, apice 
maxillosum. Membr. branch, radiis 7 : corpus. 
1 . Tabacaria. The Tobacco-pipe. — F. cauda bifida setifera. 
(Blocii. Tab. 387.) 
bound on the Eastern Coasts of tropical America, and in New 
Holland. A singularly formed animal, with a very small 
mouth on an immensely long snout. 
52. Esox. Caput supra planius culum ; mandibula supe- 
riore plana breviore, inferiore punctata: dentes in 
maxillis, lingua. Membr. branch, radiis 7 - 12 . 
1 . Lucius. The Pike. Ger. der Heclit. Fr. le Brochet.— E. 
rostro depresso subcequali. 
(Bloch. Tab. 32.) 
In many rivers and lakes of Europe, Asia and North America. 
A most voracious animal, which devours not only fish, but also 
Amphibia of all kinds. Toads, &c., many aquatic birds, small 
quadrupeds, and even crabs. 
2 . Belone. The Garpike. Ger. der Kornfisch. Fr. l’Orphie. 
—A. rostro utraque maxilla subulato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 33.) 
In the European Seas, and often in vast numbers. 
53. Polypterus. Membr. branch, radio unico. Spiracula 
utrinque bina in vertice. Pinnae dorsales numerosae. 
1 . Bichir. (Geoffry St. Hilaire Memoires d'Histoire Natu- 
relle. Tab. 5.) 
In the Nile. About nine inches long, of a sea-green colour, 
and covered with long scales. Its numerous dorsal fins (16, 
and upwards,) its pectoral and abdominal fins placed like legs, 
together with many other remarkable peculiarities, designate 
this animal as a distinct Genus. 
54. Elops. Caput laeve. Dentium scabrities in maxilla- 
rum margine, palato. Membr. branch, radiis 30 ; 
preterea exterius in medio armata dentibus 5 . 
1 . Saurus. E. cauda supra infraque armata. 
(Bloch. Tab. 393.) 
In Jamaica. 
55. Argentina. Dentes in maxillis, lingua. Membr. 
branch, radiis 8 . Corpus ano cauda: vicino. Pinnae 
ventrales multiradiatae. 
1 . Carolina. — A. pinna anali radiis 15. 
(Catesby. Vol. II. Tab. 24.) 

OF FISHES. 
1G9 
It has its name from its native country. 
56. Atherina. Caput maxilla superiore planiuscula. 
Membr. branch, radiis 6. Corpus fascia lateral i ar- 
gentea. 
1. Hepsetus, A. pinna ani radiis fere 12. 
(Bloch. Tab. 393. fig. 3.) 
In the Mediterranean. 
57- Mcgil. Caput : labia membranacea : inferius in- 
trorsum carinatum. Dentes nulli. Denticulus in- 
flexus supra sinus oris. Membr. branch, radiis 7, 
curvis. Opercula laevia rotundata. Corpus albicans. 
1. Cephalus. The Common Mullet. — M. pinna dorsali ante- 
riore quinqueradiata. 
(Bloch. Tab. 394.) 
In the Mediterranean and other Seas. 
5S, Exocoetus. Caput squamosum. Os edentulum, 
maxillis utroque latere connexis. Membr. branch, 
radiis 10. Corpus albicans, abdomen angulatum, 
pinnae pectorales maxime volatiles, radiis antice 
carinatis. 
1. Volitans. — E. abdomine utrinque carinato. 
The most common of all flying-fishes. Found in almost all 
the Seas of the warmer parts of the World, and often in great 
numbers. 
The Exocoetus mesogaster. (Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 
100.) The rarest Species of this Genus is found principally in 
the West of the Atlantic Ocean, and is distinguished by the 
position of the abdominal fins in the middle of the belly, and 
by the middle rays in them being the longest. 
59. Polynemus. Caput compression, undique squamo- 
sum : rostro obtusissimo prominente. Membr. 
branch, radiis 5-7. Corpus digitis liberis ad pinnas 
pectorales. 
1. Quinquarius. P. digitis quinque corpore longioribus. 
(Seba. Vol. III. Tab. 27. fig. 2.) 
In the West Indies. 
60. Clupea. Caput maxillarum superiorum mystacibus 
serratis. Membr. branch, radiis 8. Branchiae interne 
setaceae. Abdominis carina serrata. Pinnae ventrales 
saepe novemradiatae. 
1. Harengus. (Membras ?) The Herring. Ger. der Haring. 
7r. 1 Harcng. — C. imrnaculata, maxilla inferiore longiorc. 

170 
OP PISHES. 
(Bloch. Tab. 29.) 
A most important animal in the Northern World. Though at- 
tacked by man and many animals, as the Grampus, Gulls, &c\, 
it multiplies with astonishing rapidity. Its great and regular 
migrations during Summer along the Coasts of Europe, parti- 
cularly the Orcades, Norway, &c. have given employment to 
many thousand people from the 12th Century. 
2. Sprattus. The Sprat. Ger. die Sprotte. Fr. la Sardine. 
— C. pinna dorsali radiis 13. 
(Bloch. Tab. 29. fig. 2.) 
Also in the Northern and Mediterranean Seas. Has been 
incorrectly supposed by many naturalists to be the young 
Herring. 
3. Alosa. The Shad. Ger. die Alse. Fr. l’Alose. — C. lateri- 
bus nigro maculatis, rostro nigro. 
(Bloch. Tab. 30. fig. 1.) 
Very abundant in the Mediterranean, but also in the North and 
Baltic Seas. 
4. Encrasicolns. The Anchovy. Ger. die Sardelle. Fr. l’An- 
chois. — C. maxilla superiore longiore. 
(Bloch. Tab. 30. fig. 2.) 
Found in the same places with the last. Is taken in great 
numbers at Gorgona, in the Gulf of Leghorn. 
61. Cyprinus. Caput ore edentulo. Os nasale bisulcum. 
Membr. branch, radiis 3. Corpus leeve albens. Pin- 
nae ventrales saepe novemradiatae. 
1. Barbus. The Barbel. Ger. die Flussbarbe. Fr. le Barbeau. 
— C. pinna ani radiis 7, eirris 7, pinnae dorsi radio secun- 
do utrinque serrato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 18.) 
In temperate Europe and the West of Asia. Its roe is poison- 
ous, and has often given rise to dangerous symptoms when 
eaten. 
2. Carpio. The Carp. Ger. der Karpfe. Fr. la Carpe. — C. 
pinna ani radiis 9, eirris 4, pinnae dorsalis radio secundo 
postice serrato. 
(Bloch. Tab. 16.) 
At the present time, in almost the whole of Europe. It has 
been gradually introduced into the Northern parts, within the 
last 300 years. It produces Bastards with the Crucian and 
other connected Species. — Monsters are more numerous in this 
than any other Species of fish. The Mirror Carp, (Bloch. 

OF FISHES. 
171 
Tab. 17.) remarkable for having parts of the body bare of 
scales, appears to be a distinct Species, and not a Variety of 
this one. 
3. Tinea. The Tench. Ger. die Schleihe. Fr. la Tanche. — 
C. pinna ani radiis 25, cauda integra, corpore mucoso, 
cirris 2. 
(Bloch. Tab. 19.) 
One of the most generally diffused river fish. It can produce 
a sound through its branchical opercula. The Gold Tench 
(Bloch. Tab. 15.) is one of the most beautiful German fishes. 
4. Carassus. The Crucian. Ger. die Karausche. Fr. le Ca- 
rassin. — C. pinna ani radiis 10, cauda integra linea late- 
rali recta. 
(Bloch. Tab. 11.) 
In Europe and central Asia. 
5. Auratus. The Gold-fish. Ger. der Goldkarpfe. Fr. la Do- 
ree. — C. Pinna ani gemina, caudae bifida trans versa bi- 
furca. 
(Baster in Haarlem Verhandel. 7- D. 1 st. with col. pi.) 
In Japan and China, where it is kept as a domestic animal, and 
has deviated into many surprising, almost monstrous varieties, 
as regards its colour, the number and form of fins, the size of 
the eyes, &c. It also thrives well in temperate Europe. It 
may be kept in water for any length of time without food, and 
yet discharges excrement from time to time. 
6. Phoxinus. The Minnow. Ger. die Elritze. Fr. le Vairon. — 
C. pinna ani radiis 8, macula fusca ad caudam, corpore 
pellucido. 
(Bloch. Tab. 8. fig. 5.) 
Very abundant in the Weser. 
7. Orfus. Ger. der Orf. — C. pinna ani radiis 13. 
(Bloch. Tab. 96.) 
Principally in the South of Germany. Of a beautiful orange 
colour. 
8. Alburnus. The Bleak. Ger. der Ukley. Fr. l’Ablette. — C. 
pinna ani radiis 20. 
(Bloch. Tab. 8. fig. 4.) 
Together v/ith the following Species, in the middle of Europe, 
and West of Asia, About as long as a finger. Its scales are 
used in the manufacture of artificial pearls*. 
* Beckmann’s Beylriige znr Gcschichte der Erfindungen. 2 B. S. 35. u. f. 

172 
OF INSECTS. 
9. Bramu, The Bream , Ger. der Brachsen. Fr. la Br&me. — 
C. pinna ani radiis 27 ; pinnis fuscis. 
(Bloch. Tab. 13. 
SECT. VIII. 
OF INSECTS. 
$ 121. The animals of the two last classes (§ 40.), Insects 
and Vermes, are distinguished from the preceding by the ab- 
sence of red blood, in place of which they have a white fluid. 
Hence, they were formerly called bloodless animals, (animalia 
exsanguia,) whilst in recent times, on account of the absence of 
vertebrae and ribs, they have received the name of Invertebral 
Animals. 
§ 122. Insects derive their name from the circumstance, 
that, at least in the perfect state, the head, thorax, and abdo- 
men are separated from one another, as though by incisions, 
nay, in many cases, seem as though connected only by a 
thread. Besides this, however, they are distinguished, with a 
few exceptions among the Genera of the Apterous Order, by 
peculiar and often very sensible organs, which, in the perfect 
state, are affixed to the head, (Antenncc, feelers, ) which are al- 
ways articulated at the root, and in addition, often formed into 
several joints ; and lastly, by their horny, jointed legs, the 
number being always greater than in other animals j in perfect 
insects at least six, and in many instances, as many as one 
hundred and fifty, &c. 
§ 123. These characters excepted, insects, in general, have 
but little in their external appearance that is common to all. 
The almost incalculable number of Species, the endless variety 
of offices they are destined to perform, and the consequent dif- 
ference of their modes of life, wants, &c. require an extreme 
diversity in their forms, in which respect, as well as in the in- 
equality of their sizes, we find remarkable contrasts. 
§ 124. Even their external coverings are much more diver- 
sified than is the case among other animals. Many are pro- 

OF INSECTS. 
173 
tected by a horny coat, composed of several portions, moving on 
one another like the pieces of a gauntlet, which serve to se- 
cure them from the effects of various accidents, and to com- 
pensate the deficiency of bones, which in other animals afford 
attachment to muscles, &c. Many are covered with fine hairs, 
and in Butterflies, &c. the wings with little feathers or rather 
scales, which are occasionally of most beautiful colours : in- 
deed, I may remark, that many animals of undescribable 
beauty are included in this class. 
§ 125. Insects also differ materially from other animals, 
with regard to the disposition of their organs of sense*, and, 
probably, their mode of sensation, insomuch that, many natu- 
ralists have refused them certain of our external senses, as 
hearing and smell j but without justice, as the former clearly 
exists in many which emit certain sounds, as an enticement at 
the time of breeding, and the latter in a still greater number, 
which are capable of smelling out their food, though hidden. 
§ 126. The eyes of Insects are particularly remarkable, 
and with respect to their structure, are of two kinds. The 
first are large hemispheres, mostly composed of thousands of 
facets, but in some instances, of numerous conical points, and 
covered on the inner surface with a layer sometimes glitter- 
ing, sometimes variegated. Such are found in most winged 
Insects, but also in many Aptera, as the lobster, &c. Those 
of the second kind (stemmata, ocelli,) are simple, small, and 
vary as well in number as position. Eyes of the first kind 
seem calculated for seeing at a distance 5 of the second, for 
looking at near objects 5 at least it may be supposed so, as we 
find that Butterflies, in their winged perfect state, have such 
large, compound, telescopic eyes, whilst as Caterpillars, they 
have small myopic ones. Only a few Insects, crabs, for in- 
stance, can move their eyes t- 
§ 127- The Antennae J (feelers) which vary much in diffe- 
* M. Ch. Gott. Lehmann de sensibus externis animalium exsanguium; 
Commentatio prcernio regio ornata. Gotting. 1798. 4to. And Jos. 
Schelver’s Fersuch einer Natur Geschichtc der Sinneswerkzeuge bey den 
Insecten und IVurmern. Getting. 1798. 8vo. 
t From this fact may be deduced a probable explanation of at least one 
object of the numerous Facets of which the compound eyes of Insects are 
composed. (Translator.) 
X M. Ch. Gott. Lehmann de Anteunis Inscctorum. Diss. 1, 2. Loud. 
1800. 8vo. 

174 
OF INSECTS. 
rent Species, in many instances even according to the sex, and 
which many naturalists have supposed to he organs of smell, 
taste, &c., seem to be nothing more than their name implies 
organs of feeling, probes, which are of great importance to 
Insects on account of their hard, insensible covering, and the 
immobility of their eyes in most instances. They appear to 
possess their most acute feeling in the Antennae, as man has in 
the tips of the fingers ; and as for the most part they live in 
darkness, supply the want of light by this contrivance. On the 
other hand, the purposes of the Palpi, placed near the organs 
of mastication, found in almost all Insects, and considered by 
some naturalists to be organs of sense, are as yet undeter- 
mined. 
§ 128. In their internal structure* also. Insects differ ma- 
terially from red-blooded animals. — For instance, what has 
been considered as a heart in Caterpillars, is a long canal of 
unequal width, placed along the back, but without any vessel 
arising from it ; consequently, the nutrition of these Insects 
must be effected in a peculiar manner, totally different from 
that of red-blooded animals. On the other hand, they are pro- 
vided with an incalculable number of air-vessels of an asto- 
nishingly delicate structure, and with numerous muscles, dif- 
fering, however, as well in form as in colour, from those of 
red-blooded animals. 
§ 129. Although Insects stand in need of the exchange of 
carbon of oxygen to effect the continuance for life, (§ 24), 
there are but few, as Crabs, Grass-hoppers, many Cicadse and 
Chafers, in which a motion resembling respiration can be ob- 
served. Insects in general breathe, not by the mouth, but by 
many spiracula f. The greater number of them can live in a 
vacuum much longer than red-blooded animals, and many in 
mephitic atmospheres so fatal to others, and in which animal 
and vegetable substances become putrid, as carburetted hydro- 
gen gas, & c. 
§ 130. The abode of Insects on and under the surface of 
the earth, is much less limited than that of the other Classes 
of animals. They are found on almost all warm-blooded ani- 
* Sec my Manual of Comparative Anatomy, p. 272, &e. 
t Oil the other hand, this Class, in proportion to its vast number of 
Species, contains but few aquatic animals : and of these, but very few exist 
in the Ocean, which forms the abode of by far the greater number of Spe- 
cies in the preceding and succeeding Classes. 

OF INSECTS. 
175 
mals, and even the larger Insects, as Bees, Chafers, &c., are 
infested by peculiar kinds of lice. There are but few plants, 
also, ( such as perhaps, the Yew, Savine, and most tree- 
mosses,) which do not serve for the abode and support of 
known Insects. Many again, as the Oak, are frequented and 
inhabited by more than a hundred distinct Species. Generally, 
however, as Insects are diffused over the earth, the residence 
of individual Species is not less frequently limited to a very 
small number of animals and plants, or even particular parts 
of them. 
§ 131. Only a few Insects live in a social state, affording 
mutual assistance in their labours. The greater number fol- 
low their pursuits singly ; many, as Spiders, live in society 
when young, but afterwards separate and live in a state of 
solitude, seeing creatures of the same Species only at the 
time of pairing. 
§ 132. The remarkable edifices and habitations, which sq 
many Insects are capable of executing, have been already 
mentioned in speaking of Instinct. (§ 36.) There are but few 
creatures of this Class which do not, at least once in their 
life, give proofs of this natural power of construction j either, 
as the Cloth-Moth and Water-Moth, form a habitation in 
their incomplete and larva state ; or, like others, spin and 
prepare a receptacle to contain them during their metamor- 
phosis and death-like sleep ; or like the Lion-Ant, dig pits ; 
and like the spider, weave webs for their prey ; or like many 
Species of the Genus Dyticus, and some Spiders, form bags or 
nets for the security of their posterity, and in which they 
deposit their eggs. Many of those which live in communities, 
build common residences, by their united powers, and un- 
der the guidance of an extremely regular, geometrical, innate 
Instinct. 
§ 133. As to the kind of nourishment in Insects, it is easy to 
see that it is not, as in most red-blooded animals, calculated 
merely for the preservation of the individual, but more parti- 
cularly for the purpose of consuming organized matter. Insects 
must eat, not solely to satisfy hunger, but also to destroy car- 
rion, to annihilate other Insects, to extirpate weeds, &c. — An 
admirable provision, to the execution of which, besides the al- 
most incalculable number of Species, the extremely rapid 
multiplication of many, the unexampled voracity of others, 
and the quickness with which digestion is carried on in their 

176 
OF INSECTS. 
very short intestinal canal, all tend to contribute. Thus it is 
known that a Caterpillar will in twenty-four hours consume 
more than three times its own weight. — The organs of masti- 
cation in Insects are more diversified than in any other Class 
of animals : many are provided with jaws, having teeth and 
moving laterally ; others, Avith a horny, pointed snout, (ros- 
trum) for boring ; others with a fleshy snout having a wide 
opening, (proboscis); and others Avith a tongue, so called, 
rolled into a spiral shape. 
§ 134. Some Insects are secured from the attacks of their 
enemies by their deceptive form ; others by having the same 
colour as the plants on which they live *, and consequently 
being less readily noticed ; others, by the powerful smell which 
they can diffuse in case of necessity ; others by their social 
mode of life ; others again by their astonishing strength, &c. 
Many are provided with Aveapons, as horns like forceps or nip- 
pers, or with stings and venom. 
§ 135. In the mode of propagation of Insects there are also 
many peculiarities. Thus the two sexes in one and the same 
Species are often so extremely different in form that they seem 
like animals of distinct kinds : in Bees, and many similar In- 
sects, the greater number is Avithout sex ; that is to say, they 
are themselves produced without being destined in the ordinary 
course of nature for generation or impregnation. 
§ 136. This peculiarity extends in different Insects to the 
mode of copulation. In not a feAV Species, for instance, it is 
effected in flying, and many possess wings only during the 
short season of breeding. In general, the greater number live 
in a state of compulsory monogamy, inasmuch as they are in- 
capable of copulating more than once in the course of life : 
death is Avith them so inevitable a result of their first copula- 
tion, that life may be prolonged by delaying the period of 
sexual connection. 
§ 137- Among other peculiarities of the business of propa- 
gation in Insects, many, as the Cochineal-Avorm, the Land- 
flea, become of an enormous size during pregnancy : thus, in 
the White Ant, it has been calculated that the abdomen of the 
female, when about to lay her eggs, is 2000 times larger than 
previous to impregnation. 
* See some remarkable instances in Abbot’s Lepidopterous Insects of 
Georgia. Vol. I. 'Fab. 5. Vol. II. Tab. 99. 

OF INSECTS. 
177 
§ 13S. Most Insects lay eggs, which the mother, by a truly 
wonderful instinct, always deposits precisely in the situations 
best adapted for the future progeny. Many, for instance, lay 
their eggs in the bodies of living insects of other kinds, as in 
Caterpillars, Pup®, &c. ; or even in the eggs of other kinds 
of Insects. The eggs of Insects are occasionally, particularly 
among Butterflies, of very A^arious and remarkable form and 
appearance, and Avhen deposited by the mother in the open air, 
are covered Avith a kind of varnish, protecting them from the 
destructwe influence of rain and other accidents. Some few 
Insects are viviparous, and many, as the Plant-lice (Aphides), 
propagate in both ways. 
§ 139. A very remarkable phenomenon, almost confined to 
this Class of animals, or at least much less striking in the 
others, (Remarkon § 72. — § 94'. — § 116.) “is their metamor- 
phosis. There is not any winged Insect which escapes from 
the egg as such, but all, as well as many Insects Avhich haA r e 
not wings, must first undergo a kind of change at certain pe- 
riods of their existence. By this, not only their external form, 
but also at the same time their internal structure, contrary to 
common opinion, is altered in a certain degree *, a circum- 
stance which by no means coincides with the supposed pre- 
existence of pre-formed germs. ( § 7.) 
Remark. If the Moth existed already formed in the Cater- 
pillar, we should at least expect that similar Moths 
should be produced by similar Caterpillars. But many 
American Caterpillars, which resemble European ones in 
the closest manner possible, give'origin to Moths having 
totally different forms : — and on the other hand, many 
remarkably similar Moths of both these parts of the World, 
are developed from Caterpillars altogether unlike. See Sir 
J. E. Smith, in Abbot’s work quoted above, Vol. I. p. 5. 
and Prof. Hf.rold’s Entwickelungs- Gescliichte der Schmet- 
terlinge. Marb., 1815. 4to. Avith 33 plates. — p* 115, &c . 
§ 140. Insects Avhich undergo metamorphosis are called 
Larva:, whilst in the state in which they escape from the egg. 
They are mostly very small on their first appearance, so that 
a full grown Caterpillar of the WilloAV-Moth for instance, is 
'72,000 times heavier than when it issues from the egg. On 
the other hand, they grow Avith great rapidity, so that as an 
* Lyovet, Chenille rle Saule, p. 585, &r. 
N 

178 
OF INSECTS. 
example, the Maggot of the Meat-fly, at the end of twenty- 
four hours, is 155 times heavier than at its birth. Some Larvae 
have feet, as Caterpillars and the Grubs of Chafers ; others 
have not, as Maggots : none have wings. In this state also 
they are incapable of propagating ; they merely feed, increase, 
and change their covering several times. 
§ 142. The form into which the Larva is converted is called 
Nympha. Many can move about and take food when in this 
state. Others, on the contrary, are covered up, as Pupae (Chry- 
salis, Aurelia), and pass this portion of their life in a state of 
torpor without eating or moving. 
§ 141. During the time, however, that the creature thus 
lies insensible and torpid within its coverings, a great change 
is going forward, by which it quits the larva-state, and is en- 
abled to leave its prison as a perfect Insect. ( Insectum. declara- 
tum, imago.) Many Insects finish this last portion of their 
existence in a very short time. Several, when they break from 
the coverings of the larva-state are unprovided with a mouth, 
and cease to eat or grow. These two functions of all organ- 
ized bodies they performed while larva ; a third only remains 
— to propagate the Species, and then to give way to their pos- 
terity and perish. 
§ 143. The immediate utility* of Insects to man, is but 
limited ; but, on the other hand, the parts which these small 
and unnoticed animals perform in the general economy of na- 
ture, is in an equal degree varied and incalculable. Some de- 
stroy numerous kinds of weeds in the bud, or extirpate them 
when full grown. Another extremely useful object is effected 
by many Insects which feed on carrion, live in dung. See., and 
by that means destroy, disperse and change noxious animal 
substances; on the one hand, obviating the infection of the air, 
and on the other, promoting the fertilization of the earth. It 
is in this way, for instance, that flies are so serviceable in warm 
climates. So again, there are innumerable Insects which ef- 
fect the impregnation of plants in a very remarkable manner, 
as a Species of Cynips is employed for the artificial fructification 
of the fig. Various kinds of Insects are used as baits for fish- 
ing. Many animals of this Class, as Crabs and some kinds of 
Locusts are eatable. So also is the honey of Bees, from which 
mead is prepared in many parts of Europe and Africa. Silk 
* Kirby and Spence. Vol. I. p. 250, &c. 

OF INSECTS. 
179 
is employed for clothing and many other purposes. Several 
Insects afford excellent dyes, as Cochineal, &c. Galls are em- 
ployed for ink, — wax for lights, and other purposes. Lac, 
which is the product of certain Indian Species of Coccus, is 
employed to make varnish, sealing-wax, &c. As medicines, 
we have Spanish Flies, Wood-lice, Ants — the Oil-beetle, re- 
commended in hydrophobia, and many beetles for relieving 
toothache. 
§ 144. Great as is the utility of Insects, the injury done by 
many is also very considerable. Many are noxious to the pro- 
ducts of the earth in general, cause scarcity, or as Locusts, des- 
troy every thing in their course. Some are especially inju- 
rious to corn 5 others, as Caterpillars, Grubs, &c. to garden- 
plants, or fruit-trees ; the various Species of Coccus, to orange- 
trees in particular ; the Larvae of some Species of Dermestes, 
&c. to forest trees 5 Ants, &c. to meadows ; Cock-roaches, to 
victuals ; the White Ants, &c. to furniture 5 Moths to woollen 
goods, fur, &c. ; the Larvae of many small Insects, to books, 
collections of natural history, &c. Lastly, some kinds of ver- 
min infest man, horses, sheep, fowls, other domestic animals, 
and even other serviceable Insects, as Bees, Silk-worms. 
Others again, as Scorpions, are formidable by their venom. 
§ 145. In the systematic arrangement of this class, I fol- 
low the method of Linnaeus ; the nature of this Manual, com- 
posed with relation to my Annual Lectures on the whole of 
Natural History, not admitting any other. 
Order I. Coleoptera. Beetles. Ger. Kafer. Mostly with 
horny bodies. In a state of rest, the wings fold 
together, and are provided with two horny cover- 
ings or sheaths, which meet in a straight line in 
the middle. 
II. Hemiptera. With four wings folded together cru- 
cically or longitudinally, hard for one half, and 
almost like parchment. Sometimes with forceps 
or nippers for eating, sometimes with a pointed 
proboscis. 
III. Lepidoptera. Butterflies. With soft, hairy bodies, 
and four expanded wings, covered with coloured 
scales. 
IV. Neuroptera. With four transparent, net-shaped, 
or lattice-like wings. 
V. Hymenoptkra. With four transparent veined wings. 
N 2 

180 
OF INSECTS. 
VI. Dii'tera. Insects with two wings (uncovered.) 
VII. Aptera. Insects without wings. 
On the Natural History of Insects. 
Th. Mouffet Theatrum Insectorum. London, 1634. folio. 
Jo. Raii Historia Insectorum. London, 1710. 4to. 
Jo. Swammerdam Algemeene Ferhandeling van de bloedeloose 
Dierlcens. Utr., 1699. 4to. 
Ej. Biblia Naturae. L. B. 1737- folio. 
M. S. Merian, Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium. 
Amst., 1705. fol. max. 
Jac. L’ Admiral Jun. Gestaltverwisseinde gekorvene Diertjes. 
Amst., 1/40. fol. 
J. L. Frisch Beschreibung von allerhand Insecten in Deutsch- 
land. Berl., 1720-38 — Th. 13. 4to. 
G. W. Panzer’s Insectenfaune Deutschlands seit 1795. 12mo. 
Index entomologicus in Panzeri faunam insectorum Germania. 
p. 1. 1813. 
A. J. Rosel, Monathliche Insecten — Belustigungen. Nurnb., 
1746-61. 4 B. 4 to. 
Ch. Fr. C. Klkemann- Beytrdge dazu. Ebendas. seit 1761. 
4to. 
V. Linne Fundamenta Entomologies. Ups., 1767- 4to. and in 
Amcenitat. Academic. Vol. VII. 
J. H. Sulzer’s Kennzeichen der Insecten. Zurich, 1761. 4to. 
Dess, abgekurzte Geschichte der Insecten. Winterthur, 1766. 
4to. 
J. C. Schaeffer Elementa Entomologica. Ratisb., 1766. 4to. 
Ej. leones insectorum Ratisbonensium. ib. 1767- 4to. 
J. A. Scopoli, entomologia Carniolica. V indob., 1763. Svo. 
J. C. Fabricii, Philosophia Entomologica. Hamburg, 1778. Svo. 
Ej. Systema Entomologies. Flensb., ‘1775- Svo. 
Ej. Genera Insectorum. Kilon., 1776. Svo. 
Ej. Species Insectorum. Hamburg, 1781, Vol. II. 8vo. 
Ej. Entomologia Systematica. Hafn. 1793. Vol. V . 8vo. 
P.A. Latreille, Histoire Naturelle des Insectes. Paris, 1S04. 
14 Vols. Svo., forming a continuation of Sonnini s Edition of 
Buffon. 
De Reaumur, Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734-42. ^ ol. VI. 
4to. 
De Geer, Histoire des Insectes. Stockh. 1752-78. Vol. 7 . 4to 

OF INSECTS. 
181 
Ej. Genera et Species Insectorum ; extraxit A. J. Retzius. 
Lips., 17S3. Svo. 
Geoffroy Histoire des Insectes des Environs de Paris. Paris, 
17 62. Vol. II. 4to. 
Lesser, Theologie des Insectes (Trad, de l’Allemaad) avec des 
Remarques de P. Lyonet. A la Haye, 1742. Vol. II. Svo. 
W. Kirby and W. Spence’s Introduction to Entomology. Ed. 2. 
London, ISIS. Vol. II. Svo. 
L. G. Scriba Beytrdge zur Insecten Geschichte. Frankf., seit 
1790. 4to. 
Magazin fiir Insectenkuncle herausgegeben von R. Illiger. 
Braunschw. 1801*7- Th. 6. Svo. 
E. F. Germar’s Magazin der Entomologie. Halle, seit 1813. 
Svo. 
N. J. Brahm Insecten- Calender. Mainz., 1790. Th. 2. Svo. 
I. COLEOPTERA, sive Vaginipennia. (Eleutherata. Fabr.) 
The animals of this Order* in general, are called Beetles, al- 
though this name is more strictly applicable to the first Genus. 
The Larva has nippers, and in most Genera, six legs attached 
to the thorax ; in some, as the Cerambyces, it is without 
feet (Maggots.) It generally becomes a Chrysalis under- 
ground, in an excavated cell or, as in the Cerambyces, already 
mentioned, in wood. The perfect insect is at first very soft, 
but soon becomes hard after exposure to the air •, it, as well as 
the Lan a, has jaws on the head, and possesses a hard, horny 
covering for the wings (Elytra)* 
1. Scarabs us. Beetle. Ger. Kafer. Fr. Hanneton. — An- 
tennae clavatae capitulo fissili, tibiae anticae saepius 
dentatae. 
1. Hercules. (Geotrupes Hercules Fab.) — S. Scutellatus, tho- 
racis cornu incurvo maximo subtus unidentato, capitis 
recurvato j supra multidentato. 
(Rosel. Vol. IV. Tab. 5. fig. 3.) 
In Brazil. The Larva is full as thick as a thumb. The Beetle 
varies in colour, but is mostly brown, green, &c. 
J. E. Voet, Catalogue Systemutique des Coleopteres. Ala Haye, 1766. 
4 to. G. A. Olivier, Entomologia. Paris, from 1789. 4to. and the German 
Translation with Notes and Additions. By K. Illiger. Braunschw. from 
1800. 4 to. — J. Cii. Fabricii, Systema Eleutheratorum. Kil., 1801. 2 Vols. 
8ro. 

182 
OF INSECTS. 
2 . Action. (Gcotrupes A. — F.) S. scutellatus thorace bi- 
corni, capitis cornu unidentato, apice bifido. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Erdkiif. 1. Tab. A. fig. 2.) 
In the same country as the above. 
3. Lunaris. (Copris Lun. — F.) S. exscutellatus, thorace tri- 
corni ; intermedio obtuso bifido, capitis cornu erecto cly- 
peo emarginato. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 7.) 
In meadows, pastures, &c. and particularly in cow-dung, from 
which, like other similar Species of Beetles, it forms hollow 
balls, which it attaches under ground to the roots of grass, &c. 
and employs as receptacles for its eggs, one in each. 
4. Nasicornis. (Geotrupes N. — Fab.) S. scutellatus, thorace 
prominentia triplici, capitis cornu incurvato, antennis 
heptaphyllis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Erdkaf. 1. Tab. 7- fig- 8, 10.) 
The largest Beetle of these climates ; it seldom flies. In the 
Larva state it is found in tan and hollow trees. In many 
places it is very injurious to the vines. 
5. Sacer. (Ateuchus S. — Fab.) S. exscutellatus, clypeo sex- 
dentato, thorace inermi crenulato, tibiis posticis ciliatis, 
vertice subbidentato. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 1. fig. 3.) 
Very common in Egypt, by the ancient inhabitants of which 
country, it was worshipped as the most sacred of their mystic 
symbols, as the representation of the upper and lower worlds, 
and represented on their obelisks, their Sarcophagi, and va- 
rious other works of art*. It is found, in particular, repre- 
sented on the posterior part of the Egyptian and Etruscan 
carved stones, which, on that account, have been called Sca- 
rabsei. 
6. Fimetarius. (Aphodius F. — Fab.) S. Scutellatus, thorace 
inermi, capite tuberculato, elytris rubris, corpore nigro. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 19. fig. 3.) 
In Cow-dung. 
7. Stercorarius. The Dung-beetle. Ger. der Rosskiifer. — S. 
scutellatus, muticus, ater, glaber ; elytris sulcatis ; ca- 
pite rhombeo 3 vertice prominulo ; antennis rubris. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 6. fig. 3.) 
Particularly in horse-dung, and therefore very common in 
* G. Zoega de Orig. et Usu Obelissorutn. p. 44G, &c. 

OF INSECTS. 
183 
roads. Its flying about on Summer evenings, is considered a 
sign that the following day will be fine. 
8. Vernalis . — Ger. der Mistkafer.— S. scutellatus muticus, 
elytris glabris lsevissimis, capitis clypeo rhombeo, vertice 
prominulo, antennis nigris. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 1. fig. 6.) 
Very common in sbeep-dung. 
9. Horticola. (Melolontha H. — F.) The Garden-beetle. Ger. 
der Garten-klifer. — S. scutellatus muticus, capite thora- 
ceque cseruleo subpiloso, elitris griseis, pedibus mgris. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 14.) 
Principally on fruit-trees. 
10. Melolontha. (Melolontha vulgaris. — F.) The Cock-chaf- 
fer, May-chaffer. Ger. der Maykafer, Kreutzkafer. Fr. 
le Hamieton. — S. scutellatus muticus testaceus, thorace 
villoso ; cauda inflexa, incisuris abdominis albis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. E rdkcif. 1. Tab. 1.) 
One of the commonest Insects ; whilst in the larva state, lasting 
four years, feeds on the roots of corn, &c., and has occasionally 
produced extensive scarcity *. It at last makes its appearance 
as the Cock- chaffer, and in this form injures the young foliage 
of fruit trees in particular. 
11. Solstitialis. (Melolontha S. — F.) — S. scutellatus muticus 
testaceus, thorace villoso, elytris luteo-pallidis pellu- 
cidis ; lineis tribus albis parallelis. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 15. fig. 3.) 
This Beetle, also, while in the larva state, is very injurious to 
corn. 
12. Auratus. (Cetonia aurata. F.) The Rose-chaffer. Ger. der 
Goldkafer. — S. scutellatus muticus auratus, segmento 
abdominis primo lateribus unidentato, clypeo plani- 
usculo. 
(Frisch, p. 12. Tab. 3. fig. 1.) 
The larva and Chrysalis are very commonly found in Ant-hills 
and hollow trees ; the Beetle itself in gardens, &c. There 
have been instances in which it has been kept alive more than 
eight years, by being fed on crusts of bread soaked in water. 
* As for instance, in 1479, when this Insect was cited by a regular 
Moratorium before the Spiritual Court of Lausanne, who assigned it an 
Advocate from Friburg ; but after an attentive hearing of both parties, and 
mature deliberation, concluded by placing it under a Bun. — See M. Stett- 
ler’s Schweitzer- Chronic, s. 278. u. f. 

184 
OF INSECTS. 
2. Lucanus. Antennae clnvataj; clava compressa la- 
tere latiorc pectinato lissili. Maxillae porrectae, 
exsertae, (lentatae. 
1 . Cervus. The Stag-beetle. Ger. der Hirschkafer. Fr. le 
Cerf volant. — L. scutellatus 5 maxillis exsertis, apice 
befurcatis, latere unidentatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Erdkiif. 1. Tab. 3.) 
Next to Crabs, &c. j is one of the largest European Insects : 
it lives chiefly in oak forests. It is only the male which has 
forceps on the head resembling the antlers of the Stag. 
3 . Dermestes. Antennae clavatae 5 capitulo perfoliato ; 
articulis tribus crassioribus. Thorax convexus, vix 
marginatus. Caput sub thorace inflexum latens. 
1 . Lardarius. D. niger elytris antice cinereis, punctis nigris. 
(Frisch, p. 5. Tab. 9 ) 
Both Larva and Beetle feed on the fat and soft parts of dead 
animals. 
2. Pellio. — D. niger coleoptris punctis albis binis. 
Injurious to furs, stuffed animals, &c. 
3 . lypographus. (Bostrichus Typ.— Fab.) Ger. der Borken- 
kater. — D. testaceus pilosus elytris striatis retusis prae- 
morso dentatis. 
(Trebra in Schr. der Berl. Ges. Naturforsch. Freunde. B. 4. 
Tab. 4.) 
The animal which has recently become so formidable to the 
Pine forests on the Harz and other parts of Germany j and 
which lodges in such numbers in the Alburnum of the Pinus 
abies, that as many as 80,000 of its Larvae have been counted 
in a tree of moderate size. This affection (Wurmtrockniss. 
Ger.) causes the tree to perish from the summit downwards, 
its leaves turn red, it loses its resin, and is rendered nearly 
unfit even for making charcoal, much less timber or fire- 
wood *. 
4 . Piniperda. (Hylesinus Pinip. — F.) Ger. der Tannenkafer. 
— D. niger subvillosus, elytris piceis integris, plantis 
rufis. 
Scarcely half as large as the last Species. 
* This, or a similar Insect, has been stated to produce lately, -the same 
mischief among some of the finest trees in St. James’ and the Green Park, 
London, although the cause was, for sometime, totally unsuspected. 
Translator. 

OF INSECTS. 185 
5. Paniceus. (Anobium Pan. — F.) D. oblongus, ferrugineus/ 
oculis rufis. 
(Frisch, p. 1. Tab. 8.) 
The Larva destroys bread, and is therefore very dangerous to 
ship biscuit in long sea voyages : it is also one of the most 
destructive book-Avorms. 
4. Ptixus. ( Ger. Kiimmelkafer. Fr. Vrilette.) Antennae 
filiformes : articulis ultimis majoribus. Thorax sub- 
rotundus, immarginatus, caput excipiens. 
1. Pertinax. (Anobium Pert. Fab.) P. fuscus, unicolor. 
It has its name from the circumstance that when touched it 
extends its feet and lies as though dead, from which state it 
cannot easily be made to move. 
2. Fur. — P. testaceus, subopterus,Thorace quadridentato, ely- 
tris fasciis duabus albis. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 2. fig. 8.) 
One of the most injurious animals to collections of Natural 
History, furniture, furs, &c. 
3. Fatidicus. (Anobium tesselatum. — Fab.) The Death-watch. 
Ger. die Todtenuhr. — P. fuscus subpilosus griseo irregu- 
lariter maculosus. 
(Phil. Trans. No. 27L291.) 
One of the very different kinds of Insects which have given 
origin to a variety of popular fables, by the ticking noises 
which the sexes make at the time of connexion. 
5. Histur. Antennae capitatse capitulo solidiusculo j 
infimo articulo compresso, decurvato. Caput intra 
corpus retractile. Os forcipatum. Elytra corpore 
breviora. Tibiae anticae dentatse. 
1. Unicolor. — H. totus ater, elytris substriatis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 2. fig. 8, 9.) 
In sandy ground and pasture lands. 
6. Gyrinus. Antennae clavatae, rigidse, capite breviores, 
oculi 4, duohus supra, duobus infra. 
1. Natator. — G. substriatus. 
(Sulzer’s. Gesch. Tab. 2. fig. 10.) 
Swim3 with great velocity on the surface of the water. In 
diving, it has a bladder of air behind. It has an offensive odour. 
7 ■ Byrrhus. Antennae clavatae subsolidae, subcom- 
pressae. 
1. Museorum. (Anthenus Mus. — F.) B. nebulosus, elytris 
subnebulosis puncto albo. 

18G OF INSECTS. 
In peltry, stuffed animals, &c. 
8. Silpha. Antennae extrorsum crassiores. Elytra mar- 
ginata. Caput prominens. Thorax planiusculus, mar- 
ginatus. 
1. Vespillo. (Necrophorus Ves. — Fab.) The Carrion Beetle. 
Ger. der Todtengraber. Fr. le Fossoyeur. — S. oblonga 
atra, clypeo orbiculato inaequali, elytris fascia duplici 
aurantia. 
(Frisch, p. 12. Tab. 3. fig. 2.) 
It has its name from the dexterity with which it scents from a 
distance the bodies of small animals, as moles, frogs, &c., and 
buries them under ground, for the purpose of depositing its 
eggs. Six of them will bury a mole a foot deep in less than 
four hours. 
9. Cassida. Antennae subfiliformes, extrorsum cras- 
siores. Elytra marginata. Caput sub thoracis clypeo 
piano reconditum. 
1. Viridis. The Tortoise Beetle. — C. viridis, corpore nigro. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Erdkdf. 3. Tab. 5 ) 
On thistles, &c. The Larva and Chrysalis are flat, and notched 
and pointed at the edges. 
2. Murrcea. — C. nigra, clypeo rubro, elytris sanguineis, punc- 
tis nigris sparsis. 
Very abundant on the Elecampane. 
10. Coccinella. Lady-cow. Lady-bird. Ger. Sonnen- 
kafer, Marienkuh, Gottes-lammchen. Fr. Vache h 
Dieu, Bete de la vierge. — Antennae subclavatae, 
truncatae. Palpi clava semicordata. Corpus hemis- 
phaericum, thorace ely trisque emarginatis, abdomine, 
piano. 
1. Septem-punetata. — C. coleopteris rubris ; punctis nigris 
septem. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 1. fig. 4.) 
It, as well as some Species of Meloe, has been recommended as 
a remedy for toothache. 
2. Bipustulata. — C. coleopterisnigris ; punctis rubris duobus, 
abdomine sanguineo. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 16. fig. 6.) 
11. Chrysomela. Antennae moniliformes, extrorsum 
crassiores. Thorax, nec elytra, marginatus. 
1. Goettingensis. (Chrysomela hamioptera. — F.) C. ovata 
atra pedibus violaceis. 

OF INSECTS. 
187 
(Panzer. Faun. Germ. H. 44. Tab. 3.) 
Very common on the plant Yarrow *. 
2. Minutissima . — C. ovata nigra opaca. 
One of the smallest Beetles. It is scarcely one third as large 
as a Flea. 
3. Cerealis. — C. ovata aurata, thorace lineis tribus., coleop- 
trisque quinque violaceis, abdomine violaceo. 
4. Oleracea. (Galleruca oleracea. Fab.) C. saltatoria (s. fe- 
moribus posticis crassissimis) virescenti-cserulea. 
A troublesome little animal, which, with several similar Species, 
are known under the name of Ground-fleas or flies. 
5. Merdigera. (Lema merd. — F.) C. oblonga rubra, thorace 
cylindrico utrinque impresso. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 3. fig. 14.) 
In Lilies, Lily of the Valley, &c. The Larva covers itself 
with its own excrement. The little red Beetle, into which it 
changes, makes a clear penetrating sound with its wing-cover- 
ings, when held in the hollow of the hand, near the ear. 
12. Hispa. Antennae fusiformes, basi approximatae, inter 
oculos sitae. Thorax elytraque aculeata saepius. 
1. Atra. — H. corporetoto atro. 
Under ground, about the roots of grass. 
13. Bruchus. Antennae filiformes, sensim crassiores. 
1. Pisi. The Seed-Beetle. Ger. der Erbsenkafer. — B. elytris 
albo punctatis, podice albo maculis binis nigris. 
Is very injurious to the Maze fields in North America. 
2. Nucleorum. — B. cinereus, elytris striatis, femoribus pos- 
ticis ovatis, dentatis, tibiis incurvis. 
{Mem. de l' Acad, des Sc. de Paris 1771- Tab. 2.) 
In the central parts of America. Almost as large as Scarabaeus 
auratus, but often confounded with Bruchus bactris, which is 
much smaller. It bores through the nut-shells of the Cocos 
lapidea, which are as thick as a thumb, hard as a stone, and 
often cut or turned into buttons, &c. 
14. Curculio. Weevil. Ger. Rtisselkafer. Fr. Charan- 
$on. Antennae sub-clavatae, rostro insidentes. Ros- 
trum corneum prominens. 
They have, for the most part, a short, round, but hard, body, 
covered with a shell-like armour, together with a solid snout, 
* See Voigt’s Neues Magazin. B ll.S. 201, for Professor Graven- 
horst’s critical determination of this Species, so often mistaken and con- 
founded with others. 

188 
OF INSECTS. 
more or less curved, and of various lengths. They are noxious 
animals, of which those with very long snouts attack trees, and 
the others grain and garden plants. 
1. Palmarum. (Calandra palm. — Fab.) C. longiroster ater, 
thorace ovato planiusculo, elytris abbreviatis striatis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 3. fig. 20.) 
Principally in the South of India. Is about the size of the 
Stag-Beetle. The Larva feeds on the pith of the Sago, and is 
itself eaten as a delicacy. 
2. Frumentarius. (Atelabus frum. — Fab.) The Corn-weevil. 
Ger. der schwarze Kornwurm. — C. longirostris sangui- 
neus. 
Of great injury to granaries. It extracts the flour from corn, 
and leaves the husk behind. The most certain remedy is to 
sprinkle the floors, &c., with a strong alkaline ley. It not 
unfrequently spreads itself into chambers, beds, &c. 
3. Granarius. (Calandra granaria. F.) C. longiroster, piceus 
oblongus thorace punctato longitudine elytrorum. 
Also in granaries, mills, &c. 
4. Paraplecticus. (Lixus paraplec. F.) C. longiroster cylin- 
dricus subcinereus, elytris mucronatis. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 4. fig. 7-) 
On aquatic plants. The idea that it causes paralysis in horses 
is unfounded, but may apply to the plants on which it lives. 
5. Bacchus. ( Attelabus B. — Fab.) The Vine-weevil. Ger. 
der Rebensticher. — C. longiroster aureus, rostro plantis- 
que nigris. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Vol. IV. fig. 4.) 
On Apple-trees, vines, &c. 
6. Pomorum. — C. longirostris femoribus anticis dentatis, 
corpore griseo nebuloso. 
(Frisch, p. 1. Tab. 8.) 
In some years destroys almost all the apple-buds. 
7- Nucum. (Rhynchoenus nucum. F.) The Nut-weevil. — C. 
longiroster, femoribus dentatis, corpore griseo longitu- 
dine rostri. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Erdkaf. 4. Tab. 67.) 
Perforates the Hazel-nut. 
8. Imperialis. The Diamond-beetle. Ger. der Juwelenkafer. — 
C. breviroster niger, elytris dentatis, sulcatis punctis ex- 
cavatis, auro versieolore distinctis, abdomine aeneo viridi. 
In Brazil. One of the most splendid Insects. The gold and 

OF INSECTS. 
189 
colours in the numerous pits marked in rows upon the wing 
coverings, give it an inexpressibly fine appearance in a clear 
light, and particularly under a magnifying glass. 
15. Attelabus. Caput postice attenuatum inclinatum. 
Antennae apicem versus crassiores. 
1. Coryli. The Nut-beetle.— A. niger, elytris rubris. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 4. fig. 25.) 
2. Apiarius. ( Trichodes ap. — F.) Ger. der Immenwolf. — 
A. caerulescens, elytris rubris, faciis tribus nigris. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 4. fig. 4.) 
Very common where Bees are kept, and often does them much 
injury. 
16. Cerambyx. ( Capricornus.) Antennae attenuatae. 
Thorax spinosus aut gibbus. Elytra linearia. 
Many of the Species have remarkably long Antennae, and very 
strong corslet and wing-coverings, and are so tenacious of life 
that they have been known to live a month after being trans- 
fixed with a pin. They mostly live in wood, and make a 
rattling noise by rubbing the corslet against the wing-co- 
verings. 
1. Longimanus. — C. thorace spinis mobilibus, elytris basi 
unidentatis apiceque bidentatis, antennis longis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Erdkaf. 2. Tab. 1. fig. a.) 
As well as the following Species, in South America. 
2. Cervicornus. (Prionus C. — F.) C. thorace marginato 
dentato, maxillis porrectis coniformibus utrinque spino- 
sis, antennis brevibus. 
(Rosel. 1. cit. fig. b.) 
Larger than the former. It is beautifully marked and has for- 
ceps, like the Stag-beetle. 
3. Moschatus. — C. thorace spinoso, elytris obtusis viridibus 
nitentibus, femoribus muticis, antennis mediocribus. 
(Frisch, p. 13. Tab. 11.) 
It has a musky smell. 
4. SEdilis. (Lamia AE. — Fab.) C. thorace spinoso ; punctis 
4 luteis, elytris obtusis nebulosis, antennis longissimis. 
(Frisch, p. 13. Tab. 12.) 
The Antennae are full six times as long as the rest of the 
animal. 
17- Leptura. Antennae setaceae. Elytra apicem versus 
attenuata. Thorax teretiusculus. 

190 
OF INSECTS. 
1. Aquatica. (Donacia crassipes. — F.) The Wood-beetle. — 
L. deaurata, antennis nigris, femoribus posticis dentatis. 
On aquatic plants of all kinds. Its colour is various. 
18. Necydalis. Ger. Afterholzbock. — Antennae setaceae. 
Elytris alis menora. Cauda simplex. 
1. Major. (Molorchus abbreviate. — F.) N. elytris abbrevi- 
ate ferrugineis immaculatis, antennis brevioribus. 
19. Lampyris. (Cicindela, nitedula.) Glow-worm. Ger. 
Johanniswiirmchen. Fr. Ver luisant. — Antennae fili- 
formes. Elytra flexilia. Thorax planus, semiorbi- 
culatus, caput subtus occultans cingensque. Abdo- 
minis latera plicato-papillosa. 
The male only is winged, and has two spots of bluish phos- 
phorescent light on the belly. The female is without wings, 
but shines more vividly than the males, particularly at the sea- 
son of copulation, whence it is probable that this light serves 
the purpose of directing the male to her. Some time after the 
female has laid her eggs, which also shine in the dark, this 
light disappears in both sexes. 
1. Noctiluca. — L. oblonga fusca, clypeo cinereo. 
Under Juniper, Rose-bushes, &c. Two placed in a glass give 
sufficient light for reading by. 
20. Cantharis. Antennae setaceae. Thorax marginatus 
capite brevior. Elytra flexilia. Abdominis latera 
plicato-papillosa. 
1. Fusca. — C. thorace marginato rubro, macula nigra, ely- 
tris fuscis. 
The Larva of this Insect lives under ground during Winter, 
and sometimes after snow makes its appearance in thousands, 
a circumstance which has given rise to many fables. 
21. Elater. Skipper. Ger. Springkafer. Fr. Taupin. — An- 
tennae setaceae. Thorax retrorsum angulatus. Mucro 
pectoris e foramine abdominis resiliens. 
These animals are remarkable for the singular dexterity with 
which, when lying on their backs, they throw themselves into 
the air and fall on their feet. This is principally effected by a 
long process attached to the front of the thorax, and moving 
in a groove along the belly, from which it is forcibly protruded 
in making the dart upwards, and also by the points which pro- 
ject backwards upon both sides of the corslet, and are articu- 
lated in a similar manner with the wing-coverings. 

OF INSECTS. 
191 
1. Noctiluciis. — E. thoracis lateribus macula flava glabra. 
In the equatorial parts of America. It is full two inches long. 
The two round yellow spots near the lateral points of the cors- 
let,, shine vividly in the dark : on that account, this and some 
other phosphorescent Insects, were formerly used by the Caribs 
for lamps. 
2. Niger. — E. thorace laevi, elytris, pedibus, corporeque 
nigris. 
Very common in the pastures of Europe. 
22. Cicindela. Antennae setaceae. Maxillae prominentes 
denticulatae. Oculi prominuli. Thorax rotundato- 
marginatus. 
Whilst in the Larva state, they bury themselves in sand like 
the Ant-lion, to ensnare other Insects ; and, as Beetles, pursue 
them either running or flying with great velocity. 
1. Germanica. — C. viridis, elytris puncto lunulaque apicum 
albis. 
23. Buprestis. Antennae setaceae, longitudine thoracis ; 
caput dimidium intra thoracem retractum. 
1. Gigantea. — B. elytris fastigiatis bidentatis rugosis, tho- 
race marginato laevi, corpore inaurato. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 6. fig. 38.) 
In the East and West Indies. As long as a finger. 
2. Chrysostigma. — B. elytris serratis longitudinaliter, sulca- 
tis, maculis duabus aureis impressis, thorace punctato. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 6. fig. 39.) 
3. Viridis. — B. elytris integerrimis sublinearibus punctatis, 
thorace deflexo, viridi elongato. 
Of the colour of the Spanish Fly, but only two lines long. A 
few years since, the Larva did much harm among the young 
beech-trees here, (Gottingen) by eating serpentine excava- 
tions, and in that way destroying the alburnum. 
24. Dyticus. (Hydrocantharus.) Water-beetle. Ger. 
Wasserkafer. Antennae setaceae aut clavato-perfo- 
liatae. Pedes postici villosi, natatorii submutici. 
1. Piceus. (Hydrophilus P. — F.) D. antennis perfoliatis, 
corpore laevi, sterno carinato, postice spinoso. 
(Frisch, p. 2. Tab. 6. fig. 1.) 
One of the largest species. When the Beetle is about to lay 
its eggs, it prepares a neat oblong husk or shell, which it 
covers with a brown silk, and which floats like a boat on the 
water, with the eggs inclosed, until such time as the young 

192 
OF INSECTS. 
Larvec are hatched, and able to leap overboard into their ele- 
ment. 
< 2. Marginalis. — D. niger, thoracis elytrorumquc margine 
flavis (mas.) 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 6. fig. 42.) 
Is injurious to fish-ponds, as are, probably, most other Species 
of the Genus. In the female, the anterior half of the wing- 
coverings is longitudinally furcated. 
25. Carabus. Antennae setaceae. Thorax obcordatus 
apice truncatus marginatus. Elytra marginata. 
Rapacious animals. Many, when touched, effuse a stinking 
fluid. Few of them fly, but run with great rapidity. 
1. Coriaceus. — C. apterus ater opacus, elytris punctis intri- 
cate subrugosis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 6. fig. 44.) 
2. Auratus . — C. apterus, elytris porcatis ; striis sulcisque 
laevibus inauratis. 
Very common in pastures and meadows. 
3. Sycophnnta. (Calosoma S. — F.) C. aureo nitens, thorace 
caeruleo, elytris aureo viridibus striatis, abdomine subatro. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch . Tab. 7 • fig- 1-) 
One of the largest European Species of the Genus. 
4. Crepitans. (Brachinus Crep . F.) The Bombardier. Ger. 
der Bombardirkafer. Fr. le Petard. Swed. Styckjunkare. — 
C. thorace capite pedibusque ferrugineis, elytris viridi ni- 
gricantibus. 
( Scliwed . Abhandl. 1750, Tab. 7- fig- 2.) 
A small Species, which is attacked by the preceding one. Dr. 
Rolander has described the peculiar way in which it defends 
itself from the C, sycophanta, C. inquisitor , and other enemies, 
viz. by ejecting a bluish vapour with a tolerably loud report : 
Hence the name Bombardier. 
5. Spinipes. (C. gibbus. — F.) C. piceus, thorace linea exca- 
vata longitudinali, manibus spinosis. 
(Olivier. T. 3. Tab. 12. fig. 142.) 
The subterraneous Larva has caused a complete failure of the 
seed-corn in certain years, as in Lombardy 1776> an( t the dis- 
trict of Halle in 1812. The Beetle rests at night in great 
numbers on the ears of corn. 
26. Tenebrio. Antenme moniliformes articulo ultimo 
subrotundo. Thorax plano-convexus, marginatus. 
Caput exsertum. Elytra rigidiuscula. 

OF INSECTS. 193 
1. Molitor. The Mealworm-beetle. — T. alatus niger totus, 
femoribus anticis crassioribus. 
(Frisch, p. 3. Tab. 1.) 
The Larvae live ill flour, are therefore common in mills and 
bakehouses, and are used for feeding nightingales. 
2. Mortisagus . (Blaps Mortisaga . — F.) Ger. der Todtenkafer. 
— T. apterus thorace sequali, coleoptris laevibus mucro- 
natis. 
(Frisch, p, 13. Tab. 25.) 
27. Meloe. Antennae moniliformes articulo ultimo ovato. 
Thorax subrotundus. Elytra mollia flexilia, caput 
inflexum gibbum. 
1. Proscarabceas, The Oil-beetle. Ger. der May wurm. Fr.le 
Scarabee onctueux. — M. apterus, corpore violaceo, 
(Frisch, p. 6. Tab. 6. fig. 5.) 
A soft animal, which exudes a stinking fluid from the knee- 
joints, as soon as it is touched. 
2. Vesicatorius. (Lytta vesicatoria. Fab.) Cantharis officinalis. 
Blistering Fly, — M. alatus viridissimus nitens, antennis 
nigris. 
The valuable animal employed in medicine for raising blisters. 
28. Mordella. Antennae filiformes serratse. Caput de- 
flexum sub collo (in territo.) Palpi compresso-cla- 
vati, oblique truncati. Elytra deorsum curva api- 
cem versus. Ante femora lamina lata ad basin ab- 
dominis. 
Very small Beetles. The Genus includes but few Species, and 
even these do not seem to multiply rapidly. 
1. Aculeata. M. atra, ano spina terminata, 
(Sulzer’s Kennz . Tab. 7. fig. 46.) 
29. Staphylinus*. Antennae moniliformes. Elytra di- 
midiata. Alae tectse. Cauda simplex exserens duas 
vesiculas oblongas. 
The animals of this Genus are remarkable for the bladders, 
which, when in danger, they protrude from the posterior part 
of the body, but for what purpose is unknown. 
1. Maxillosus. S. pubescens niger, fasciis cinereis, maxillis 
longitudine capitis. 
J. L. C. Gravemiorst, coleopteru microptera, &c. Brunsv. 1802. 8vo. — 
Ej. Monographic i coleopterorum micropterorum. Gutting. 1806. 8vo. 
o 

194 
OF INSECTS. 
30. Fokficui.a. Antennae setaceae. Elytra dimidiata. 
Alae tectae. Cauda forcipata. 
1 . Auricularia. The Ear-wig. Ger. der Ohr-wurm. Fr. le 
Perce-oreille. — F. elytris apice albis. 
(Frisch, p. 8. Tab. 15. fig. 1, 2.) 
The supposition that this animal penetrates into the ears of 
men, is unfounded ; it may occasionally have been found there, 
like many other Insects, but nothing more. It is really inju- 
rious, however, to tender vegetables, the buds of pinks, and 
when in great numbers, to the underground timber of houses, 
and the like. 
II. HEMIPTERA. (Ulonata et Rhyngota. Fabr.) 
In most Insects of this Order, the head is depressed towards 
the chest ; in some is provided with jaws 5 but in the greater 
number, with a proboscis bent towards the abdomen, whence 
they have by many naturalists been called Froboscidea. They 
have generally four wings, of which, the upper, in particular, 
are horny and firm at the root, thinner and softer at the outer 
extremity : in some instances they are placed longitudinally, 
in others folded crosswise : in some cases too, they are pro- 
vided with wing-coverings. Many have but two wings, and 
in some, the female is without any. Their metamorphoses are 
not very striking : the Larva resembles the perfect Insect, ex- 
cept in wanting wings, which are formed by degrees. 
31. Blatta. Caput inflexum. Antennae setaceae. Elytra 
alaeque planae, subcoriaceae. Thorax planiusculus, 
orbiculatus, marginatus. Pedes cursorii. Corni- 
cula duo supra caudam. 
1 . Orientalis. The Cock-roach. Ger. die Brotscliabe. Fr. le 
Cancrelas, Ravet.— B. ferrugineo-fusca elytris abbreviate 
sulco oblongo impresso. 
(Frisch, p. 5. Tab. 3.) 
Now found in almost every part of the World. With other 
Species of the Genus (as B. Germanica— B. Americana , I know 
not why so called,) a most troublesome kind of vermin. At- 
tacks food of all kinds, but bread in particular, and hence, may 
produce extreme distress in long sea- voyages*. It maybe ex- 
tirpated by arsenic, the vapour of sulphur and assafcetida, or 
A frightful instance is given by Maurelle’s South Sea Voyages in 
Voyage de La Perouse autour du Monde. Vol. 1. p. 271). 

OF INSECTS. 195 
when in small numbers in a room, kitchen, &c. by introducing 
a duck or hedgehog. 
2. Heteroclita. — B. fusca, elytris nigris, sinistro integro 4 
pustulato ; dextro ad marginem internum semipellucido, 
3 pustulato. 
(Pallas. Spicileg. Zoolog. 9. Tab. 1. fig. 5.) 
In lranquebar, &c. Is remarkable for the dissimilar manner 
in which the two sides of the wing-coverings are marked. 
3. Laponica. — B. flavescens, elytris nigro-maculatis. 
In the temperate parts of Europe as well as Lapland. 
32. Mantis. Caput mutans, maxillosum, palpis instruc- 
tum. Antennse setacese. Alse 4 membranaceae, con- 
volutae, inferiores plicatse. Pedes antici compressi, 
subtus serrato-denticulati, armati ungue solitario et 
digito setaceo laterali articulato : postici 4, lseves, 
gressorii. Thorax linearis elongatus angustatus. 
All the Species have an uncommon out-stretched form. Their 
mode of walking, &c. has something solemn in it, that may 
have given rise to the credulous devotion with which certain 
Species have been venerated, particularly in the East. 
1. Gigas. (Phasma G. — F*.) M. thorace teretiusculo scabro, 
elytris brevissimis, pedibus spinosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 19. fig. 9, 10.) 
From Amboina. It is a span long, and yet scarce as thick as 
a goose- quill. It is eaten by the Indians. 
2. Gongylodes. — M. thorace subciliato, femoribus anticis 
spina terminatis, reliquis lobo. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heusclir. Tab. 7. fig. 1, 2, 3.) 
From Guinea, &c. 
3. Religiosa. (M. oratorio, var B. — F.) The Praying-cricket. 
Ger. die Gottesanbetherin. — M. thorace lsevi subcarinato 
elytrisque viridibus immaculatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 1, 2.) 
It mostly goes on four legs, holding up the two fore ones. It 
is sometimes called the dried leaf, from the resemblance of its 
wing-coverings, in form and colour, to a dry willow-leaf. It 
may live ten years. 
4. Precaria.— M. thorace subciliato, elytris flavis ocello fer- 
rugineis. 
‘ J. C. F-abrich, Suppkmentum Entomologies Systematica. Hafuiic. 
1798. 8vo. p. 186. 

19 (> 
OF INSECTS. 
(Abbild. Nat. Ilist. Gegcnst. Tab. 89.) 
At the Cape ; and is considered sacred by the Hottentots. 
33. Gryllus. Grasshopper. Ger. Heuschrecke. Fr. Saute- 
re lle. — Caput inflexum, maxillosum, palpis instruc- 
tum. Antennae setaceae sive filiformes. Alae 4 de- 
flexae, convolutae, inferiores plicat<e. Pedes postici 
saltatorii. Ungues ubique bini- 
An extensive Genus, most Species of which are injurious to 
meadows and corn-fields. In many the male makes the well- 
known chirping sound, either at the time of copulation, or at 
the commencement of night, or change of weather, partly with 
the legs, but principally with the wings. 
1 . Gryllotalpa. (Acheta G.— F.) The Mole-cricket. Ger. die 
Werre. Fr. la Courtilliere. — G. thorace rotundato, alls 
caudatis elytro longioribus, pedibus anticis palmatis to- 
mentosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 14, 15.) 
In Europe and North America, and in some districts, as Thu- 
ringia, very abundant. Lives chiefly underground, and does 
great injury to young vegetables and corn. 
2. Dcnnesticus. (Acheta D. — F.) The Cricket. Ger. die Grille. 
Fr. le Grillon. — G. thorace rotundato, alis caudatis elytro 
longioribus, pedibus simplicibus, corpore glauco. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 12.) 
3. Campestris. (Acheta C.—F.) The Field-cricket.— G. tho- 
race rotundato, cauda biseta stylo lineari, alis elytro bre- 
vioribus, corpore nigro. 
(Frisch, p. 1. Tab. 1.) 
4 . Viridissimus. (Locusta viridissima.—F.) The Grasshopper. 
Ger. der Baumhiipfer. — G. thorace rotundato, alis viridi- 
bus immaculatis, antennis setaceis longissimis. 
(Rosel. Vol'. II. Heuschr. Tab. 10 , 11.) 
Of a beautiful green colour. Lives chiefly among bushes, and 
can spring to a great distance. _ ^ , 
5 . Verrucivorus. (Locusta verrucivora. — F.) G. thorace sub- 
quadrato lsevi, alis viridibus fusco maculatis, antennis se- 
taceis longitudine corporis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 8.) 
6. Cristatus. G. thorace cristato, carina quadrifida. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 5.) 
In the Levant, Egypt, &c. 
7 . Migratorius. The Locust. 
Ger. die Zugheuschrecke.— G. 

OF INSECTS. 197 
thorace subcarinato ; segmento unico, capite obtuso, 
maxillis atris. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 29.) 
The formidable Insect which has sometimes appeared in vast 
numbers even in Europe, and caused general scarcity and fa- 
mine. It is originally a native of Asiatic Tartary, but is occa- 
sionally found singly in Germany, which, however, has not 
suffered from its invasions since 1750*. It also exists in 
North America, unless, indeed, that be a distinct Species. It 
is a well ascertained fact, that in Arabia and North Africa they 
are used as food, now as well as in former times : and if some 
modern travellers have doubted the circumstance, it only af- 
fords an instructive instance of over-hasty scepticism. 
S. Stridulus.— G. thorace subcarinato, alis rubris extimo ni- 
gris nebulosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 21. fig. 1.) 
Mostly lives in wood. The male makes a loud rattling noise 
when flying. 
34. Fulgora f. Caput fronte producta, inani. Antennae 
infra oculos, articulis 2, exteriore globoso. Rostrum 
inflexum, pedes gressorii. 
The remarkable character of this Genus consists in the horny 
bladder on the forehead, which, in the following Species, dif- 
fuses a clear light during life, and some time after death. 
1. Laternaria. The Lanthorn-fly. Ger. der Laterntrager. Fr. 
la Porte-lanterne. — F. fronte ovali recta, alis lividis ■, pos- 
ticis ocellatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 28, 29.) 
The largest Species. The shining bladder is almost as large 
as the whole body, and gives such a clear light, that the natives 
of Guiana use them as lanthorns. 
2. Candelaria. The Chinese Lanthorn-fly. — F. fronte ros- 
trato-subulata adscendente, elytris viridibus luteo-macu- 
latis : alis flavis, apice nigris. 
* In addition to the usual sources, consult on the history of this Insect— 
Joel neu uhersetzt und erldutert von C. W. Justi., Leipzig, 1792. 8vo. and 
J. Bryant’s Observations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians. 
London, 1794. 8vo. 
f On this, and the four following Genera, consult Natuurlyhe slfbccMin- 
gen on Beschryvingen der Cicaden en IVantzen, door Casp. Stoll, Amster- 
dam 1780. 4to. — And J. C. Fabkicji, Systema Rhyngotorum. Brunsviga?. 
1803. 8vo. 

198 
OF INSECTS. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 39.) 
35. Cicada. Rostrum inHcxum. Antennae setaceae. Alae 
4 membranacae, deflexae. Pedes plerisque saltatorii. 
Ihe males make a sound like the Grasshopper, which they 
produce by means of certain complicated organs placed on the 
abdomen. It is remarkable that some species of ClavaricE (pa- 
rasitic fungi) grow in abundance on the Nymphae of the Ci- 
cadae, and also in the living body of their Larvae ; and in other 
Caterpillars, the Nymphae of Butterflies and others *. 
1. Orni. (Tettigonis 0. — F.) C. nigro-fiava, maculata, alis 
hyalinis, basi flavis maculis nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Heuschr. Tab. 25. fig. 1, 2.) 
In the South of Europe and North Africa, on some Species of 
Ash, whence they cause the exudation of manna by their punc- 
tures. Together with the C .plebeia. (Rosel. fig. 3.) is consi- 
dered to be the Cicada of the ancients f . 
2. Spumaria. (Cercopis S.— F.) The Froth- worm. — C. fusca 
elytris maculis binis albis lateralibus j fascia duplici in- 
terrupta albida. 
(Frisch, p. 8. Tab. 12.) 
Particularly abundant upon Willow-trees, the sap of which the 
Larva sucks in Spring, and expels in the form of froth, within 
which it often lies hid. ( Cuckoo's spittle, as it is called.) 
3. Lanata. (Lystra L. — F.) C. alis deflexis nigris; punctis 
ca3ruleis, fronte lateribusque rubris, ano lanato. 
(Stoll. Tab. 10. fig. 49. and D.) 
In the West Indies. — Has its name from the long snow-white 
floculi attached to the posterior part of the body, but melting- 
in water. It is probable that they may be the remains of pa- 
rasitic plants which grew in the Larva or Nympha of the 
animal, as already mentioned. 
36. Notonecta. Rostrum inflexum. Antennae thorace 
breviores. Alee 4 cruciato-complicatse, antice cori- 
aceae. Pedes posteriores pilosi natatorii. 
1. Glauca. — N. grisea elytris griseis margine fusco punctatis 
apice bifidis. 
* Fougeroux in Mem, del' Acad, des Sc. de Paris. 1769. — And Theod. 
Holiyiskiold beala ruris otia fungis Daniels impensa. Havn. 1790. fol. 
•f But the true Grecian Cicada which one of my pupils. Dr. Glarakes, 
sent me from Chios, and which differs from both the above, has, I find, 
been represented by Petiver only, in Gazophylac. Tab. 15. fig. 7. 

OF INSECTS. 
199 
(Frisch, p. 6. Tab. 13.) 
It mostly swims on its back, and in this position catches the 
guats, & c., on which it feeds, with great dexterity. 
37- Njepa. Water-scorpion. — Rostrum inflexum. Alae 
cruciato-complicatee, antice coriacese. Pedes ante- 
riores cheliformes ; reliqui 4 ambulatorii. 
1. Cinerea. — N. cinerea, thorace inaequali, corpore oblongo- 
ovato. 
(Frisch, p.7- Tab. 15.) 
The eggs of this animal are singularly shaped, with a hook at 
one end, like the seeds of the Corn-flower. 
2. Cimicoides, (Naucoris C. — F.) N. abdominis niargine 
serrato. 
(Frisch, p. 6. Tab. 14.) 
3. Plana. (Nepa rustica. F.) N. subfusca ; oculis nigris, alis 
albidis, dorso piano. 
A certain Species of Water-mite lays its eggs on the back of 
this Insect, which is a native of Tranquebar *. 
33. Cimex. Bug. Ger. Wanze. Fr. Punaise. — Rostrum in- 
flexum. Alse 4 cruciato- complicate, superioribus 
antice coriaceis. Dorsum planum thorace margi- 
nato. Pedes cursorii. 
1. Lectularius. (Acanthis lectularia. F.) The Bug. — C. fla- 
vescens, alis nullis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 10. fig. 69.) 
Little certain is known of the original habitation of this dis- 
gusting animal, which is now found in the houses of dirty 
or careless persons in every part of the world. Though easily 
introduced into a house, they may, by attention and the use of 
proper measures, be as easily expelled in the first instance, 
which, however, becomes more difficult if they have been al- 
lowed to establish themselves. 
Among the means commonly recommended, are olive oil or 
aqua fortis ; ox-gall and sulphate of iron, equal parts ■, or a 
decoction of the tops and bark of the larch ; or Spanish pepper, 
assafcetida and sulphur, each two drachms, for fumigation 
but above all, fumigation with oxymuriatic acid gas (chlorine.) 
Stoll. IV anven 2. D. Tab. 7. fig. 6 . A. — Swammerdam has made the 
?ame remark of the grey Water Scorpion of Europe. — Sec his Biblia 
Natures. T. 1 . p. 230. Tab. 3. fig. 4, 5. 

200 
OF INSECTS. 
The juice of lemons or vinegar, sprinkled on the bed-clothes, 
serves as a palliative. 
2. Corticalis. (Aradus C. — F.) C. membraneus, abdominis 
margine imbricatim secto, corpore nigricante. 
In woods on the trunks of trees : it is scarcely to be detected, 
on account of its deceptive bark -like colour and form. 
3. Baccarum. — C. ovatus griseus, abdominis margine nigro 
maculato. 
In gardens, particularly on currant bushes. It gives out an 
offensive smell, but only when touched ; this odour, as in 
many other Bugs, appearing to serve the purpose of defence. 
4. Personatus. (Reduvius P. — F.) C. rostro arcuato, anten- 
nis apice capillaceis, corpore oblongo subvilloso fusco. 
(Fkisch. p. 10. Tab. 20.) 
It always keeps in corners ; and the Larva covers itself with 
dust. 
39. Aphis. Plant-louse. Ger. Blattlaus. Ft. Puceron. 
Rostrum inflexum. Antennae thorace longiores. Alae 
4 erectae aut nullae. Pedes ambulatorii. Abdomen 
postice saepius bicorne. 
Aphides are often found with and without wings in the same 
Species, nay in the same family, and that without any relation 
to difference of the sexes. The males are smaller than the 
females, and a much greater proportion of them are young : 
they do not appear sooner than in the last generation of every 
Summer ; and in most Species only at the end of it, and for a 
short time. They then impregnate the females, which soon 
after lay eggs, or rather shells, containing the young Aphides 
fully formed ; which, however, are not hatched until the suc- 
ceeding Spring. All these newly hatched Aphides are females, 
and no male appears until the last generation of the Summer, 
as already stated. Notwithstanding this, all the females are 
capable of producing without copulation : so that it seems as 
though a single copulation in Autumn exerts a fecundating in- 
fluence over many, even nine, successive generations of the 
following Spring and Summer. 
1. Ribis. A. ribis rubri- 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. 14.) 
2. Ulmi. A. ulmi campestris. 
3. Sambuci. A. sambuci nigrae. 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. IS.) 

OF INSECTS. 
201 
4. Rosa. A. ro see. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 2. fig. 79-) 
5. Bursaria. A. populi nigrae. 
(Swammerdam Bihlia Natures. Tab. 45. fig. 22.) 
On the black poplar, where it causes remarkable excrescences. 
6. Pistaciee. — A. nigra, alis albidis, tibiis longissimis, thorace 
verrucoso. 
On the Pistacia, Mastiche, and Turpentine trees, where they 
envelope themselves in a pod-like cocoon, a span long. 
40. Chermes. Rostrum pectorale. Antennae thorace 
longiores. Alae 4 deflexa. Thorax gibbus, pedes 
saltatorii. 
They resemble the winged Aphides in form. The Larvae are 
very similar to the Cicadae, and leap in the same manner. 
1. Buxi. C. buxi. 
2. Alni. C. betulae alni. 
(Frisch, p. 8. Tab. 13.) 
41. Coccus. Rostrum pectorale. Abdomen postice se- 
tosum. Alae 2 erectae masculis. Feminae apteroe. 
In no other animals are the sexes so strikingly dissimilar. 
The male is like a little gnat ; the female, on the contrary, is 
without wings, and after having changed her skin, sits nearly 
motionless, so that in some Species she might be taken for a 
cicatrix on the plant, rather than a living animal. The male 
flits about until such time as he seeks out and impregnates 
one of these sedentary females. 
1 . Hesperidum. C. hybernaculorum. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 12. fig. 81.) 
The female is found chiefly on the under surface of the leaf of 
orange trees. 
2. Adonidum. C. rufa farinacea pilosa. 
As well as the former, in hot-houses, and particularly on the 
coffee-tree. It may be destroyed by sprinkling the plants with 
flowers of sulphur. 
3. Ilicis. The Kermes. — C. quercus cocciferae. 
In the South of Europe, particularly Greece, Provence, on the 
Holly. Carmine is prepared by sprinkling vinegar on the berry 
or gall-shaped nests of this animal’s egg s. 
4. Polonicus. C. radicis scleranthi perennis. 
(Frisch, p. 5. Tab. 2.) 
Makes similar nests for its eggs on the roots of various plants. 

202 
OF INSECTS. 
It is very abundant in Poland and on the Don, and is collected 
to be employed as a dye. 
5. Cacti. The Cochineal Insect. Ger. der Sharlachwurm. 
Fr. la Cochenille. — C. cacti coccinelliferi. 
(Ellis, in Phil. Trans. Vol. LII. p. 2.) 
Originally in Mexico : It is found on several Species of Cactus, 
planted for the purpose, on which the Cochineal-worms are 
reared like Silk-worms, and collected three times in the year. 
6. Lacca. The Lac-Insect. — C. ficus indicae et religiosae. 
(Dr. Roxburgh, in Voigt’s Magazine, Vol. VIII. p. 4. Tab. 1 .) 
Chiefly in the hilly parts of Hindostan, on both sides of the 
Ganges. It produces the Gum-lac. A white wax-like kind of 
lac has been lately found near Madras, the specimens of which, 
in my possession, consist of single cells resembling coffee- 
berries in size and shape ; it may prove very valuable in India, 
where bees-wax is scarce. 
42. Thrips. Rostrum obscurum. Antennae longitudine 
thoracis. Abdomen sursum reflexile. Alae 4 rectae, 
dorso incumbentes, longitudinales, angustae, sub- 
cruciatae. 
Exceedingly small Insects, which keep together in the flowers 
of many plants, and are chiefly remarkable for their number 
and the agility with which they leap and fly. 
I. Physapus. — T. elytris glaucis, corpore atro. 
( De Geer, in Schwed. Abhandl. 1744. Tab. 4. fig. 4.) 
In corn, the flowers of beans and other plants. 
III. LEPIDOPTERA. ( Glossata. Fabr*.) 
Butterflies, an extensive Order, distinguished by having ex- 
panded wings, covered with coloured scales, and hairy bodies. 
As Caterpillars they have jaws, twelve eyes on the head, an 
* On the history of this Order consult ; E. J. C. Esper’s Schmetterlinge. 
Erlangen. 1776. gr. 4to. 
J. Hubner’s Schmetterlinge in Ahbildungen. Augsb. 4to. Systematische 
Beschreibung der Europaischen Schmetterlinge. I Th. Rostock. 1785. 8vo. 
M. B. Borkiiausen’s N. G. der Europaischen Schmetterlinge. Frkft. 
1788. 8vo. 
p Ochsenheimer’s Schmetterlinge von Europa. Dresd. seil. 1817. 8vo. 
Denis und Schiffermuller, Systematisches V erzeichniss der Schmet- 
terlinge der fViener Gegend. Wien. 1776. gr. 4to.-2tc. verm. Ausg. von 
Illiger and Hafeli. Braunschw. 1800. 2. B. 8vo. 

OF INSECTS. 203 
extended body in twelve segments, with nine spiracles on each 
side, three pair of hook-shaped claws on the thorax, and com- 
monly five pair of round fleshy legs on the abdomen. The 
Caterpillar changes in different ways, becomes a Pupa, which 
is generally incapable of motion, some few inconsiderable 
Species excepted. After a certain time this Pupa or Chrysalis 
changes into the Butterfly, which has mostly long Antennae ; 
but three pair of feet ■, a spirally rolled tongue (as it is called,) 
in place ot jaws ; and instead of twelve small eyes, two large 
semicircular and three small ones. (§ 126.) Linnaeus, has 
arranged all the very numerous Species in three Genera. 
43. Papilio. Butterfly. Ger. Tagvogel. Fr. Papillon. 
Antennae apicem versus crassiores, saepius clavato- 
capitatae. Alae erectae sursumque conniventes. 
The Caterpillar is generally beset with prickles, and undergoes 
tour different changes of skin. It changes into a Pupa without 
making any external web j the Pupa is dentated, often of a 
beautiful gold colour, (chrysalis, aurelia,) and suspends itself 
by its posterior extremity. The Butterfly flies only in the 
day-time, and when sitting, elevates its four expanded wings, 
with the upper surfaces, which in many instances differ ma- 
terially in their colour and marks from the under ones, turned 
toward each other. 
For the sake of convenience Linnaeus has subdivided the 
whole Genus into five families ( phalanges .) 
Ca.) Equites. Alis primoribus ab angulo postico ad apicem 
longionbus, quam ad basin ; his saepe antennae filiformes. 
Trees, ad pectus maculis sanguineis, (saepius nigri.) 
Achivi, pectore incruento, ocello ad angulum ani. 
f .) Heliconii. Alis angustis integerrimis, saepe denudatis: 
primoribus oblongis, posticis brevissimis. 
( z .) Daxaii. Alis integerremis. 
Candidi, alis albiclis. 
Festivi, alis variegatis. 
Chr. Sepp, Nederlandsche Insecten. Amst. scit. 1762. 4to. 
C. Clerck, Incones Insectorum Rariorum. Holm. 1759. 2 Vols. 4to. 
, Cramer, Nithlandisclie Rappellen. Amst. 1775. 4to. 
coleJT^s ,°l "" tVUVtinm /meets of Georgia, 
Vot *> E. London, 171.7 2 
Jon. Mader’s Raupencalender 
Ed. 2. Nurnb. 1785. 8vo. 
Herausgegeben von C. F. C. Klee.man. 

204 
OF INSECTS. 
(d.) Nympiiales. Alis dcnticulatis. 
Gemmati, alis ocellatis. 
Phalerati, alis coecis absque ocellis. 
(e.J Plebeii. Parvi. Larva saepius contracta. 
Rurales, alis maculis obscurioribus. 
Urbicolcc, alis maculis pellucidis. 
1. Priamus. P. E. T. alis denticulatis tomentosis supra viri- 
dibus, institis atris, posticis maculis sex nigris. 
(Clerck. Tab. 17-) 
In Amboina. Is a large splendid animal, as is also the fol- 
lowing : — 
2. Ulysses. P. E. A. alis caudatis fuscis, disco caeruleo splen- 
dente dentato. Posticis subtus ocellis septem. 
(Clerck. Tab. 23. fig. 1.) 
Also in the East Indies. 
3. Machaon. P. E. A. alis caudatis concoloribus flavis, limbo 
fusco, lunulis flavis, angulo ani fulvo. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 1.) 
4. Podalirius. P. E. A. alis caudatis subconcoloribus flaves- 
centibus : fasciis nigricantibus geminatis : posticis subtus 
linea aurantia. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 2.) 
5. Apollo. P. H. alis oblongis integerrimis albis : posticis 
ocellis supra 4 : subtus 6, basique rubris. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 13. fig. 41.) 
In the warmer parts of Europe. 
6. Cratcegi. P. H. alis integerrimis rotundatis albis : venis 
nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 3.) 
The Caterpillar is one of the most injurious to fruit trees. The 
young ones keep together in a cocoon. 
7. Brassicce. P. D. C. alis integerrimis rotundatis albis ; 
primoribus maculis duabus apicibusque nigris major. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 4.) 
With the two following, on cabbages and turnips. 
8. Rapa. P. D. C. alis integerrimis rotundatis : primoribus 
maculis duabus apicibusque nigris, minor. 
(Rosee. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 45.) 
9. Napi. P. D. C. alis integerrimis rotundatis albis subtus 
venis dilatato-virescentibus. 

OF INSECTS. 
205 
10. Cardamines, P. D. C. ulis integerrimis rotundatis albis, 
primoribus raedio fulvis, posticis subtus viridi-nebulosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 8.) 
11. Rhamni. P. D. C. alis integerrimis angulatis flavis : sin- 
gulis puncto flavo, subtus ferrugineo. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 46.) 
12. Hyperantus. P. JD. F. alis integerrimis fuscis, subtus 
primoribus ocellis tribus : posticis duobus tribusque. 
13. Io . P. N. G. alis angulato-dentatis fulvis nigro-macula- 
tis : singulis subtus ocello cseruleo. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 3.) 
The Pupa appears as though gilt. 
14. Galatea. P. N. G. alis dentatis albis nigroque variis, 
subtus primoribus ocello unico, posticis quinque obso- 
lete. 
(R6sel. Vol. III. Tab. 37-) 
15. Cardui. P. N. G. alis dentatis fulvis albo nigroque va- 
riegatis, posticis utrinque ocellis quatuor, saepius coecis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Togvogel. 1. Tab. 10.) 
The Pupa glittering like gold. Very numerous in certain years. 
16. Iris . P. N. G. alis subdentatis subtus griseis ; fascia 
utrinque alba interrupta, posticis supra uniocellatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 42.) 
17- Antiopa. P. N. P. alis angulatis nigris limbo albido. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 1. Tab. 1.) 
18. Polychloros. P. N. P. alis angulatis fulvis nigro macula- 
tis ; primoribus supra punctis quatuor nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 2.) 
The Caterpillar gives out a musky smell. 
19. Urtica. P. N. P. alis angulatis fulvis nigro- mac ulatis : 
primoribus supra punctis tribus nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 1. Tab. 4.) 
20. C. album. P. N. P. alis angulatis fulvis nigro maculatis, 
posticis subtus C. albo notatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 1. Tab. 5.) 
21. Atalanta. P. N. P. alis dentatis nigris albo maculatis : 
fascia communi purpurea, primoribus utrinque, posticis 
marginali. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 1. Tab. 6.) 
One of the most beautiful Butterflies of Europe. 
22. Paphia. P. N. P. alis dentatis luteis nigro-maeulatis 3 
subtus lineis argentis transvcrsis. 

206 
OF INSECTS. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvligel. 1. Tab. 7-) 
A very beautiful animal of middling size. 
23. Aglaia. P. N. P. alis dentatis flavis nigro maculatis : 
subtus maculis 21 argenteis. 
24. Prum. P. P. R. alis subcaudatis supra fuscis ; posticis 
subtus fascia marginali fulva nigro-punctata. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 7.) 
On plumb trees. 
25. Argus. P. P. R. alis ecaudatis caeruleis : posticis subtus 
limbo ferrugineo : ocellis caeruleo-argenteis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 37-) 
26 Malvce. P. P. U. alis denticulatis divaricatis nigris albo- 
maculatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. 1. Tagvogel. 2. Tab. 10.) 
44. Sphinx. Hawk-moth. Ger. Abendvogel. Antennae 
medio crassiores, sive utraque extremitate atte- 
nuate, sub-prismaticae. Alae deflexae. 
The Caterpillars in this Genus have mostly splendid colours 
and a hook-shaped horn at the end of the back, the remains of 
which are visible in the Pupa. The change into a Chrysalis 
takes place under ground and without a cocoon. These Moths 
mostly fly in the dusk of evening, and slowly and heavily. 
Linnaeus has divided the whole Genus, which, however, is not 
very extensive, in the following manner : 
(a.) Legitime. Alis angulatis. 
Alis integris, ano simplici. 
Alis integris, ano barbato. 
( b .) Adscitve — habitu et larva divers®. 
1. Ocellata. S. L. alis repandis : posticis ocellatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 1.) 
2. Nerii. S. L. alis subangulatis viridibus : fasciis variis 
pallidioribus saturatioribus flavescentibusque. 
(Rosel. Vol III. Tab. 16.) 
3. Convolvuli. S. L. alis integris : posticis nigro fasciatis 
margine postico albo-punctatis, abdomine rubro cingulis 
atris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 7.) 
4. Ligustri. S. L. alis integris : posticis incarnatis fasciis 
nigris, abdomine rubro cingulis nigris. 
5. Atropos. S. L. alis integris : posticis luteis fasciis fuscis, 
abdomine luteo cingulis nigris. 

OF INSECTS. 
207 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 2.) 
A most injurious animal for Bee-hives. The Caterpillar lives 
on the Jasmine, Potatoe, See. 
6. Celerio. S. L. alis integris griseis lineola albo-nigra j 
inferioribus basi rubris muaculis sex. 
(Rosel. Vol. IV. Tab. 8.) 
7. Elpenor. S. L. alis integris virescentibus, fasciis purpu- 
reis variis, posticis rubris basi atris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. ] , Tab. 4.) 
S. Porcellus. S. L. alis integris margine rubris ; posticis 
basi fuscis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 5.) 
9. Euphorbice. S. L. alis integris fuscis, vitta superioribus 
pallida, inferioribus rubra. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 3.) 
10. Pinastri. S. L. alis integris canis, margine postico albo 
maculato, abdomine fusco cingulis albis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 6.) 
In pine forests, where the Caterpillar, which lives on the sum- 
mits of the trees, often commits great ravages. 
11. Stellatarum. (Sesia Stell. — Fab.) S. L. abdomine barbato 
lateribus albo nigroque variis, alis posticis ferrugineis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 1. Tab. 8.) 
12. FilipendulcE. (Zygaena F. — Fab.) S. A. alis superidribus 
cyaneis : punctis sex rubris : inferioribus rubris imma- 
culatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 62.) 
13. Phegea. (Zygaena guercus. F.) S. A. viridi-atra, alis 
punctis fenestratis : superiorum sex, inferiorum duobus, 
abdomine cingulo luteo. 
45. PhaljSbna. Moth. Ger. Nachtvogel-Antennae setaceae, 
a basi ad apicem sensim attenuate. Alae sedentis 
saepius deflexae. 
The most extensive Genus among Insects. The Caterpillars 
are mostly hairy. Ihey generally change into Pupae within a 
silky cocoon, which they prepare from a tenacious fluid con- 
tained in two pouches placed along the back, beneath the 
stomach. This fluid they spin into very fine threads, by means 
of a particular tube placed behind the mouth *. These con- 
* Lyoset Traitc Analomique. Tab. 2. fig. 8, 9, 10. 
p. 1 J 1 .—and Tab. 14. fig. 10, 1 1 . p. 498. 
p. 54. — Tab. 5. fig. 1. 

208 
OF INSECTS. 
structions are remarkable in some instances, for their very ar- 
tificial formation, and in others, as the Silk-worms, for their 
great utility. Linnajus has subdivided the Plialamas into the 
following families : — 
(a.) Attaci — alis patulis inclinatis. 
Pectiniformes. 
Seticornes , 
(b.J Bombyces— alis incumbentibus ; antennis pectinatis. 
Elingues, absque lingua manifeste spirali. 
Spirilingues, lingua involuto-spirali. 
(c.) Noctuaj — alis incumbentibus. Antennis setaceis, nec- 
pectinatis. 
Elingues. 
Spirilingues. 
(d.) Geometry — alis patentibus horizontalibus quiescentes. 
Pectinicornes. 
Seticornes. 
(e.) Tortrices — alis obtusissimis, ut fere retusis, margine 
exteriore curvo. 
(f. ) Pyralides — alis conniventibus in figuram deltoideam 
forficatam. 
(g.) Tineas— alis convolutis, fere in cylindrum, fronte pro- 
minula. 
fh) Alucit^: — alis digitatis fissis ad basin usque. 
/ 
1. Atlas. (Bombyx A. — F.) P. Att. pectinicornis elinguis, 
alis falcatis concoloribus luteo-variis, macula fenestrata, 
superioribus sesquialtera, 
(Merian^e Surinam. Tab. 32.) 
In both Indies. The wings are larger than those of a common 
Bat, but the body remarkably small. The wild Silk, as it is 
called, is obtained in China from the cocoons of this and other 
large Phalsenae. 
2. Pavonia. (Bombyx R. — F.) P. Att. pectinicornis elin- 
guis, alis rotundatis griseo-nebulosis subfasciatis : ocello 
nictitante subfenestrato. 
(Rosel. Vol. I, Naehtvogel. 2. Tab. 4, 5.) 
The cocoon has the shape of a round flask, with a neck appa- 
rently open ; but with the entrance defended internally in a 
very artificial manner by elastic converging prickles connected 
into a projecting point, so that the Insect, when full grown, 
can easily creep out, but no enemy enter at this way. 

OF INSECTS. 
209 
M. Heeger, of Berchtolsdorf, near Vienna, has lately endea- 
voured to employ the cocoons of a smaller Species of this name, 
(Ph. pavonia minor or Bombyx carpini ) for the purpose of ma- 
nufacture on a large scale. 
3. Quercifolia. (Bombyx Q. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis rever- 
ses semitectis dentatis ferrugineis margine postico nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 41.) 
When sitting, this Phalsena has a remarkable hump-backed 
appearance. 
4. Pini. (Bombyx P. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis reversis gri- 
seis j strigis duabus cinereis ; puncto albo triangulari. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 59.) 
The Caterpillar, one of the most injurious to pine forests. 
5. Vinula. (Bombyx V. — F.) P. B. elinguis albida nigro- 
punctata, alis subreversis fusco venosis striatisque. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 19.) 
The Caterpillar has a remarkable appearance on acoount of its 
short, thick head, and the two prickles at the tail which it 
possesses instead of the hindermost pair of feet. In case of 
necessity it can defend itself by ejecting an acrid fluid from an 
opening on the under part of the neck * 
6. Fagi. (Bombyx F. — F.) P. B. elinguis alis reversis rufo- 
cinereis: fasciis duabus linearibus luteis flexuosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 12.) 
This Caterpillar is also very strangely shaped, with long front 
legs, two horny prickles on the tail, &c. 
7- Mori. (Bombyx. M. — F.) The Silkworm. P. B. elinguis, 
alis reversis pallidis j striis tribus obsoletis fuscis macu- 
laque lunari. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 7, 8.— J. L’ Admiral. Tab. 9.) 
The Assyrian Bombyx of Pliny was doubtless our Silk ; but it 
was then only known in the manufactured state, the Worm 
having been first brought to Europe in the time of Justinian. 
It remains in the Caterpillar state six or seven weeks, during 
which period it changes its skin four times, and then surrounds 
itself with a cocoon of a white or yellow colour, which, when 
it weighs two grains and a half, consists of a thread 900 feet 
long, 180 of which, when placed close together, are only one 
line in thickness : lastly, at the end of three weeks it makes its 
escape from the cocoon as a Moth. After impregnation, the 
female is very bulky, and lays about 500 eggs, which are 
* Sf.pp, Nederl. Imecten. 4. St. 5. Verhandl. S. 25. Tab. 5. 
V 

210 
OF INSECTS. 
hatched in the following Spring, about the time that the white 
Mulberry comes into leaf. The Insect is originally a native ol 
China, but thrives well in our climate, and also in North Ame- 
rica. The Silk from which very delicate, light, and yet firm, 
fabrics are made in Japan, is procured from a distinct Species — 
Phalsena (noctua) serici. See Thunberg in the Swedish Transact. 
1781. Vol. II. Tab. 5. fig. 1, 2. 
8. Neustria. (Bombyx N. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis reversis : 
fascia sesquialtera ; subtus unica. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 6.) 
With the following, the Caterpillar is very injurious. The 
Phalsena lays its eggs in a spiral manner about the twigs of 
trees • 
9. Pityocampa. (Bombyx P.— F.) P. B. elinguis, alis gri- 
seis : strigis tribus obscurioribus, posterioribus pallidis ; 
puncto anali fusco. 
Does much mischief in pine forests. 
10. Caia. (Bombyx C. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis deflexis fus- 
cis : rivulis albis, inferioribus purpureis nigro punctatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 1.) 
11. Monacha. (Bombyx M. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis de- 
flexis, superioribus albis atro-undatis, abdominis inci- 
suris sanguineis. 
(Jorden’s Geschichte der Kleinen Fichtenraupe. fig. 17-19) 
Also a most formidable animal to pine forests. 
12. Dispar. (Bombyx D. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis deflexis : 
masculis griseo fuscoque nebulosis : femineis albidis 
lituris nigris. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 3.) 
Is named from the dissimilar form and size of the two sexes. 
13. Chrysorhcea. (Bombyx Ch . — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis de- 
flexis albidis, abdominis apice barbato luteo. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 22.) 
One of the most destructive Caterpillars to fruit trees. It is 
hatched in Autumn, and passes the Winter in society, among dry 
leaves, fastened by a web to twigs of trees, without suffering 
from the severest cold. . 
14. Antiqua. (Bombyx A. — F.) P. B. elinguis, alis plamus- 
culis : superioribus ferrugineis lunula alba anguli postici. 
(Rosel. Vol. 1. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 39 ) 
The female without wings. 
15. Cceruleocephala. (Bombyx C.-F.) P. B. elinguis cr.stata, 
alis deflexis griseis : stigmatibus albidis coadunatis. 

OF INSECTS. 
21 1 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 16.) 
Also injurious to fruit trees. 
16. Cossus. (Cossus ligniperda.F.) P. B. elinguis, alis deflexis 
nebulosis, thorace postice fascia atra, antennis lamellatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 2. Tab. 18.) 
The Caterpillar, the anatomy of which Lyonet has so ably 
displayed. It lives on the elm, oak, &c., but principally on 
the willow, which it perforates in such a way, as to cause the 
trees to perish or fall with a moderate wind. The injury it 
produces is increased by its existing as a Caterpillar three 
years previous to changing into the Pupa state, a circumstance 
probably unexampled. It is so tenacious of life, that it will 
remain in an artificial vacuum for hours together without being 
injured, and under water for almost three weeks in the middle 
of Summer. It is remarkable also, that the Pupa has the 
power of locomotion, and when the time of its change ap- 
proaches, can bore its way from the middle of the tree to the 
bark. 
17- Graminis. (Cossus Gr . — Fab.) P. B. spirilinguis, alis de- 
pressis griseis : linea trifurca, punctoque albidis. 
( Schwed . Abhandl. 1742. Tab. 2.) 
18. JEsculi. (Cossus AS. Fab.) P. N. elinguis leevis nivea, 
antennis thorace brevioribus, alis punctis numerosis 
caeruleo-nigris, thorace senis. 
19. Humuli. (Hepialus H. — Fab.) P. N. elinguis fulva, an- 
tennis thorace brevioribus, maris alis niveis. 
20. Facta. (Noctua P F.) P. N. spirilinguis cristata, alis 
grisescentibus, inferioribus rubris, fasciis duabus nigris, 
abdomine supra rubro. 
21. Meticulosa. (Noctua M. — F.) P. N. spirilinguis cristata, 
alis erosis pallidis : superioribus basi incarnata, intra 
triangulum fuscum. 
On all kinds of garden-plants ; also on strawberries. 
22. Piniaria. P. G. pectinicornis, alis fuscis flavo-maculatis 
subtus nebulosis : fasciis duabus fuscis. 
Another Insect injurious to pine forests. 
23. Wavaria. P. G. pectinicornis, alis cinereis : antjcis fas- 
ciis 4 nigris abbreviatis insequalibus. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 3. Tab. 4.) 
Together with the following, on currant and gooseberry bushes. 
24. Grossulariata. P. G. seticornis, alis albidis maculis ro- 
tundatis nigris : anticis strigis luteis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 3. Tab. 2.) 

212 
OF INSECTS. 
25. Brumata. — P. G. seticornis, alis griseo-fuscis : striga 
nigra postice pallidioribus ; femina aptera. 
(Reaumur. T. 2. Tab. 30.) 
One of the most noxious Insects to fruit-trees : the female is 
without Avings, and lays her eggs in the flower buds. 
26. Viridana. (Pyralis V. — F.) P. Ti. alis rhombeis, superiori- 
bus viridibus immaculatis. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 4. Tab. 3.) 
27. Farinalis. (Pyralis F. — F.) P. P. palpis recurvatis, alis 
politis fuscescentibus : strigis repandis albidis area in- 
terjecta glauca. 
(Clerck. Phal. Tab. 2. fig. 14.) 
In flour. 
28. Hercyniana. — P. P. alis superioribus fuscis, fascia et ma- 
culis niveis subintearuptis ; posticis cinereis. 
(J. v. Uslar Pyralis Hercyniana. figs. a. b. c.) 
In pine forests, on the needle-like leaves. 
22. Pinetella. (Crambus pineti. — F.) P. Ti. alis superioribus 
flavis, maculis duabus argenteis, anteriore oblonga, pos- 
teriore ovata. 
(Clerck. Phal. Tab. 4. fig. 15.) 
Another Insect of pine-forests. 
30. Pellionella. (Tinea P. — F.) P. Ti. alis canis, medio 
puncto nigro, capite subgriseo. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. NachtvSgel , 4. Tab. 17-) 
In furs, stuffed animals, &c. 
31. Sarcitella. (Tinea S. — F.) P. Ti. alis cinereis, thorace 
utrinque puncto albo. 
Principally in woollen cloths. 
32. Mellonella. (Tinea M.— F.) P- Ti. alis canis postice pur- 
purascentibus, striga alba, scutello nigro, apice candido. 
(Rosel. Vol. Ill- Tab. 41.) 
A most dangerous enemy to Bees. 
33. Granella. (Alucita G.— F.) P- Ti. alis albo nigroque ma- 
culatis capite albo. 
(Rosel. Vol. I. Nachtvogel. 4. Tab. 11.) 
In granaries, where it soon betrays itself by gnawing the 
grain, and stripping it of the husk. .. 
34 Gcedartella. (Tinea G.-F.) P. Ti. alis auratis : fascns 
2 argenteis : priore antrorsum, posterior retrorsum ar- 
cuata. 
(Clerck. Phal. Tab. 12. fig. 14.) 

OF INSECTS. 213 
35. Lineella. (Tinea L. — F.) P. Ti. alis fuscis, punctis tribus 
argenteis elevatis. 
(Clerck. Phal. Tab. 11. fig. 8.) 
36. Pentadactyla. (Pterophorus pentadactylus. — F.) P. Al. 
alis patentibus fissis quinquepartitis niveis : digito 
quinto distincto. 
It, as well as the other Moths of this Family, has an extraordi- 
nary appearance from the remarkable divisions of the wings. 
IV. NEUROPTERA. 
A small Order, the animals in which are distinguished by 
having four net-like or trelliced wings, which generally glitter 
with colours of every kind. — The Larvae have six feet. 
46. Libellula. Dragon-fly. Ger. Wasserjungfer. Fr. De- 
moiselle. — Os maxillosum, maxillis pluribus. An- 
tennae thorace breviores. Alee extensse. Cauda 
maris hamoso-forcipata. 
The Larvae live in water, and have a very moveable mask or 
cap before the mouth, with which they seize their prey. The 
full-grown Insects copulate when flying, and in a very singular 
manner. 
1. Depressa. L. alis omnibus basi nigricantibus, thorace 
lineis duabus flavis, abdomine lanceolato lateribus flaves- 
cente. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Wasser-Ins. 2. Tab. 6, 7. fig. 3.) 
Occasionally appears in great crowds, as in Thuringia and the 
Harz, in the years 1806 and 1807*. 
2. Virgo. (Agrion V. — F.) L. alis erectis coloratis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Wasser-Ins. 2. Tab. 9.) 
3. Puella. (Agrion P. — F.) L. alis erectis hyalinis. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Wasser-Ins. 2. Tab. 10, 11.) 
47- Ephemera. Day-fly. Ger. Uferaas. — Os edentulum 
jabsque palpis. Ocelli 2 maximi supra oculos. Alae 
erectae, posticis minimis. Cauda setosa. 
They live in water some years as Larvae. After that time, in 
many places, millions of the perfectly formed Insects make 
their appearance from the water within a few days in the 
middle of Summer j they then also, contrary to what happens 
to other Insects, cast their skin again. In general, they live 
but a very short time in their perfect state, often only for a 
few hours. 
Voigt’s Neues Magazin. B. 12. S. 521. 

2H 
OF INSECTS. 
1. Vulgata . — E. cauda triseta, alis nebuloso-maculatis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 17. fig. 103. — P. Collinsox in Phil. 
Trans. No. 481. Tab. 2. fig. 2, 3, 4.) 
The female lays an oval ball composed of numerous minute 
eggs. 
2. Horaria. E. cauda biseta, alis albis margine crassiore 
nigricantibus. 
(Swammerdam. Bibl. Nat. Tab. 13. fig. 13.) 
48. Piiryganea. Caddice. Water-moth. Ger. Friihlings- 
fliege. — Os edentulum palpis 4. Ocelli 3. Antennae 
thorace longiores. Alae incumbentes, infer ioribus 
plicatis. 
The Larvae live in water, and are remarkable for the very in- 
genious shell or hull, mostly cylindrical or quadrangular, 
which they construct and carry about with them like snails. 
Some compose these houses of portions of rushes, others of 
grass, sand, of little stones, of fresh-water shells, and so forth. 
1. Bicaudata. (Semblis B. — F.) P. cauda biseta, alis venosis 
reticulatis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 17- fig. 6.) 
2. Striata. P. nigra, alis testaceis, nervoso-striatis. 
(Frisch, p. 13. Tab. 3.) 
3. Rhombica. P. alis flavescentibus deflexo-compressis ma- 
cula rhombea laterali alba. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Wasser-Ins. 2. Tab. 16.) 
49. Hemerobius. dentibus 2 : palpis 4. Ocelli nulli. 
Alae deflexae (nec plicatae) antennae thorace convexo 
longiores, setaceae porrectae. 
The Larva lives on shore. The perfect Insect resembles the 
last. 
1. Perla. FI. luteo-viridis, alis liyalinis : vasis viridibus. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 21. fig. 4, 5.) 
It fastens its eggs in a very curious way to the leaves of trees, 
moss, &c, by means of a little upright, bristle-like point. 
(Reaumur. T. 3. Tab. 33.) 
2. Pulsatorius. (Psocus P. — F.) H. apterus, ore rubro ocu- 
lis luteis. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 29. fig. 3.) 
In books, old paper, and also wood. It was formerly sup- 
posed to be always without wings. At any rate, individuals 
with wings are seen so seldom, that it is probable they possess 
them only for a very short time. (§ 136.) 

OF INSECTS. 
215 
50. Myrmeleon. Os maxillosum ; dentibus 2. Palpi 4 
elongati. Ocelli nulli. Cauda maris forcipe e fila- 
mentis duobus rectiusculis. Antennae clavatae longi- 
tudine thoracis. Alae deflexae. 
1. Formicarius. Ant-lion. Ger. der Ameisenlowe. Fr. le 
Founnilion. — M. alis macula alba marginali postica. 
(Rosee. Vol. III. Tab. 17-) 
The celebrated animal which, when in its larva state, digs a 
funnel-shaped pit in the sand and covers itself up to the neck* 
laying wait for and destroying the Ants and other small In- 
sects, which not perceiving it, come to the edge of the pit, 
and slip in over the loose sand. 
51. Panorpa. Rostrum corneum cylindricum. Palpi 2. 
Ocelli 3. Antennae thorace longiores. Cauda maris 
chelata. 
1. Covimimis, P. alis aequalibus nigro-maculatis. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 14. fig. 1.) 
52. Raphidia. Os dentibus 2 in capite depresso corneo. 
Palpi 4. Ocelli 3. Alee deflexae. Antennae longitu- 
dine thorace antice elongati cylindrici. Cauda fe- 
minae seta recurva laxa. 
I. Ophiopsis. R. thorace cylindrico. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 21. fig. 6, 7-) 
V, HYMENOPTERA. (Piezata. Fab.) 
Insects with four membranous wings marked with strong but 
few vessels, and generally shorter and smaller than in the In- 
sects of the foregoing Orders. In most, the females and those 
without sex are armed with a sting at the anus, and occasion- 
ally with venom, which they infuse into the puncture : hence 
the whole Order has by some Entomologists been called Acu- 
leata. The Larvae are of various forms, sometimes as Cater- 
pillars with twenty feet, at others as Maggots without any * 
53. Cynips. Os maxillis absque proboscide. Aculeus 
spiralis, saepius reconditus. 
The female lays her eggs in particular parts of certain plants, 
which consequently swell, and form remarkable excrescences, 
* J. C. Fabricm, Systema Piezatorum. Brunsvigae, 1804. 8vo. 
J. Jcrine, Nouvelle Metliode de Classer les Hymenoptcres. Gcn£v. 1801. 
4 to. 

21G 
OF INSECTS. 
serving for the abode of the Larva until such time as it has 
completed its changes, and is in a state to issue from its pri- 
son. It is also singular that each egg grows in size after it 
has been deposited in the plant, and sometimes doubles its 
size before the Larva makes its issue from it. 
1. Rosa;. C. nigra, abdomine ferrugineo postice nigro, pedi- 
bus ferrugineis. 
(Frisch, p. G. Tab. 1.) 
On the wild rose, where it causes the mossy, woolly excre- 
scences that were formerly officinal under the name of Spongia 
cynosbati. 
2. Quercus folii. C. nigra, thorace lineato, pedibus griseis, 
femoribus subtus nigris. 
(Frisch, p. 2. Tab. 3. fig. 5.) 
On oak leaves, where it causes the well known oak apples, 
which after they have been abandoned by the progeny of the 
original constructor, often become the residence of various 
kinds of small Wasps. 
3. Pscenes. C. ficus Caricae. 
Particularly in the Islands of the Mediterranean, on the wild 
fig, which is therefore suspended over the cultivated one, that 
the Insect may pass to the latter, by which the size is increased 
and the ripening accelerated. 
54. Tenthredo. Os maxillis absque proboscide. Alae 
planse tumidae. Aculeis laminis duabus serratis, vix 
prominentibus. Scutellum granis duobus impositis 
distantibus. 
The Larva has the form of a Caterpillar, (thence called by 
Reaumur fausse chenille,) and lives on the leaves principally 
of rose bushes and willows ; but changes to a Chrysalis under 
ground. 
1. Lutea. (Cimbex. L. — F.) T. antennis clavatis luteis, ab- 
dominis segmentis plerisque flavis. 
(Frisch, p. 4. Tab. 24.) 
2. Caprece. T. salicis. 
(Frisch, p. 6. Tab. 4.) 
55. Sirex. Os maxillis 2 validis. Palpi 2 truncati : An- 
tennae filiformes, articulis ultra 24. Aculeus exser- 
tus rigens serratus. Abdomen sessile mucronatum. 
Alae lanceolatae, planse omnibus. 
The female is very dexterous in perforating soft wood with her 

OF INSECTS. 217 
saw-shaped sting, in order to lay her eggs there : the Larva 
remains in wood for some years *. 
1. Gigas. — S. abdomine ferrugineo : segmentis nigris, tho- 
race villoso. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Humm . und Wesp. Tab. 9.) 
56. Ichneumon. Os maxillis absque lingua. Antennae 
articulis ultra 30. Abdomen petiolatum plerisque. 
Aculeus exsertus vagina cylindrica, bivalvi. 
Very numerous animals, which contribute materially to the 
destruction of Caterpillars, Spiders, and other Insects. They 
lay their eggs in living Caterpillars, which, consequently, be- 
come diseased, and die either before or after their change into 
Pupae. Many, also, are confined to other Species of their own 
Genus, in whose bodies they lay their eggs, so that, as Rolan- 
der has remarked of certain Species, some appear to be crea- 
ted solely for the destruction of others. 
1. Luteus (Ophion L. — F.) I. luteus thorace striato, abdo- 
mine falcato. 
2. Glomeratus. (Cryptus G. — F.) I. niger, pedibus flavis. 
(Reaumur. Vol. II. Tab. 33.) 
Lays its eggs in the Caterpillar of the Papilio brassicce , as the 
preceding one does in those of several Phalaenae. 
3. Globatus. (Cryptus Glob. F.) I. niger, pedibus ferru- 
gineis. 
(Frisch, p. 6. Tab. 10.) 
On the stalks of grass. Remarkable for the very delicate cotton- 
like web, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, within which, the 
numerous little Pupae undergo their metamorphosis together. 
57- Sphex. Os maxillis absque lingua. Antennae articu- 
lis 10. Alae plano-incumbentes (nec plicatae) in 
omni sexu. Aculeus punctorius reconditus. 
The females of certain Species of this Genus dig a hole in 
sandy ground, drag a large Spider or the Caterpillar of a Pha- 
laena into it, lame it by biting off its legs, and then lay an egg 
in each hole; so that the Larva may suck out the spinning- 
fluid of the animal which the mother has buried, and in that 
way prepare itself a habitation in which to pass through its 
metamorphosis. 
1. Sabulosa. — .S'. nigra hirta, abdomine fulvo, postice nigro 
petiolo longissimo. 
* Fr. Klug, Monographia Siricutn Germania. Berol. 1804. 4 to. 

218 
OF INSECTS. 
(Fkisch. p. 2. Tab. 1. fig. 6, 7-) 
2. Cribraria. (Crabro cribrarius. F.) S. nigra abdomine fas- 
ciis flavis, tibiis anticis clypeis concavis fenestratis. 
(Goeze im Naturforscher. St. 2. Tab. 2.) 
The plates on the front feet of the male were long supposed to 
be perforated, whence the name of the animal } consequently 
this supposed sieve had a remarkable utility forthwith assigned 
to it, and a great deal was said on the wisdom of the construc- 
tion of a part that never existed. 
5S. Chrysis. Golden-fly.— Os maxillis absque probo- 
scides Antennse filiformes : articulo 1 longiore, 
reliquis 11 brevioribus. Abdomen subtus fornicatum, 
utrinque squama laterali. Anus dentatus aculeo 
subexserto. Alae planae. Corpus auratum. 
1. Ignita. — C. glabra nitida, thorace viridi : abdomine au- 
reo : apice quadridentato. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 10. fig. 1.) 
59. Vespa. Wasp. Ger. Wespe. Fr. Gu6pe. Os max- 
illis absque proboscide. Alae superiores plicatae in 
omni sexu. Aculeus punctorius reconditus. Oculi 
lunares. Corpus glabrum. 
Most Species of this and the following Genus are remarkable 
for the social connexion in which thousands live together, 
and for the extremely ingenious nests and common habitations 
which they construct by their united efforts, with substances 
of various kinds, as Wasps with fibres of wood. Bees with 
wax, and so forth. 
1. Crabro. The Hornet. Ger. die Hornisse. Fr. le Frelon. 
V. thorace nigro antice rufo immaculato, abdominis 
incisuris puncto nigro duplici contiguo. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 11. fig. 1.) 
2. Vulgaris. The Wasp. — V. thorace utrinque lineola inter- 
rupta, scutello quadrimaeulato, abdominis incisuris punc- 
tis nigris distinctis. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 12. fig. 1.) 
3. Nidulans. — V. nigra, thorace striga antica subscutelloque 
albis, abdominis segmentis margine flavis. 
In Guiana. The external covering of its very ingenious nest, 
resembles fine pasteboard, covered with writing-paper, 
60, Apis. Bee. Ger. Biene. Fr. Abeille. Os maxillis 
atsque proboscide, inflexa, vaginis duabus bivalvi- 

OF INSECTS. 219 
bus. Alee plan* in omni sexu. Aculeus ferninis et 
neutris punctorius reconditus. 
1. Mellijica. The Honey-Bee. — A. pubescens thorace sub- 
griseo, abdomine fusco, tibiis posticis ciliatis, intus trans- 
verse stratis *, 
It is known that among Bees, Wasps, Ants and Termites, the 
far greater number of individuals have no sex, that is, they 
are begotten by a male and brought forth by the impregnated 
temale, without themselves possessing perfect sexual organs. 
In the present instance, the Queen, female or Mother-Bee, as 
she is called, is slender in the body, longer than the Drones, 
with short wings, a hairy head, dentelated jaws, brown feet, 
&c. The males or Drones are larger and thicker in the body, 
with long wings. The Working-Bees, those without sex, are 
smaller than either, moderately stout, the wings proportionally 
long, the jaws smooth, the legs black, and with a peculiar 
tossa on the hinder thighs for carrying various substances. 
These alone, of whom there may be 10,000 in a large hive, 
have the task of collecting materials, building the comb and 
attending the young ones. The younger part of them search 
flowers for the purpose of procuring wax and honey, which 
are received and separated in the hive by the elder ones. They 
teed the Larvae with the pollen of flowers, keep the hive clean, 
and carry out the dead. They are armed with stings, which, 
however, are apt to remain in the wound, if pushed too far. 
The males, amounting to perhaps 700 in a large hive, have no 
other duty than that of copulating with the Queen, and that 
while flying. Many of them die immediately afterwards, and 
the rest die of hunger or are destroyed by the Working- Bees. 
The Queen-Bee thus so completely impregnated, lays her eggs 
in the cells, of which, those intended for the Drones are pre- 
viously formed larger than the rest. When the progeny has ar- 
rived at maturity, about twenty days afterwards, they form a 
new colony or swarm. In the wild state. Bees build in hollow 
trees, under ground, and so forth. Man has contrived to do- 
mesticate them, and to promote their increase and utility by 
many ingenious inventions. Although single Bees have as 
For many other kinds of Honey-Bees, natives of Brazil, sec W. Piso, 
de India t vtriuique re Naturalx. p. 3. &c.— and J. Stanes, in Sam. 
Purchas's Theatre of Political Flying Insects. London, 4to. p. 203. 

220 
OP INSECTS. 
little heat as other cold-blooded animals, yet in the hive the 
temperature often reaches that of the human body *. 
2. Centuncularis . (Anthophora C. — F.) A. nigra ventre lana 
fulva. 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. 2.) 
Lives singly under ground, and makes a very ingenious habi- 
tation of the leaves of rose-bushes. 
3. Violacea. (Xylocopa V. — F.) A. hirsuta atra, alis ca:ru- 
lescentibus, 
(Reaumur. Vol. VI. Tab. 6. fig. 1. 2.) 
In old trees, in which it excavates its habitation longitudi- 
nally, and divides it into cells by thin layers of wood. 
4. Terrestris. Bombus T. — F.) The Humble-Bee. — A. hir- 
suta nigra, thoracis cingulo flavo, ano albo. 
(Frisch, p. 9. Tab. 13. fig. 1.) 
Builds its nest deep under ground. 
5. Muscarum. (Bombus M.—F.) A. hirsuta fulva abdomine 
fiavo. 
(Reaumur. Vol. VI. Tab. 2. fig. 3. 4.) 
Covers its nest externally with moss. 
6. Ccementaria — A. fulva abdomine nigro ; (femina nigro- 
violacea) pedibus fuscis. 
Builds its nest with wonderful art and strength, of the sand 
and mortar of old walls exposed to the sun. The egg-shaped 
cells, of which there are about ten in every such nest, are lined 
with a fine web, and are, also, occasionally occupied by the 
Attellabus apiarius and others. 
61. Formica f. Ant. Ger. Ameise. Fr. Fourmi. — Peti- 
olus abdominis elongatus, nodulosus, aut munitus 
squamula erecta. Aculeus feminis et neutris recon- 
ditus. Alee maribus et feminis, sed neutris nullse. 
* Of the numerous works on the history of Bees, I shall only quote six ; 
viz, Swammerdam, Bill. Nat. p. 369. 
Reaumur, Mem. Vol. V. p. 207. 
J. Hunter, in Phil. Trans. 1792. P. 1. p. 128. 
Huber, Nouvelles Observations sur les Mbeilles. Geneve. 1792. 8vo. 
T. A. Knight, in Phil. Trans. 1807. p. 234. — and in particular, as re- 
gards the increase of swarms by artificial meaus — Bonnet, QZuvres. Vol. 
V. P. 1. p. 61. 
•f- P. A. Latreille, Essai sur V Histoire des Fourmis de la F ranee. 
Brieve. 1798. 8vo— and his Histoire Naturelle des Fourmis. Paris, 1802. 8vo. 
P. Huber, Becherches sur les Mosurs des Fourmis Indigenes. Paris, 1810. 
8vo. 

OF INSECTS. 
221 
Most European Ants live particularly in woods and meadows, « 
occasionally in societies of many thousands. The activity of 
this little race, and particularly the care with which they guard 
and attend their Pupae, improperly called eggs, extends so far, 
that a working Ant has been known to drag ten Pupae into a 
place of security, after the posterior part of its body was cut off. 
1. Herculanea. — F. nigra, abdomine ovato, femoribus ferru- 
gineis. 
(Sclzer’s Kennz, Tab. 19. fig. 125.) 
2. Rufa, — F. thorace compresso toto ferrugineo, capite ab- 
domineque nigris. 
3. Rubra. — F. testacea, oculis punctoque suo abdomine ni- 
gris. 
4. Nigra. (Lasius niger. F.) F. tota nigra nitida, tibiis cin- 
erascentibus. 
These Ants copulate about the end of Summer, when they oc- 
casionally appear in swarms of incalculable numbers and singu- 
lar form, like columns ascending and descending, twenty of 
which may sometimes be seen together, and at a distance ap- 
pear almost like an Aurora Borealis *. 
5. Ccespitum. — F. abdominis petiolo binodoso : priore subtus, 
thoraceque supra bidentato. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 27- fig. 20.) 
6. Cephalotes. (Atta C. — F.) F. thorace quadrispinoso, capite 
didymo magno utrinque postice mucronato. 
(Merian.® Ins. Surinam. Tab. 18.) 
In the West Indies. As large as a Wasp. 
62. Termes. White-ant. Squamula intergerina nulla. 
Alae maribus et feminis temporarise ; sed neutris 
plane nullae. 
1. Fatalis. ( [bellicosus Soland.) T. corpore fusco, alis fus- 
cescentibus : costa ferruginea, stemmatibus subsuperis 
oculo propinquis, puncto centrali prominulo. 
(Ahbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 9. and the nest of the Termites 
of Guinea. Ibid. Tab. 10.) 
This Species is found in the East Indies and Guinea, besides 
four others, natives of various parts within the Tropics, parti- 
cularly both Indies, the South-west of Africa, and New Holland. 
They construct conical habitations of clay, generally with se- 
veral points, arched internally, often ten or twelve feet high, 
* Gleditsch. Mem. de V Acad, des Sc. de Berlin, 1749. plate 2. 

222 
OF INSECTS. 
and occasionally in such numbers, as at a distance to have the 
appearance of a village. In time, these Ant-hills become 
overgrown with grass, and so firm as to be capable of bearing 
the weight of several men, although the walls are perforated 
by large wide passages, sometimes more than a foot in diame- 
ter. Incessant changes are made in these buildings, old cells 
being broken up, new ones formed, others enlarged, and so on. 
The cells of the King and Queen, of which there is but one 
couple in each hill, are concealed in its remotest parts. Next 
to these, are the habitations of the workers ; then follow 
the egg-cells for the young brood, and close to them the ma- 
gazine. These animals gnaw and destroy furs, and furniture ; 
sheds, and in a few weeks will, as it were, exterminate large 
trunks of trees. It has been already mentioned that the ab- 
domen of the Queen is 2,000 times larger after, than before 
impregnation. She can then lay 80,000 eggs within twenty- 
four hours. 
63. Mutilla. Alse nullae in plerisque. Corpus pubescens. 
Thorax postice retusus. Aculeus reconditus punc- 
torius. 
I. Occidental is. (M. coccinea. F.) M. coccinea, abdomine 
cingulo nigro. 
In North America. 
VI. DIPTERA*. (Antliata. Fabr.) 
Insects with two wings and two small knobs or balancers 
(halteres) placed on the thorax, behind the wings; and gene- 
rally covered with a little scale ; their use is yet unknown ; 
from them some Naturalists have called this Order Halter ata. 
The Larva is generally a Maggot f, the Pupa brown and 
cylindrical. The perfect Insect has, in some Genera, a hard 
pointed sucking-tube, in others a- soft proboscis, and in others, 
a simple mouth. Some Species, also, are viviparous. 
* J. C. Fabricii, S 'ystema Antliatorum. Brunsvigae. 1805. 8vo. 
J. W. Meigen, System at. Beschreib. der JSuropSisch. Ziceyfluglich. Insec- 
ten. 2t eAusg. — Aachen. 1818. 8vo. 
f The well known Mast- worm, (Heenvurm) a favourite food of wild 
Swine, consists in a singular collection of many thousand Maggots, scarcely 
half an inch long, of Insects of this Order, (probably Tipula or Asilas.) 
collected together. Such a collection is sometimes twenty-four feet long, 
as wide as a hand, and an inch thick, moving aloug in Summer, in the 
damp parts of woods, in the most regular manner. 

OF INSECTS. 
223 
64. CEstrus *. Gadfly. Ger. Bremse. Os apertura sim- 
plex. Palpi duo, biarticulati apice orbiculares in de- 
pressione oris utrinque siti. 
The females of the Species following, lay their eggs in the 
skin of living animals, causing, by that means, a kind of issue, 
serving for the subsistence of the Larva or Grub. 
1. Bovis. — O. alis immaculatis fuscis, abdomine fascia atra 
media : apice pilis fulvo-flavis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 47. fig. 1,2.) 
2. Tarandi. O. alis immaculatis thorace flavo fascia nigra, 
abdomine fulvo apice flavo. 
3. Equi. (CEstrus bovis. Linn.) O. alis albidis, fascia media 
punctisque duobus nigris. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 47- fig. 3, 4, 5.) 
Lays its eggs in the shoulders and fore-legs of the Horse, 
where the Larvae when hatched can be licked off and swal- 
lowed. This, as well as the next Species is found generally, 
and in great numbers in the stomach of the Horse during 
Spring, to the internal membrane of which they are firmly at- 
tached by a hook at the anterior extremity of their bodies, 
(Botts,) which in size and shape resemble a Date. 
4. Hcemorrhoidalis. O. alis immaculatis fuscis, abdomine 
atro, basi albo apiceque fulvo. 
(Clark. 1. c. fig. 12, 13.) 
Lays its eggs on the lips of the Horse. 
5. Ovis. — O. alis pellucidis, basi punctatis, abdomine albo 
nigroque versicolore. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 27- fig- 6, 7-) 
The Larva is found in the frontal sinuses of Deer, Goats, and 
particularly Sheep. 
65. Tipula. Crane-fly. Ger. Schnake. Os capitis elongati 
maxilla superiore fornicata : palpi duo incurvi capite 
longiores. Proboscis recurvata brevissima. 
Very vivacious Insects, of which the Larva can live in water 
containing Sulphur, and which Prof, de Luc met with at an 
elevation of 1560 toises above the Sea. 
1. Oleracea. T. alis patentibus hyalinis, costa marginali 
fusca. 
* The Natural History of this Genus, hitherto very imperfect, has been 
completely cleared up by Mr. Bracy Clark, in his excellent Observations 
on the Genus CEstrus, contained in the Transactions of the Linneun Society. 
Vol. III. p. 289, &c. 

224 
OF INSECTS. 
(Friscu. p. 4. Tab. 12.) 
The Larva is very injurious to the roots of plants, particularly 
garden vegetables. 
2. Destructor. The Hessian-fly *. — T.capite etthorace nigris, 
alis nigris basi fulvis. 
(Philadelphia Journal of Natural Sciences. 1817. Tab. 3.) 
A native of the United States of North America, where it does 
great injury to the Maize. 
3. Plumosa. (Chironomus plumosus. F.) T. alis incumben- 
tibus, thorace virescente, alis hyalinis puncto nigro. 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. 3-12.) 
The blood-red Larva lives in water, and is the food of the 
Arm-Polype. 
4. Phalcenoides. (Psychoda Ph. — F.) T. alis deflexis cinereis 
ovato-lanceolatis ciliatis. 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. 3-11.) 
A small animal which lives in damp places, privies, &c. 
66. Musca. Fly. Ger. Fliege. Fr. Mouche. — Os probos- 
eide earnosa : labiis 21ateralibus : palpi duo. 
1. Vomitoria. — M. antennis plumatis, pilosa, thorace nigro, 
abdomine cseruleo nitente. 
2. Carnaria. — M. antennis plumatis, pilosa nigra, thorace 
lineis pallidioribus, abdomine nitidulo tesselato : oculis 
rubris. 
(Frisch, p. 7- Tab. 14.) 
Brings forth living Maggots. 
3. Domestica. — M. antennis plumatis, pilosa nigra, thorace 
lineis 5 obsoletis, abdomine nitidulo tesselato, oculis 
fuscis. 
(V. Gleichen. Gesch. der gemeinen Stubenfliege. Niirnb. 1784. 
8vo.) 
Found in almost every part of the World, and in some places, 
as Otaheite, New Holland, the Cape, &c. in vast and trouble- 
some numbers. The female when impregnated lays eighty 
eggs or more in stables, dunghills. In order to burst its Pupa 
shell, the fly can swell its forehead into a large bladder. 
4. Cellaris (vinulus, conops.) M. antennis setariis, pilosa 
nigra, alis nervosis, oculis ferrugineis. 
(Reaumur. Vol. V. Tab. 8. fig. 7 •) 
A very small animal found in wine-cellars, and on sweet fruits, 
in a state of putrefaction. 
* As it is commonly, but improperly, called, in North America. 

OF INSECTS. 225 
5. Meteorica. M. antennis setariis, pilosu nigra, abdomine 
subcinereo, alis basi subflavis, oculis brunneis. 
In gardens and woods. It has a peculiar jerking mode of 
flight. 
6. Putris. (Tephritis P.— F.) M. antennis setariis, subpilosa 
atra, alarum costa nigra, oculis ferrugineis. 
(Frisch, p. 1. Tab. 7.) 
The Maggot lives in rotten cheese. 
67* Tabanus. Os proboscide carnosa, terminata labiis 
duobus. Rostro palpis duobus, subulatis, probos- 
cidi lateralibus, parallelis. 
1. Bovinus. T. oculis virescentibus, abdominis dorso macu- 
lis albis trigonis longitudinalibus. 
(Reaumur. Vol. IV. Tab. 17. fig. 8.) 
6S. Culex. Os aculeis setaceis intra vaginam flexilem. 
1. Pipiens. The Gnat. Ger. die Miicke. Fr. le Cousin. — C. ci- 
nereus, abdomine annulis fuscis 8. 
(Kxeemann’s Beijtr. zu Rosel. T. s. Tab. 15, 16.) 
This troublesome little animal generally keeps in the vicinity 
of water. In many warm climates, (where the stings of 
all Insects cause violent inflammation, as happens with us 
in warm weather,) these creatures, which seamen, after the 
Portuguese, call Mosquitos, from their vast numbers, form a 
real plague. Ignorant travellers, however, apply the common 
term Mosquito to all Insects having stings, and resembling 
Gnats. 
2. Reptans. (Scatopse R. — F.) C. niger, alis hyalinis, pedibus 
nigris annulo albo. 
(Niemann’s Taschenbuch. fur Hausthiercirzte. 2. Tab. 1. fig. 1.) 
In the mountainous parts of Lapland, the South of Siberia, and 
particularly in Bannat, where it appears in innumerable flights 
in Spring and Summer, and creeps into all the openings of the 
bodies of horses and oxen, so as often to kill them in a few 
minutes. At the same time they are, if not dangerous, at 
least inconvenient, to men. 
69. Empis. Os rostro corneo, inflexo, bivalvi, thorace 
longiore, valvulis horizontalibus. 
1. Pennipes. E. antennis filatis, nigra, pedibus posticis lon- 
gis : alterius sexus pennatis. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 21. fig. 137.) 
70. Coxops. Os rostro porrecto geniculato. 
Q 

226 
OF INSECTS. 
1. Calcitrans. (Stomoxys C. — F.) C. antennis subplumatis, 
cinerea glabra ovata. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 21. fig. 138) 
Has almost the form of the common House-fly, except that it 
has a perforating snout instead of a proboscis. It enters 
houses only previous to rain, flies low, and settles on the legs, 
in the same manner that in the fields it fixes on the legs of cattle, 
making them uneasy, and causing them to stamp the ground. 
71. Asilus. Hornet-fly. Ger. Raubfliege. — Os rostro 
corneo porrecto, recto bivalvi. 
1 . Crabroniformis. A. abdomine tomentoso, antice segmen- 
tis tribus nigris, postice flavo inflexo. 
(Frisch, p. 3. Tab. 8.) 
72. Bombylius. Buzz-fly. Ger. Schwebfliege. Fr. Bour- 
don. — Os rostro porrecto, setaceo, longissimo, bi- 
valvi, valvulis horizontalibus, intra quas aculei se- 
tacei. 
1. Major. B. alis dimidiato-nigris. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 28. fig. 22.) 
73. Hippobosca. Os rostro bivalvi, cylindrico, obtuso, 
nutante. Pedes unguibus pluribus. 
1. Equina. The Horse-louse. Ger. die Pferdelaus. — IT. alis 
obtusis, thorace albo variegato, pedibus tetradactvlis. 
The impregnated mother is monstrously large, and lays only 
a single egg or rather Pupa, in which nothing is seen in the 
first weeks but a white fluid, which is gradually changed into 
the winged, full formed Insect. 
2. Ovina. The Sheep-tick. — H. alis nullis. 
(Frisch, p. 5. Tab. 18.) 
An Insect without wings, which, however, claims this situa- 
tion from its general conformation. 
VII. APTERA. 
Insects without wings. They differ very much in regard to 
their size, form, mode of life, organs of mastication, number 
and length of feet, eyes, and so forth. They are partly ovipa- 
rous, partly viviparous. The Flea excepted, they do not un- 
dergo metamorphoses properly so called. 
74. Lepisma. Pedes 6 cursorii. Os palpis 2 setaceis. et 
2 capitatis. Cauda setosa setis extensis. Corpus 
squamis imbricatum. 

OF INSECTS. 227 
1 . Saccharina. (forbicina.) The Sugar-mite. Ger. der Zucker- 
gast. — L. squamosa, cauda triplici. 
Originally a native of America, but now found in nearly every 
part of Europe. 
75. Produka. Spring-tail. — Pedes 6 cursorii. Oculi 2 
compositi ex octonis. Cauda bifurca, saltatrix, in- 
flexa. Antennas setaceae elongatae. 
Many Species of this Genus (for instance, P. nivalis.) are occa- 
sionally found in vast numbers on newly fallen snow j and that 
they cannot in all cases have crept from the ground through 
the snow, is proved by their having been found after high 
winds, on the fresh snow covering the ice of frozen seas. See 
De Geer, in Hist, de l' Ac. des Sc. de Paris, 1750. p. 40. 
1 . Fimetaria. — P. terrestris alba. 
Often in crowds under flower-pots. 
76. Pediculus. Louse. Ger. Laus. Fr. Pou, — Pedes 6 
ambulatorii, oculi 2. Os aculeo exserendo. Anten- 
nae longitudine thoracis. Abdomen depression sub- 
lobatum. 
Probably one of the most extensively diffused Genera of ani- 
mals. Most Mammifera and Birds have Lice of peculiar kinds 5 
and Fishes, together with even some Insects, are also plagued 
in the same way*. 
1 . Humanus. The Louse. — P. Humanus. 
Besides man, it is, to my knowledge, found on the Chimpan- 
see (Simia troglodytes,) and Coaita (Cercopithecus paniscus.) 
The lice of Negroes are black 3 but that, as Oviedo relates, 
they disappear on crossing the Line, is a mere fable f. 
2- Pubis. (Morpio.) The Crab-Louse. — P. pubis. 
(Redi. 1. c. Tab. 10. fig. 1.) 
77- Pulex. Flea. Ger. Floh. Fr. Puce. — Pedes 6 salta- 
torii : oculi 2. Antennae filiformes. Os rostro inflexo, 
setaceo aculeum recondente. Abdomen compres- 
sum. 
1 . Irritans, P. proboscide corpore breviore. 
(Rosel. Vol. II. Mucken. Tab. 2, 3, 4.) 
Besides man, it is found on the Dog, Fox, Cat, Hare, Squir- 
rel, Hedgehog, &c. It is not met with in the extreme North of 
F. Redi, Experimenta circa generationem Insectorum. Opuscul. Ed. 
Amst. 1686. 12mo. p. 1. Tab. 1-24. 
t The curious reader may consult Don Quixote, Part 2. Book 2. Chap. 
12. — Translator. 

228 
or INSECTS. 
America, and but rarely in certain West India Islands, Marti- 
nique for instance. It may live at least six years. 
2. Penetrans. P. proboscide corporis longitudine. 
(Catesby. Nat. Hist, of Carolina. 3. Tab. 10. fig. 3.) 
Very troublesome in America, and resembling the common 
Flea in form and manner of leaping, but is much smaller. It 
keeps itself in the dust of the ground, and penetrates the skin 
of the toes in man, when the abdomen of the pregnant female 
swells to the size of a pea, causing violent inflammation, some- 
times ending in gangrene. 
78, Acarus. Tick. Ger. Milbe. Fr. Tique. Pedes 8. 
Oculi 2 ad latera capitis. Tentacula 2 articulata, 
pediformia. 
An extensive Genus, composed of numerous Species*, which 
in part, like Lice, infest other animals. 
1. Ricinus. (Ixodes R. — F.) A. globoso-ovatus : macula ba- 
seos rotunda j antennis elevatis. 
(Frisch, p. 5. Tab. 19.) 
2. Telarius. A. rubicundo-hyalinus, abdomine utrinque ma- 
cula fusca. 
(Hermann. Tab. 2. fig. 15.) 
Amongst others upon the Lime-tree. One of the most 
noxious vermin of Green-houses. 
3. Siro . The Mite. — A. lateribuS sublobatis, pedibus 4 pos- 
ticis longissimls, femoribus capiteque ferrugineis, abdo- 
mine setoso. 
In flour, cheese, ham, &c. It is born with only three pair ot 
legs, the fourth appearing afterwards t- 
79. Hydraciina. Pedes 8. Palpi 2 articulati. Oculi 2, 
4, 6. Caput, thorax abdomenque unita. 
1. Despiciens. (Trombidium aquaticum. — F. Acarus aquations. 
Linn.) H. rubra rotundata maculis pluribus ; oculis mfe- 
ris. 
(Frisch, p. 8. Tab. 3.) 
Almost like a small, blood-red Spider. 
SO. P ha bang iu m. Pedes 8. Oculi verticis 2 contigm. 
Frons antennis pediformibus. Abdomen rotunda- 
. turn. 
' * j. F. Hermann Miimire , hptdrologique pullid par F. L. Hammer. 
St rash 1804, folio, with coloured plates. 
f For the opinions entertained on the Acari Scahiei (Itch-Insects), see 
Kirby and Spence. Vol. 

OF INSECTS. 229 
1. Opilio. The Shepherd. Ger . der Weberknecht. Fr. lc Fau- 
cheur. — P. abdomine ovato j subtus albo. 
(Sulzer’s Kennz. Tab. 22. fig. 140.) 
A nocturnal animal, and one of the few land Insects that drink 
water. The legs have a vital motion after they have been a 
day torn from the body. The second pair of them appear to 
answer the purposes of antennse. The eyes are placed be- 
tween the shoulders. 
2. Cancroides. (Scorpio C.- — F.) P. abdomine obovato de- 
presso, chelis laevibus, digitis pilosis. 
(Rosel, Vol. III. Tab. 64.) 
In old paper, &c. It has a remarkable appearance on account 
of its compressed body and long nippers. It walks like a crab. 
3. Balcenarum. P. abdomine dilatato muricato, rostro subu- 
lato. 
(Pennant’s British Zoology, p, 4. Tab. 18. fig. 7-) 
4. Araneoides. (Solpuga A. — F.) P. chelis dentatis villosis, 
corpore oblongo. 
(Pallas. Spicileg . 9. Tab, 3. fig. 7, 9.) 
In different parts of the hot climates of the Old World. Its 
bite causes violent inflammation, occasionally attended by dan- 
gerous symptoms. 
81. Ahanea. Spider. Ger. Spinne. Fr. Araignde. — Pedes 
8. Oculi 8. (plerisque.) Os unguibus sive retinaculis 
papillis textoriis. 
A remarkable Genus, containing numerous Species*, which all, 
as far as I am acquainted, feed on living animals, particularly 
Insects, and even attack each other. Most of them weave 
webs, of which the regular structure and the strength with 
which they resist the action of wind and weather, are equally 
deserving of notice f. The attempt has even been made, and 
has succeeded on a small scale, to manufacture a kind of silk 
from the webs of certain Species of Spider. — The Gossamer, 
(Ger. Jliegende Sommer, Mariengarn. — Fr, Filets de St. Martin, 
cheveux de la bonne Vierge) — is, at least in great part, the work 
of a small species of Spider, (A. obtectrix.) which makes its 
webs in abundance during Spring on hedges and bushes. 
* On the European Species of this Genus, see T. Martyn’s Natural 
History of Spiders. Lond., 1793, 4to. including the works of Albin and 
Clerck. 
t See the Observations of Dr. Reimarus in the Introduction to the 4th 
Edition of his Father’s classical work on the Instinct of Animals, p. 8, &c. 

230 
OF INSECTS. 
1. Diadema. A. abdomine subgloboso rubro-fusco : cruce 
alba punctata. 
(Rosel. Vol. IV. Tab. 35, 40.) 
This and the following are the Spiders pointed out by Quatre- 
mere D’Isjonvai., as certain indicators of weather. 
2. Domestica. A. abdomine ovato fusco : maculis nigris 5 
subcontiguis : anterioribus majoribus. 
(Martyn. Tab. 2. fig. 10.) 
3. Scenica. A. saliens nigra : lineis semi-circularibus 3 
albis transversis. 
(Martyn. Tab. 6. fig. 1.) 
On roofs, &c. It leaps, and does not make a web. 
4. Saccata. A. abdomine ovato ferrugineo fusco. 
(Frisch, p. 8. Tab. 3.) 
It carries its eggs about in a bag attached to the posterior part 
of its body, and risks its life with great boldness to recover it 
when torn away *. 
5. Avicularia. A. thorace orbiculato convexo : centro trans- 
verso excavato. 
(Kleeman’s Beijtr. zu Rosel. T. 1. Tab. 11. 12.) 
In the West Indies : of the size of a small child’s fist. The 
soles of the feet glitter with gold and other colours. It kills 
Humming-birds and sucks their eggs. Its bite also causes 
dangerous inflammation in man. 
6. Spithamea. A. abdomine oblongo, pedibus longissimis. 
(Seba. Thesaur. Vol. IV. Tab. 90. fig. 9.) 
In the East Indies. When the legs are extended it covers the 
space of a hand. 
7. Tarantula. A. fusca, subtus atra, pedibus subtus atro 
fasciatis. 
( Ahbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 38.) 
In Apulia. The fable of its supposed inevitable consequences, 
and of the cure by music, may be explained, by supposing 
that travellers of easy faith have been deceived partly by the 
representations of hypochondriacal and hysterical patients, 
but more commonly by the artifices of beggars. This much 
is certain, that this Spider, which lives in little holes and fields, 
may inconvenience the reapers by its bite during harvest ; and 
that like that of many other Insects, its bite may, in the heat 
of Summer, become dangerous and even cause a kind of Cho- 
rea. (St. Vitus’ Dance.) 
* Bonnet, C & uvres . Vol. I. p. 545. 

OF INSECTS. 
23 1 
S. Edulis. A. supra grisea j abdomine oblongo lateribus 
striatis 5 pedibus fulvis apicibus nigricantibus. 
(Lajbillardiere, Voyage. Tab. 12. fig. 4, 6 .) 
In New Caledonia, where the natives roast it and eat it by 
hundreds. 
83. Scorpio. Pedes 8, insuper chehe 2 frontales. Oculi 
2 in tergo. Palpi 2 cheliformes. Cauda elongata 
articulata, terminata mucrone arcuato. Pectines 2 
subtus pectus et abdomen. 
Scorpions have a considerable resemblance to Crabs in their 
form and mode of life, and like them they cast their shell 
yearly. They feed on other Insects and are viviparous. The 
sting of the small European one is not even dangerous, when 
uncomplicated with other circumstances, as extreme heat and 
so forth. 
1 . Afer. S. pectinibus 13-dentatis, manibus subcordatis 
pilosis. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 65.) 
2. Europeeus. S. pectinibus lS-dentatis, manibus angu- 
latis. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 66. fig. 1, 2.) 
S3. Cancer. Crab. Ger. Krebs. Fr. Ecrevisse. — Pedes 
S, insuper manus 2 chelatae. Oculi 2 distantes, pie- 
risque pedunculati, elongati mobiles. Palpi 2 cheli- 
feri. Cauda articulata inermis. 
An extensive Genus, the Species of which Linnaeus has divi- 
ded into three families, according to the length and coverings 
of the tail *. 
(A.) Brachyuri. 
1 . Pinnotheres. C. brachyurus glaberrimus, thorace lfevi 
lateribus antice planato, caudaj medio moduloso-carinato. 
The story that this Crab warns the Silk-muscle of the approach 
of the Sepia is unfounded : it may be attached to its fibrous 
beard like other Crabs, but without any object. 
2. Ruricola. The Land-crab. — C. brachyurus, thorace kevi 
integerrimo, antice retuso : pedum articulis ultiinis pe- 
nultimisque undique spinosis. 
(Catesby. Vol. II, Tab. 32.) 
In the West Indies and neighbouring parts of the world. It 
* J. F. W. Herbst, Vermeil Uber die Natur Geschichtc dcr Krabbenund 
Krebsc. Zurich. 1782. tto. 

232 
OF INSECTS. 
lives in holes under bushes $ but in Spring migrates, often in 
great numbers to the sea-shore to lay its eggs. 
3. Vocans. The Sand-crab.— C. brachyurus, thorace quadrato 
inermi, chela altera ingenti. 
(Catesby. Vol. II. Tab. 35.) 
In the East Indies and North America. The male is remarka- 
ble for the inequality of its nippers, of which one is not much 
larger than one of the animal’s legs, whilst the other, on the 
contrary, is so heavy that when about to move, the animal is 
obliged to place it on his back. 
4. Manas. C. brachyurus, thorace la;viusculo, utrinque 
quinque dentato, carpis unidentatis, pedibus ciliatis : 
posticis subulatis. 
5. Dromia. C. brachyurus hirsutus, thorace utrinque den- 
tato, pedibus posticis unguibus geminis. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 98.) 
In the Indian Ocean. Like many other Species of Crabs, it 
has tour legs on its back ; by means of which, it can seize 
empty shells, and in that way keep small fish or crabs for 
food. 
6. Pagurus. The Punger. — C. brachyurus, thorace utrinque 
obtuse novem-plicato, manibus apice atris. 
(B.) Parasitici, cauda aphylla. 
7- Bernhardus. (Pagurus B. — F.) C. macrourus parasiticus, 
chelis cordatis muricatis : dextra majore. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 31. fig. 5.) 
It inhabits the empty shells of other animals, and apparently 
without any selection of particular Genera or Species. Such 
shells are often inhabited by a Crab of this kind, and have 
attached to them externally Alcyonia and various Corals. 
(C.) Macrouri. 
8. Canimarus. (Astacus marinus. F.) The Lobster. Ger. der 
Hummer. Fr. l’Homard. — C. macrourus thorace laevi, 
rostro lateribus dentato : basi supra dente duplici. 
In the Seas of the Northern World, where it, like many fishes, 
changes its situation at particular seasons. 
9. Astacus. (Astacus Jiuviatilis . — F.) The Craw-fish. Ger. der 
llusskrebs. Fr. l’Ecrevisse de Riviere, — C. macrourus 
thorace laevi, rostro lateribus dentato : basi utrinque dente 
unico. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 54. 16.) 
lliis animal, of which some varieties are naturally red, whilst 

OF INSECTS. 
233 
others remain black even when boiled, reaches the age of 
twenty years, and changes its shell yearly, at which time its 
three teeth and even its stomach are renewed. The two cal- 
careous concretions found in Summer at both sides of its sto- 
mach, and commonly called Crab’s-Eyes, are the principal 
materials from which the new shell is hardened. The acci- 
dental loss ot legs, claws. See. is easily repaired in this and 
other Species of Crabs, by their great power of reproduction. 
The\ even of themselves cast off their claws and legs, if they 
are bruised, or touched with a hot iron. The Lobster occa- 
sionally does the same thing after heavy thunder. 
10. Squilla. (Palsemon S. — F.) The Shrimp. Ger. die Gra- 
nate. Fr. la Chevrette.— C. macrourus, thorace Levi, ros- 
tro supra serrato, subtus tridentato, manuum digitis 
sequalibus. 
{Mem. de V Ac. des Sc. de Paris, 1772. p. 2. Tab. 1. fig. 1, 2.) 
11. Crangon.' (Crangon. vulgaris. — F.) C. macrourus, tho- 
race lsevi rostro integerrimo, manuum pollice longiore. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 63. fig. ], 2.) 
As well as the preceding very common on the coasts of Eu- 
rope, particularly in the North Sea. 
12. Arctus. (Scyllarus A. — F.) C. macrourus, thorace ant- 
rorsum aculeato, fronte diphylla, manibus subadactylis. 
(Gesner. Hist, aquatil. p. 1097.) 
13. Mantis. (Squilla M. — F.) C. macrourus articularis, mani- 
bus adactylis compressis falcatis serrato-dentatis. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 32. fig. 2.) 
In the Mediterranean, and other Seas of the warmer parts of 
the World. 
If. Pulex. (Gammarus P. — F.) C. macrourus articularis, 
manibus 4 adactylis, pedibus 10. 
(Rosel. Vol. III. Tab. 62.) 
Very common among water-cresses. It sometimes swims on 
its back. 
Id. Stagnalis. (Gammarus St. — F.) C. macrourus articularis, 
manibus adactylis, pedibus patentibus, cauda cylindrica 
bifida. 
(Schaffer’s fachformiger Kiesenfuss. 1754. 4to.) 
In stagnant waters. 
84. Monoculus. Pedes natatorii. Corpus crusta tectum. 
Oculi approxirnati, testie innati. 

234 
OF 1NSKCTS. 
All the Species of this Genus as yet known, are found in water 
only*. 
1 . Polyphemus. (Limulus P. — F.) The Horse-shoe Fish. 
M. testa plana convexa sutura lunata, postica dentata, 
cauda subulata longissima. 
The largest of all Insects, reaching the length of four feet. 
That it should have been called one-eyed is ridiculous, having 
upwards of 2000 . It is found not only in the East Indies, but 
also on the North-eastern coasts of America, and particularly 
in the Strait of Bahama. 
2. Apus. (Linnulus lacustris. Mull.) M. testa subcompressa, 
antice retusa, postice truncata, cauda biseta. 
(Schaffer’s Krebsartiger Kiesenfuss. Tab. 1.) 
Only in a few parts of Germany ; but there in wet years after 
floods, in astonishing numbers. As it appears, a true Herma- 
phrodite f, and in which Schaffer reckoned more than two 
million joints. 
3 . Pulex. (Daphnia pennata. Mull.) M. antennis dichoto- 
mis, cauda inflexa. 
(Sulzer’s Gescli. Tab. 30. fig. 10.) 
In rivers, ditches, and springs 5 and in some places so nume- 
rous, that it may have given rise to the sayings of water 
changed into blood. 
4 . Conchaceus. (Cypris pubera Mull.) M. testa bivalvi ovali 
tomentosa. 
(Muller. Tab. 5. fig- 1> 5.) 
Also in fresh-water. In this and some similar Species, the 
little animal is attached to its shell like a Muscle. 
85. Oniscus. Pedes 14. Antennae setacese. Corpus ovale. 
1. Ceti . (Cymothoa C.— F.) O. ovalis, segmentis distinctis, 
pedibus tertii quartique paris linearibus ovaticis. 
(Pallas. Spicileg. Zoolog. 9 . Tab. 4. fig. 14.) 
A tormentor of the Whale, attaching itself firmly to the fins, 
and organs of generation. 
2. Asellus. (Millepeda.) the Wood-louse. Ger. der Kelleresel. 
Fr. la Cloporte. — O. ovalis, cauda obtusa, stylis simp 1 - 
cibus. 
86. Scolopendra. Pedes numerosi, totidem utrinque 
* 0. F. Muller, entomostraca s. insccta testaceu. Havn., 1/85. 4to. 
f Stralsund Magazine. Vol. I. p. 239. 

OF INSECTS. 235 
quot corporis segmenta. Antennae setaceae. Palpi 
2 articulati. Corpus depressum. 
1. Moi'sitans. S. pedibus utrinque 20. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 30. fig. 14.) 
In tropical countries, and also in Spain. Its bite causes dan- 
gerous inflammation. 
2. Lagura. S. pedibus utrinque 24, corpore ovali, cauda 
penicillo albo. 
(Mem. presents h X Ac. des Sc. T. 1. Tab. 17.) 
Under the bark of old trees , moss, mushrooms, &c. It is re- 
markable, that various Species of this and the following Genus 
obtain their numerous legs by degrees, bringing only a few 
pairs into the world with them. 
3. Electrica. S. pedibus utrinque 70. 
(Frisch, p. 11. Tab. 2, 8. fig. 1.) 
\ ery phosphorescent, and even the place where it has rested 
shines for a certain time. It lives chiefly in moist ground, but 
sometimes creeps into flowers, and in this way may be ex- 
plained the not uncommon cases, in which this animal has pe- 
netrated the frontal sinuses of men, and caused intolerable 
headache, &c. for many years. 
87- Iulus. Pedes numerosi : duplo utrinque plures quarn 
corporis segmenta. Antennae moniliformes. Palpi 
2 articulati. Corpus semicylindricum. 
1. Terrester. The Centipede. — T. pedibus utrinque 100. 
(Sulzer’s Gesch. Tab. 30. fig. 16.) 
Principally in rich ground or dung. Very injurious to the va- 
rious kinds of cabbage. 

OF WORMS. 
236 
SECT. IX. 
OF WORMS. 
§ 146. The characters of Insects are so distinct and intelli- 
gible — those of Worms, on the contrary, so vague, and so far 
from positive, that the shortest way of defining the latter might 
perhaps be as animals with white blood, not Insects ; differing 
from them by the deficiency as well of antennae as of articu- 
lated organs of motion. (§ 40. 122.) 
§ 147. They have, for the most part, soft gelatinous bodies, 
a few only being covered with hair, as the Aphrodites, or with 
a calcareous shell, as the Sea-hedgehog. Many Amphitrites 
construct an artificial shell of grains of sand, &c. ; whilst many 
other animals of this Class, viz. the Testacea and certain Poly- 
pes, inhabit a solid house resembling porcelain or stone, con- 
genital, and serving the purposes of residence and defence ; in 
some cases it is carried about by the animal, in others is firmly 
attached to one spot. 
§ 148. No animal of this Class has wings, for the springing 
of the Cuttle-fish out of the water, is not to be called flying; 
neither has any true legs for the support of the body, or for 
motion. Earth Worms, Sea Hedgehogs, Sea Anemones, &c., 
have, however, particular organs, which in some degree 
answer similar purposes. In many instances too, the defi- 
ciency of external organs of motion in Worms, is supplied by 
the jwwer which they possess of alternately elongating and 
shortening themselves. 
§ 149. Instead of Antenna, many Worms have Tentacula, 
soft, fleshy cords or fibres attached to the head, flexible, not 
articulated, in some cases of considerable length, and serving a 
variety of purposes ; sometimes for touching, at others tor 
taking their prey, and so forth. 
§ 150. Of the Senses of these animals, and the organs de- 
voted to them, still less that is positive can be said than of 
those of Insects. Some have undoubtedly true eyes, as the 
Sepiae, &c., and others, without having eyes, possess a most 
acute feeling of light. 
§ 151. In their internal structure, most Worms differ as 
much from Insects as these do from red-blooded animals. 

OF WORMS. 
237 
This Class also differs from the preceding one in this, that, 
to the best of my knowledge, no animal belonging to it under- 
goes a true metamorphosis, which is so generally the case 
among Insects. 
§ 152. The abode of these animals is generally in water; 
and by far the greater part of them in the Ocean. Some live 
under ground ; others exclusively in the living bodies of other 
animals, as the intestinal worms, seminal animalculse, &c. 
§ 153. Their remarkable powers of reproduction serves to 
ensure the preservation of many animals of this Class ; and 
some, as the Animalcula of paste, the Wheel-animal, &c., 
possess a kind of revivescence, which appears to render them, 
in some degree, indestructible. 
§ 154. The generality of the intestinal Worms of animals, 
and the Sepise excepted, by far the greater number of Worms, 
are true Hermaphrodites, of which each individual is capable of 
propagating the Species in one of the ways already mentioned. 
(§ 20 .) 
Remark. The mode of copulation in many animals of this 
Class is also very peculiar, as in the common Garden and 
Tree Snails, (Helix arbustorum, nemoralis, <SfC.) which at 
that time, are provided with a remarkable little dart, 
composed of calcareous matter, and having the shape of a 
four-edged lance. (Tab. 1. fig. 8.) This dart is fixed 
loosely in an opening in the neck, and when the two 
Snails meet, each presses its dart into the breast of the 
other, this mutual excitement being precursory to actual 
copulation. 
§ 155. The vast numbers of marine animals in this Class, 
(§ 152.) particularly the Testacea and Corals, are of extreme 
importance to the general economy of Nature, inasmuch as 
they in the Ocean, in the same manner with Insects upon the 
Earth, (§ 143.) incessantly destroy, consume, and, as it were, 
metamorphose an infinite variety of noxious or superfluous 
substances. To man, they are in so far serviceable, that many, 
particularly of the Mollusca and Testacea, are eatable ; some, 
as for instance, the Venus mercenaria, and Mytilus bidens, 
serving as a principal article of diet to many navigators and in- 
habitants of Sea coasts. The purple dxje was procured from 
certain Shell-fish, more formerly than at present *. Ink and 
* See Prof. Schneider’s Essay on this subject in the 2d Vol. of 
A. de Ulloa’s Memoirs on America. I .dp/. 1781. 8vo. 

238 
OP WORMS. 
Indian* ink are procured from the peculiar fluid of the Cuttle- 
fish. The beard of certain Species of Pinna affords a kind of 
brown silk which may be manufactured. Many kinds of shells 
contain Pearls Red Coral is an important article of trade, 
particularly in the East Indies. Several kinds of Shells, either 
entire or divided, pass current as money among some remote 
nations. From portions of similar shells, the Iroquois, and 
other North American people, made their Wampum, which 
serves the purpose of records f. Many savage people use 
Muscle and Snail shells for drinking vessels, spoons, &c. The 
South Sea Islanders make from them ingenious hooks and 
a variety of other fishing-tackle. (§ 118.) The North-Western 
Americans point their harpoons with angular pieces of Muscle- 
shells. 
In regard to works of art — mother of pearl and many muscle 
and snail shells are cut like Onyx into Cameos. — The Cuttle- 
fish bone is employed by artists and workmen. — Sponge serves 
a variety of domestic purposes. — Madrepore is employed for 
paving and building on the Coasts of the Red Sea. — Numerous 
Testacea (the shells) and Corals are burnt for lime.— Some 
large thin shells are used as glass in the South of China, aud 
in India. — The shells of Testacea are among the most common 
ornaments of savage nations J. — Lastly, the Leech is of great 
importance in the treatment of certain diseases. 
§ 156. Among the noxious animals of this Class are, in par- 
ticular, the worms of the human body, which either live in the 
intestines, as the Ascarides, Toeniae, &c., or as the Guinea- 
* Particularly the Mytilus margaritifer, Mya margaritifera, &c. The 
Pearls are mostly found in the animal itself, but occasionally in the 
shell. The mode of their origin is still obscure. The finest are procured 
from Ceylon and the Gulf of Persia. Those from the West Indies, Cali- 
fornia, Otaheite, &c., are less perfect, and still less so, most of those from 
the rivers of Europe. But even among these, and in particular those found 
at Celle and in Livonia, there are a certain number of uncommon beauty 
and perfection. 
f See Loskiel’s History of the Moravian Mission in North America, 
p. 34, &c. 
I In the great collection of objects from the South Seas, presented to 
the Academical Museum of this place (Gottingen), by his late Majesty, is, 
among other articles, a necklace of neat shells, carefully polished, bored, 
and ingeniously twisted together with tendons, all the work of a race of 
men commonly considered as the most wretched outcasts of the human 
species, viz the natives of the Tierra del Fuego. 

OF WORMS. 
239 
worm immediately under the skin Others of a similar cha- 
racter, are the Flukes found in sheep, the Hydatids of swine, 
and the worms found in many quadrupeds and fishes, producing 
disease. Earth Worms and Snails are injurious to plants. Cer- 
tain Species of the Genera Teredo and Fholas perforate ships 
and dams. 
§ 157- In this Class I have, with a few exceptions, followed 
the arrangement of Linn^igs. 
Order I. Intestina. Long Worms without any evident ex- 
ternal organs of motion. 
II. Mollusca. Naked, soft Worms, with visible, and 
often very numerous extremities : many of them 
have a considerable resemblance to the animals of 
the next Order. 
III. Testacea. Animals inhabiting shells, and much re- 
sembling those of the preceding Order. 
IV. Crustacea. Animals having almost cartilaginous 
bodies, and in some cases with a firm or calcareous 
crust. Sea-hedgehogs, Sea-stars, &e. 
V. Corallia. Polypes and other Zoophytes inhabiting 
coral branches and similar structures. 
^ I. Zoophyta. Naked, plant-like animals, without any 
habitations : also the animalculae of Infusions. 
On the Natural History of Worms. 
J. B. Lamarck, Systeme des Animaux sans vertdbres. Paris, 
1801. 8vo. 
.1. G. Bruguiere, Histoire Naturelle des Vers, in the Encyclo~ 
pddie Methndique. Paris, 17S9. 4to. 
O. F. Muller, Historia Vermium Terrestrium et Fluvatilium. 
Havn. 1773. 4to. 
Alb. Seba, Thesaurus. Vol. III. 
A. 1. Schweigger s Handbuch der N. G. Shelettlosen unge- 
gliederten Thiere. Leipz. 1820. 8vo. 
I place no kind of faith in the tales related of the Furia infernalis, a 
little worm not known to have been ever seen, and yet minutely described, 
flying without wings, precipitating itself on men and cattle and causing im- 
mediate death. 

240 
OF WORMS. 
I. INTESTINA. 
Most of them have a cylindrical or ribbon-like body. The in- 
testinal Worms of the human body, the spermatic Animalcules 
excepted, all belong to this Order *. 
1. Gordius. Hair-worm. Ger. Fadenwurni. — Corpus* 
filifonne, teres, aequale, laeve. 
1. Aquations. (Seta equina.) G. pallidus extremitatibus ni- 
gris. 
A span long, and as thick as strong twine. In muddy ground 
and in water. Occasionally also like the following tropical 
Species, in the ulcers of men. 
2. Medinensis. (Dracunculus. Vena Medinensis.) The Gui- 
nea-worm. — G. totus pallidus. 
(Sloane. Nat. Hist, of Jamaica. Vol. II. Tab. 134. fig. 1.) 
On the Coasts of the Persian Gulf, in Egypt, the East and 
West Indies, Guinea, 8cc. It is as much as three feet in length. 
It shews itself under the skin, particularly about the ancles, 
knees, elbows, &c,, where it causes painful boils, inflamma- 
tion, &c. In extracting it, great care is necessary to avoid 
breaking it, an operation of this kind often lasting for several 
weeks f. 
2. Ascaris. Corpus sequale teres ore trinodo, intestinis 
conspicuis. 
I. Vermicularis. A. cauda subulata, cute ad latera corporis 
subtillissime crenata. 
< * 
* J. A. E. Goeze, Versuch einer N. G. der Eingeweidewurmer thierisc/ier 
JZiirper. Blankenburg, 1782. 4to. 
Nachtr&ge dazu, von J. G. H. Zeder. Leipz. 1800. 4to. 
Vermium Intestinalium prcesertim tcenice Humance brevis expositio, auc- 
tore P. C. Wernero. Lips. 1782. 8vo.— with the Continuatio. Ib. 1782. 
seq. 8vo. 
J. G. H. Zeder’s Naturgescliichte der Eingeweidewurmer. Bamberg, 
1803. 8vo. But above all C. A. Rudolphi. Entozoorum sive Vermium 
Intestinalium Histuria Naturalis. Amst. 1808. 2 Yols. 8vo. Ej. Entozoo- 
rum Synopsis. Berol. 1819. 8vo. with plates. — And J. G. Bremser, ubtr 
lebende JViirmer in lebenden Menschen. Wien., 1819. 4to. with plates. 
-p On this celebrated animal, besides the above classical works, see 
Kempeer, Amcettat. exotic, p. 526. 
Winterbottom, on the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Sierra 
Leone. Vol. II. p. 82. 
And particularly six different Essays in the Edinburgh Medical and Sur- 
gical Journal, Vol. II. 1806.— at p. 302 of which it is stated that the worm, 
if extracted entire and at one time, moves and shows signs of life. 

OF WORMS. 241 
Lives in the rectum of man, and sucks with its obtuse extre- 
mity. 
2. Lumbricoides. (Lumbricus teres.) The Round Worm. 
A. cauda obtusa, ani rima transversa, intestino aurantio. 
ihe most common of human intestinal Worms : found prin- 
cipally in the small intestines, and sometimes in vast numbers. 
3. Triciiocepiialus. Corpus inaequale, teres j antice 
capillare, postice incrassatum. 
1 . Dispar . 1 , supra subcrenatus, subtus lsevis, anterius sub- 
tillissime striatus. 
In the large intestines of man ; sucks with its small capillary 
extremity. 
4. Echinorhynciius, Corpus teres, proboscide cylin- 
drica retractyli echinata, 
1 . Gigas . E. candidus, collo nudo, proboscide vaginata : 
aculeorum uncinatorum ordinibus pluribus, papillis suc- 
toriis senis, 
(Goeze Eingeweidewurmer. Tab. 10. fig. 1, 6.) 
In the intestines of the domestic hog. 
5. Lumbricus. Corpus teres annulatum, longitudinali- 
ter exasperatum aculeis conditis. 
1. Terr ester. The Earth Worm. Ger. der Regenwurm. — L. 
ephippio circulari, 8 seriebus aculeorum abdominalium. 
The well known animal so injurious to young vegetables. A 
true subterraneous animal, under the skin of which another 
Species of intestinal worm (Ascaris minutissima ) fixes itself. 
2, J ariegatus. L. rufus, fusco-maculatus, sexfariam aculea- 
tus. 
(Bonnet. Tr. d’lnsectol. 2. (CEuvr. Vol. I.) Tab, 1. fig. 1, 4.) 
A beautifully coloured animal, about an inch and a half long, 
anu lining in ditches, graves, &c. It, as well as the common 
Earth YV orm, has great powers of reproduction. A twenty- 
sixth part of the animal cut off, is formed within a few months 
into a perfect one of its original length. Its natural increase 
effected either by producing living young ones, or casting 
them off like buds. 
G. fi asciola. Corpus gelatinosum, planiusculum, poro 
ventrali duplici. 
1. Hepatica. The Fluke. Ger. die Egelschnecke. Fr. la 
Douve. F. depressa, ovata fusca, antice tubulo instructa, 
(J. C. Schaffer s Egelschnecken. fig. 1, 8.) 
R 

242 
OF WORMS. 
In the biliary ducts of the Sheep, and many other herbivorous 
quadrupeds. 
2. Intestinalis. F. corpore taeniolari marginibus undulatis. 
( Journal des Savans. 1726. p. 102.) 
Like a small ribband, and not articulated. Found in the ab- 
domen of many fishes, and even alive after they have been 
cooked. 
7. Tcenia. (Lumbricus latus.) Tape-worm. Ger. Bandwurm. 
Ft. Ver solitaire. — Corpus planiusculum, geniculatum. 
Os quadrilobum. 
An extensive Genus, notable as well for the peculiarities of its 
structure, as for the obstinacy and variety of the symptoms 
which the undermentioned Species cause in the human body. 
This worm is articulated, and attaches itself to the intestinal 
canal, by means of the pointed proboscis projecting from its 
head with four lobes*. Next to the head, at least in the fol- 
lowing Species, is a small, almost thread-like neck, the joints 
of which become gradually larger as they approach the body. 
In each of the larger joints, which form by far the greater part 
of the animal, is an ovarium, generally of a very elegant form, 
foliated, &c., and from which the ova escape through one or 
two openings placed at the edge or on the flat surface of the 
animal. This worm is by no means solitaire, several of them 
being often found in a single man or beast. 
1. Solium . T. humana articulis oblongis, orificio marginali 
solitario, ovario pinnato. 
This Species is the most common in Germany. As well as the 
next, it is found in the small intestines of man. 
The Vermes cucurbitini, Ascarides Couleti, are the detached 
posterior joints of this animal. 
2. Vulgaris. (Bothrioceplialus latus \.) T. humana articulis 
abbreviatis transversis, orificio laterali duplici, o^aiio 
stellato. 
In other parts of Europe. Very common in Switzerland and 
France. 
* It appears that a new head is formed when portions are torn oft the an- 
terior extremity of Taeniae. See Sir A. Carlisle s valuable observations 
in Vol. II. of the Transactions of the Linnean Society, p. 256. 
t On certain Species of Taenia, formed into a Genus under the name of 
Bothriocephali, — see Dr. Leuckart’s Zoologische Bruchstuche. 1. Helms ., 
1820. 4 to. 

OF WORMS. 243 
8. Hydatis. Corpus taeniforme desinens in vesicam 
lymphaticam. Os quadrilobum. 
The head and forepart of these very remarkable animals, 
which are mostly found in the viscera of various mammifera, 
bear a considerable resemblance to those of the tape-worms. 
Their posterior extremity terminates in an oval bladder of va- 
rious size. 
1. Finna. (Cysticerus celluloses. Rudolphi.) H. conica, vesi- 
ca duplici inclusa, interiori basi sua adhaerens, capite 
versus collum vesicae directo. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 39.) 
Rarely found in the muscles, brain, &c. of man* and apes. 
On the contrary, very common in hog’s flesh. — Malpighi es- 
tablished its animal nature beyond all doubt. The fact of its 
being found in the swine which man has domesticated, and 
not in the wild race, appears to furnish an instance of orga- 
nized bodies which have been formed long after the general 
creation. 
2. Globosa. H. simplex ovata, corpore distincte articulato, 
rugoso, imbricato. 
(Goeze. Eingeweidewurmer. Tab. 17.) 
The bladder is often larger than a hen’s egg. It is very com- 
mon in the liver and peritoneum of swine. 
3. Cerebralis. H. multiplex, corpusculis pluribus, cauda bi- 
seta vesicae communi adnatis. 
(Leske vom Drehen der Schafe. Leipz,, 1780. 8vo.) 
In the brain of Sheep affected with the staggers. 
4. Erratica . H. multiplex, corpusculis pluribus, ovatis ve- 
sicae communi innatantibus. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 79.) 
I found this Species in the tumid Hydatids contained in the 
viscera of a Macaco. (Simia cynomolgus.') 
9. Sipunculus. Corpus teres elongatum. Os anticum, 
attenuatum, cylindricum. Apertura lateralis corpo- 
ris verruciformis. 
1. Saccatus. (Vermis microrhynchoterus.) S. corpore tunica 
laxa induto. 
(C. Gesner. Hist, aquatil. p. 1226.) 
In the East Indian Seas. 
See Himly, in the Journal der Practischen Arzneykunde. 1809. B. 2. 
St. 12. p. 115. Tab. 1, 3. 

244 
OF WORMS. 
10. Hirudo. Leech. Ger. Blutegel. Ft. Sangsue.— Cor- 
pus oblongum, promovens se ore caudaque in orbi- 
culum dilatandis*. 
1. Medicinalis. II. depressa nigricans, supra lineis flavis 6: 
intermediis nigro-arcuatis, subtus cinerea nigro maculata. 
(Dillenius, in Eph. N. C. Cent. 7- Tab. 5.) 
The most serviceable Species for blood-letting 4 , and on that 
account a considerable article of trade in some places. 
2. Octoculata. H. depressa fusca, punctis 8 nigris supra os. 
(. Schwed. Abhandl, 1757- Tab. 6. fig. 5 , 8.) 
It lays a single egg, which at first contains only lymph, but 
producing 8, 10, or more young ones. 
II. MOLLUSCA. 
Naked Worms, distinguished from those in the preceding 
Order, by having a more slimy body, and more evident exter- 
nal limbs. Many of them bear a considerable resemblance to 
the animals occupying shells J. 
11. Limax. Slug. Ger. Weg-Schnecke. Fr. Limace. — 
Corpus oblongum, repens : supra clypeo carnoso ; 
subtus disco longitudinali piano ; foramen laterale 
dextrum pro genitalibus et excrementis. Tentacula 
4 supra os. 
These Slugs, in common with the snails inhabiting shells, 
have great powers of reproduction. 
1. Ater. L. ater. 
(Lister, ex edit. Huddesfordi. Tab. 101. fig. 102.) 
2. Rufus. L. subrufus. 
(Lister. Tab. 101. a. fig. 103.) 
3. Maximus. L. cinereus maculatus. 
(Lister. Tab. 101. a. fig. 104.) 
* J. F. P. Braun’s Systematische Besclireibung einiger Egelarteu. Berl., 
1805. 4to. 
f P. Thomas, Histoire Naturelle des Sangsues. Paris, 1806. 8vo. 
J. R. Johnson on the Medicinal Leech. London, 1817. 8vo. 
1 On this imperfectly known Order, consult among others, 
J. B. Bohadsch, de quihusdam anirnulibus marinis. Dresd., 1761. -lto. 
And in German with Remarks by N. G. Leske. Ibid. 1776. 4to. 
Petr. Forskal, icones rerum naturalium, quas ini linere Orientali depingi 
curavit. Edidit Carst. Niebuhr. Havn., 1776. fol. 
O. F. Muller, icones Zoologice Danicce. Ibid. 1777. seq. fol. 
L. A. G. Bose, Histoire Naturelle des vers. Paris, 1801. Vol.III. Svo. 
And D’Audeuaru de Ferussac, Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques terrestres 
et fluvitt tiles, Paris, 1819, &c. fol. Witli plates. 

Of W OEMS. 
245 
4. Agrestis. L. cinereus immaculatus. 
(Lister. Tab. 101. fig - . 101.) 
All, particularly in wet years, injurious to the produce of the 
Earth*. 
12. Aplysia. Corpus repens. Clypeo dorsali membra- 
naceo. Foramen laterale dextrum pro genitalibus. 
Anus supra extremitatem dorsi. 
1. Depilans. (Lepus marinus of the ancients.) A. tentaculis 4. 
(Pennant’s Brit. Zool. 4. Tab. 21. fig. 21.) 
Together with the following animal, in the Mediterranean. 
13. Doris. Corpus repens, oblongum, subtus planum. 
Os antice subtus. Anus postice, supra cinctus ciliis. 
Tentacula 2, supra corpus antice, intra foramina re- 
tractilia. 
1. Argo. D. ovalis, corpore laevi, tentaculis 2 ad os, ano ci- 
liato phrygio. 
(Pennant. 1. c. Tab. 22. fig. 22.) 
14. Glaucus. Corpus oblongum, pertusum foraminulis 
lateralibus duobus. Tentacula 4. Brachia 8 palmata. 
1. Atlanticus. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 48.) 
In the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 
15. Aphrodita, Corpus repens, oblongum, subdepres- 
sum, articulatum : articuli utrinque fasciculati, seti- 
feri, pilosi. Os retractile. Tentacula 2 annulata. 
1. Aculeata. The Sea Mouse. Ger. der Goldwurm. Fr. la 
Taupe de Mer. — A. ovalis hirsuta aculeata, pedibus utrin- 
que 32. 
(Swammerdam. Bibl. Nat. Tab. 10. fig. 8.) 
In the North Sea and others. The prickles and hair, with which 
it is beset on both sides, glitter, especially in the sun-shine, 
like fire or the blue flame of sulphur. See. 
16 . Amphitrite. Corpus protensum in tubulo, annula- 
tum. Pedunculi verrucosi. Tentacula acuminata, 
approximata, plumosa. 
1. Auricoma. A. cirris binis utrinque, anterius tentaculis 
pectiniformibus auratis rigidis. 
(Pallas. Miscell. Zoolog. Tab. 9. fig. 3.) 
In the North Sea, &c. This and some other Species of the 
Genus inhabit very delicate, conical structures, which are ge- 
* Sec in the Hanoverian Magazine for 1820, J.C. Leucii’s Essay, which 
obtained the Prize of the Royal Society of Gottingen. 

246 
OF WORMS. 
nerally formed in a very singular way of a single layer of in- 
numerable grains of sand placed close together. 
17- Nereis. Corpus repens oblongum lineare. Pedun- 
culi laterales penicillati. Tcntacula simplicia. 
1. Noctiluca. N. segmentis 23, corpore vix conspicuo. 
In sea- water, to the shining of which by night it may perhaps 
contribute. 
18. Nais. Corpus lineare pellucidum, depressum, setis 
pedunculatum. Tentacula nulla. 
These animals propagate in a singular manner *: the last joint 
gradually extends and increases to a full sized animal, which 
after a certain time separates from the body of the old Nais, 
or even previously shoots out other young ones from its own 
last joint in a similar way. At the same time, many Species, 
the following for instance, produce young ones from an ova- 
rium impregnated by copulation. 
1. Proboscidea. (Nereis lacustris. Linn.) N. setis lateralibus 
solitariis, proboscide longa. 
(Rosel. Hist, der Polypen. Tab. 78. fig. 16, 17-) 
19. Ascidia. Corpus fixum teretiusculum, vaginans. 
Aperturse binse ad summitatem : altera humiliore. 
They are attached to rocks on the shore, and can jerk out water 
in long jets. 
1. Intestinalis. A. laevis alba membranacea. 
In the North Sea, as is also the next animal. 
20. Actinia. Sea Anemone. (Urtica marina.) Corpus se 
affigens basi, oblongum, teres, apicis margine dila- 
tabili intus tentaculato, os terminale centrale ambi- 
ente. 
Have remarkable reproductive powers. 
1. Senilis. A. subcylindrica transverse rugosa. 
(Phil. Trans. Vol. LXIII. Tab. 16, fig. 10. &c.) 
21. Tethys. Corpus liberum, oblongiusculum, carno- 
sum, apodum. Os proboscide terminali, cylindrico, 
sub labio explicato. Foramina 2 ad latus colli sinis- 
trum. 
1. Leporina. (Lepus marinus major Columns.) T. labro 
ciliato. 
(Fab. Columna. 1. c. p. 26.) 
In the Mediterranean. 
* 0. F. Muller, von IVilrmern des Siissen und Salzigen U-'assers. Copenh. 
1771. 4 to. 

OF WORMS. 
247 
22. Holothuria. Corpus liberum, vesieam oblongam 
aeream referens, dorso cristato velificans. Tentacula 
abdominalia numerosa filiformia, pendula, cava, ore 
terminali peltato instructa*. 
1. Physalis. The Portuguese Man of War. — H. corpore py- 
riformi, rostro conico, tentaculis longissimis. 
(V. Krusenstern’s Atlas . Tab. 23.) 
In the Atlantic Ocean, &c. The body is about the size of a 
fist, composed of a very delicate membrane varying in colour 
from blue to red, and filled with air. From it are stretched 
very long and extensible fibres, which, when touched, sting 
more acutely than nettles. Along the back of the bladder is a 
membrane for sailing, which the animal when swimming 
places according to the direction of the wind. 
23. Thalia. (Salpa.) Corpus liberum, oblongum, gela- 
tinosum diaphanum. Tubus alimentarius distinctus : 
tentacula nulla. 
1. Lingulata. Th. corpore depresso, antice in apicem acutum 
desinente. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 30.) 
In the Atlantic Ocean. (See Adelb. De Chamisso De Salpa. 
Berol., 1819. 4to.) 
24. Terebella. Corpus filiforme. Os anticum, praepu- 
tio glandem pedunculatam tubulosam exserente. 
Tentacula circum os, capillaria, plura. 
1. Lapidaria. T. cirris ad anteriora corporis 8 ; circa os 4. 
( Schwed . Abhandl. 1754. Tab. 3. fig. A — E.) 
In the Mediterranean. 
25. Lern^a. Corpus se affigens tentaculis, oblongum te- 
retiusculum. Ovaria bina. Tentacula brachiformia. 
Noxious vermin of fish, in the gills of which they fix them- 
selves. 
1. Cyprinacea. L. corpore obclavato, thorace cylindrico 
bifurco, tentaculis apice lunatis. 
(Linn/ei Fauna Suec. Tab. 2. fig. 2100.) 
26. Scyllaza. Corpus se affigens, compressum, dorso 
canaliculato. Os foramine edentulo, terminali. Ten- 
tacula sive branchia subtus trium parium. 
1. Pelagica. (Seba Thesaur. Vol. I. Tab. 74. fig. 7-) 
Principally upon the Fucus natans. 
* See the Circumnavigator Tilesius’s Monography in A. J. von Kru- 
senstern’s Reite um die tVell. Th. 3. p. I. 

248 
OF WORMS. 
27. Clio. Corpus natans, oblongum. Pinnis duabus 
membranaceis, oppositis. 
1 . Limacinn. C. nuda corpore obconico. 
(Ellis and Solander. Tab. 15. fig. 9, 10.) 
Near Spitzbergcn, Newfoundland, &c. This and some similar 
Species in the Northern Seas, make almost the whole of the 
food of the Whale. (Balsena mysticetus.) 
28. Sepia. Cuttle-fish. Ger. Tintenfisch. Fr. Seche. 
Brachia 8 interius adspersa cotyledonibus. Rostrum 
inter brachia terminale, corneum. Venter (plerisque) 
vesica atramentifera instructus, infra scissura trans- 
versa ad basin apertus, supra quam fistula excreto- 
ria eminet. 
The Cuttle-fish are found in most parts of the Ocean *, and 
differ in many respects from the other animals of this Class, 
particularly with respect to their internal structure, the per- 
fect formation of their viscera, organs of generation, eyes, 
and even organs of hearing, described by Mr. J. Hunter and 
others. 
The number of processes on their arms increases with the 
age of the animal, and in some Species amounts to upwards 
of 1,000. By means of them, they fix themselves in the man- 
ner of cupping glasses. They have the power of reproducing 
their arms, which are often torn or nipped off by shell and 
other fishes, a fact with which the ancients were acquainted. 
Most of the Species too, are remarkable for the blackish brown 
fluid, contained in a particular receptacle on the abdomen, 
which they can eject at pleasure, and by that means darken 
the water in their vicinity. It formed the ink of the ancient 
Romans, and is probably the principal ingredient of the Chi- 
nese or Indian ink. Professor Schneider has divided the Ge- 
nus into the two following families : — 
(A.) Promuscidibus binis ; ventre pinnato ; ossiculo dorsi. 
1 . Officinalis. S. ventre latissimo rotundato undique pinna 
cincto, osse dorsali maximo. 
(Swammerdam. Bibl. Nat. Tab. 50. fig. 1.) 
It is principally from this Species that the os Sepiae is obtained, 
which is a large bony plate of remarkable texture in the back 
of the animal. Many kinds of Sea Grapes, as they are called, 
(Uvm marinas,) are the ovaria of this and similar Species. 
* J. G. Schneider, Sammlung vermischter Ahhandl. zur Zoologie and 
llandlungsgeschichte. Berlin, 1784. 4to. S. 7 — 134. 

OF WORMS. 
249 
2. Loligo. The Calmar. — S. ventre stricto subulato, pinna 
angulari media, osse dorsali penniformi. 
(Pennant’s Brit. Zool. 4. Tab. 27. fig. 43.) 
(B.) Pedibus basi palmatis, absque promuscidibus, pin- 
nis et osse dorsali. 
3. Octopodia. (Polypus.) S. acetabulorum in interna pedum 
superficie ordine duplici, in basi singulis acetabulis, pau- 
latim increscentibus. 
(Pennant. 1. c. Tab. 28. fig. 44.) 
This Species, esteemed for its well tasted flesh, is found in 
many places, and particularly of a large size in the East Indies 
and Gulf of Mexico. 
29- Medusa. Sea-blubber. Ger. Qualle. — Corpus gela- 
tinosum, orbiculatum, supra convexum, subtus ea- 
vum. Os inferum, centrale, labiatum. Tentacula 
plerisque marginalia, saepius retractilia*. 
Many Species contribute to the phosphorescence of the Seaf. 
1. JEquorea. M. orbicularis planiuscula, margine inflexo 
villoso tentaculato. 
(Baster. Op. subsec. 2. Tab. 5. fig. 2, 3.) 
In the North Sea, &c. 
2. V elella. M. ovalis coneentrice striata, margine ciliato, 
supra velo membranaceo. 
(Fab. Columna. 1. c. p. 22.) 
3. Octostyla. M. hemisphserica, marginis tentaculis nullis, 
subtus columna quadriplicata : apice lobis 8 multifidis, 
laterumque appendicibus 16. 
(Forskal icones. Tab. 30.) 
In the Red Sea. About a span long, and of a most beautiful 
violet blue colour. 
III. TESTACEA. 
In this very extensive Order, two principal objects are distin- 
guished, viz. the shells and the animals inhabiting them. The 
latter are of very various forms ; but for the most part resem- 
ble the Worms of the preceding Order. The Shells consist 
originally of a membranous, sometimes almost horny layer, 
which acquires firmness by the calcareous matter gradually 
deposited in it. The newly formed Snail-shells, however, have 
* I ilesius, in Jahrbuchder N. G. 1. S. 166., &c. 
f Mitchill, in Alder’s Americanischen Annalen. 1. S. 119, &c. 

250 
OF WORMS. 
not, according to the observations of Reaumur, Kaemmerer, 
and others, their entire number of turns, but are gradually 
formed as the creature increases, and attached to the edge of 
the opening of the Shell ; not as if they were developed from 
a previous germ. Cceteris paribus, the same is the case with 
other shells. Many of these Shells are deserving of notice 
for their wonderful structure*, others for their glittering, por- 
celain-like glazing, for their splendid colours, their regular 
and delicate marks, with other beauties of the same kind. 
The colours of many when polished, are very different from 
those of the natural surface f. 
* J. S. Schroter, Uber den innern Bau der See und andern Schnecken. 
Frankf. 1783. 4to. 
f Among the principal works on this (according to the common methods, 
not the most profitable,) part of Natural History, are Mart. Lister, 
Synopsis Methodica Conchy liorum. Lond. 1685. seq. fol. — Ed. 2. (recensuit 
et indicibus auxit Gu. Huddesford.) Oxon. 1770. fol. 
Index Testarum Conchyliorum, quee adservantur in Museo Nic. Gual- 
tieri. Florent. 1742. fol. 
Desall. D’Argenville, Conchyliologie. Paris, 1757. 4to. — Ed. 3. par 
De Favanne, De Montcervelle. lb. 1780. 4to. 
F. M. Regenfuss, Sammlung von Muscheln, Schnecken, &c. Copenha- 
gen, 1758. Gr. fol. 
J. H. W. Martini, Systematisches Conchylien- Cabinet, (fortgesetzt 
durch J. H. Chemnitz.) Niirnb. 1768. seq. B. 9. 4to. 
Ign. Aborn, Testacea Musei Ccesarei Vindobonensis. Vindob. 1780. fol. 
C. Schreiber’s Versuch einer Vollstdndigen Concliylienkcnntniss, nach 
Linne’s Syste?n. Wien. 1793. 2 Vols. 8vo. 
L. A. G. Bose, Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles. Paris, 1802. 5 Vols. 8vo. 
C. F. Schumacher, Essai d’un Nouveau Systems des vers Testaccs. 
Copenli. 1817. 4to. — With plates. 
F. C. Schmidt’s Versuch uber die beste Einrichtung der Conchylien- 
Sammlungen., &c. Gotha. 1818. fol. 
Adolph. Murray, Fundamenta Testaceologice. Upsal. 1771. 4to. (And 
in Linne’s Arnoenitat. Acad. Vol. VIII. 
C. L. Kaemmerer, Conchylien im Cabinette des Erbpr. von Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt. Rudolst. 1786. 8vo. 
J. P. R. Draparnaud, Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques Terrestres et 
Fluviatiles de la France. Paris. 1806. 4to. 
T„. Martyn’s Figures of Shells collected in the different Voyages to the 
South Seas. Lond. 1784. Gr. fol. 
Jos. X av. Poli , Testacea utriusque Sicilia eorumque Ilistoria et Anatome. 
Parmae. 1791. Vol. II. fol. 

OF WORMS. 
251 
Many of the Species of several Genera of Muscles and Snails 
are covered with an external organized membrane, which must 
not be confounded with the Millepora, &c., attached to them. 
This extensive Order is divided into three Families, accord- 
ding to the number and form of the shells : — 
(A.) Multivalve Testacea. 
(B.) Bivalve, Muscles, &c. 
(C.) Univalve, with regular windings. Snails. 
(D.) Univalves, without such windings. 
(A.) MULTIVALVES. 
Live in the sea only. 
30. Chiton. Testae plures, longitudinaliter digestae, 
dorso incumbentes. 
L Tuber culatus. C. testa septem-valvi, corpore tuberculato. 
31. Lepas. Acorn-shell. — Animal rostro involuto spi- 
rali, tentaculis cristatis. Testa multivalvis, inaequi- 
valvis. 
Many Species, the two first for instance, are immoveably at- 
tached by their shells ; others, on the contrary, as the two last, 
are suspended by a gut-like viscus, which is attached to any 
body near them : — a distinction so striking, as to authorize 
division into two Genera*. 
(a.) Sessiles. 
1. Balanus. L. testa conica sulcata fixa, operculis acumi- 
natis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 97. fig. 820.) 
In many parts of the World, on rocks, the bottoms of ships, 
muscles, crabs, &c. 
2. Ceti. (Diadema.) L. testa subrotunda sex-lobata sulcata 
fixa. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 99. fig. 843.) 
Together with some other Species of this Genus, on the skin 
of the Grampus and some other Cetacea. 
(b.) Pedatce. 
3. Pollieeps. The Cornu-copia. Ger. die Fusszehe. Fr. le 
Pousse-pied. — L. testa valvis 20 (aut pluribus) polymor- 
phis, intestino squamulis granato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 100. fig. 351.) 
* See Tilesius b. c. p.222-419. 

252 
OF WORMS. 
This very strangely formed creature is a native of the coasts 
of Barbary in particular. 
4. Anatifera. The Barnacle. Ger. die Entenmuschel. — L. 
testa compressa quinquevalvi, intestino insidente hevi. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 68.) 
It is principally known by the fabulous story already men- 
tioned, when speaking of the Barnacle-goose, (p. 128.) The 
quinquevalve shell with its inhabitant, hangs by a fleshy gut- 
like tube, or even several, like twigs, from the stem formed by 
such a tube, which itself is attached to rotten wood, pieces of 
wreck, or the like. 
32. Piiolas. Pierce- stone. Ger. Bohrmuschel. Fr. Dail. — 
Testa bivalvis, divaricata, cum minoribus accesso- 
riis difformibus ad cardinem. Cardo recurvatus, 
connexus cartilagine. 
They bore passages in rocks, even in the hardest marble, in the 
stems of coral. Oyster-shells, the bottoms of ships, &c. and 
excavate a habitation at the termination of the passages. 
1. Dactylus. Ph. testa oblonga hinc reticulato-striata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 101. fig. 859.) 
The animal shines with considerable splendour in the dark. 
2. Pusilla. Ph. testa oblonga rotundata arcuato-striata. 
(Spengler in den Schriften der Berl. Naturf. Gesel. 4 B, Tab. 
6. fig. 1, 5.) 
In many parts of the Ocean. 
(B.) Bivalves. — Concha, (mollusca testacea acephala.) 
They all live in water. The principal distinctions of the 
Genera depend on the similarity or dissimilarity of their two 
shells, and their edges, together with the disposition of the 
hinge, (cardo.) 
33. Mya. Muscle. Ger. Klaffmuschel. Fr. Moule. — Testa 
bivalvis, hians altera extremitate. Cardo dente 
(plerisque) solido, crasso, patulo, vacuo, nec inserto 
testae oppositae. 
1 . Pictorum. M. testa ovata, cardinis dente primario crenu- 
lato : laterali longitudinali : alterius duplicato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 1. fig. 6.) 
2. Margaritifera. M. testa ovata antice coarctata, cardinis 
dente primario conico, natibus decorticatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. fig. 5.) 
34. Solen. Razor-shell. Ger. Mcsserscheidc. Fr. Coute- 

OF WORMS. 
253 
lier. — Testa bivalvis, oblonga, utroque latere hians. 
Cardo dens subulatus, reflexus, sa;pe duplex, non 
insertus testre opposite : margo lateralis obsoletior. 
1. Siliqua. S. testa lineari recta cardine altero bidentato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 4. fig. 29.) 
35. Tellixa. Testa bivalvis, antice hinc ad alterum latus 
flexa. Cardo dentibus ternis : lateralibus planis al- 
terius testae. 
1. Radiata. T. testa oblonga longitudinaliter subtilissime 
substriata nitida, sutura anali canaliculata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 11. fig. 102.) 
2. Cornea. T. globosa, transversim striata, costa fusca 
transversali. 
A common small fresh-water shell. 
36'. Cardium. Cockle. — Testa bivalvis, subaequilatera, 
aequivalvis. Cardo dentibus mediis binis alternatis 5 
lateralibus remotis insertis. 
1 . Costatum. C. testa gibba aequivalvi j costis elevatis cari- 
natis concavis tenuissimis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 15. fig. 151. seq.) 
On the Coast of Guinea. 
2. Echinaium. C. testa subcordata, sulcis exaratis linea ci- 
liata aculeis inflexis plurimis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 15. fig. 158.) 
3. Ednle. C. testa antiquata, sulcis 26 obsolote recurvato- 
imbricatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 19. fig. 194.) 
Very abundant on the shores of the temperate parts of Europe. 
37. Mactra. Testa bivalvis insequilatera, sequivalvis. 
Cardo dente medio complicato cum adjecta foveola ; 
lateralibus remotis insertis. 
1. Sulida. M. testa opaca lseviuscula subantiquata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 23. fig. 229.) 
08 . Donax. Testa bivalvis, margine antico obtusissimo. 
Cardo dentibus duobus : marginalique solitario, sub- 
remoto, sub ano. 
1 Scripta. D. testa ovata compressalsevi, scripta lineis pur- 
pureis undatis, rima acuta, marginibus crenulatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 26. fig. 261.) 
Venus. Testa bivalvis, labiis margine antico incum- 
bentibus. Cardo dentibus 3 omnibus approximatis, 
lateralibus apice divergentibus. 

254 
OF WORMS. 
1. Dione. V. testa subcordata, transverse sulcata, antrorsum 
spinosa. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 27- fig- 271-) 
2. Mercenaria. The Clam. Wampum. — V. testa cordata so- 
lida transverse substriata laevi, margine crenulato, intus 
violacea, ano ovato. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 69.) 
It has very thick, heavy shells, with which the North Ameri- 
can Savages divide corals for their records, ornaments, &c., 
and in their long journeys chew the contained animal. 
3. Tigerina. V. testa lentiformi : striis crenatis decussatis, 
ano impresso ovato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VI. Tab. 37- fig- 390.) 
40. Spondyeus. Testa inaequivalvis, rigida. Cardo den- 
tibus 2 recurvis, cum foraminulo intermedio. 
1. Gcederopus. S. testa subaurita spinosa. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 44. fig. 459.) 
One of the shells posteriorly near the joint extends much be- 
yond the other, and is jagged. The nature of the joint is also 
remarkable, the teeth being locked in such a manner as to al- 
low the shells to be opened, but not to be detached from one 
another, as long as the hinge remains perfect. 
41. Chama. Clam. Ger. Gienmuschel. — Testa bivalvis : 
crassior. Cardo callo gibbo, oblique inserto fos- 
sula obliquae. 
1. Cor. C. testa subrotunda laevi, processibus retrorsum re- 
curvatis, rima hiante. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 48. fig. 483.) 
2. Gigas. (Kima.) C. testa plicata, fornicata, squamosa. 
(^Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 49. fig- 492.) 
The largest of the Testacea known, its shell weighing full six 
hundred weight, and its flesh thirty pounds. The latter is 
eaten by the inhabitants of the East Indian Islands, and of the 
coasts of the Red Sea. 
3. Gryphoides. C. testa orbiculata, muricata ; valvula altera 
planiore ; altera nate productiore subspirali. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 51. fig- 110.) 
4. Bicornis. C. testa valvulis conicis, natibus cuneifornubus 
obliquis tubulosis valvula longioribus. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 52. fig- 516. seq.) 
42. Arca. Testa bivalvis, sequivalvis. Cardo dentibus 
numerosis, acutis, alternis insertis. 

OF WORMS. 
255 
1. Noce. The Ark. — A. testa oblonga striata apice emargi- 
nati, processibus incurvis remotissimis, margine integer- 
rim o hiante. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 53. fig. 529.) 
2. Pilosa. A. testa suborbiculata aequilatera pilosa, natibus 
incurvis : margine crenato. 
(Poli. T. 2. Tab. 26. fig. 1-4.) 
In the Mediterranean Sea. The shells are covered with a 
vellum-like layer, particularly on the outer edge. 
43. Ostrea. Oyster. Ger. Auster. Fr. Huitre. — Testa bi- 
valvis, inaequivalvis, (plerisque) subaurita. Cardo 
edentulus fossula cava ovata ; striisque lateralibus 
transversis. 
The very different Species of this Genus might be convenient- 
ly divided into two others 3 one, to which the two first Species 
belong, including the Scallops 3 the other. Oysters, properly 
so called. 
3. Pleuronectes. O. testa sequivalvi radiis 12 duplicatis, ex- 
tus lsevi. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 61. fig. 595.) 
2. Pallium. O. testa sequivalvi radiis 12 convexis, striata 
scabra squamis imbricata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 64. fig. 607.) 
3. Malleus. O. testa sequivalvi triloba, lobis transversis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 70. fig. 655.) 
4. Folium. O. testa insequivalvi ovata, lateribus obtuse pli- 
cata parasitica. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 71. fig. 662.) 
5. Edulis. The common Oyster. — O. testa inaequivalvi semi- 
oribiculata, membranis imbricatis undulatis, valvula altera 
plana integerrima. 
Found principally on the Coasts of the North-West of Europe, 
and of the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas, on banks, in re- 
spect to which and the differences of flavour, the distinctions 
are made of hill, sand, and clay Oysters *. 
6. Ephippium. O. testa aequivalvi orbiculata, compressa 
membranacea. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VII. Tab. 59. fig. 576.) 
* See a notice of the principal Oyster-banks on the Coasts of Europe, in 
Beckmann’s Vorbereitung zur H'aarenkunde. B. 1. S. 93. — 111. 

OF WORMS. 
256 
In the Indian Ocean. It occasionally contains pearls, but 
generally of inferior colour and shape. 
7. Crista Galli. O. testa aequivalvi plicata, spinosa, labro 
utroque scabro. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 75. fig. 683.) 
44. Anomia. Testa inaequivalvis $ valvula altera plani- 
uscula (saepe basi perforata), altera basi magis gib- 
ba. Cardo edc-ntulus cicatricula lineari prominente, 
introrsum dente laterali. Radii 2 ossei pro basi 
animalis. 
1 . Ephippium. A. testa suborbiculata rugoso-plicata : plam- 
ore perforata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 76- fig- 692.) 
2. Cepa. A. testa abovata insequali violacea : superiore con- 
vexa, inferiore perforata. 
(Chemintz. 1. c. fig. 694.) 
3. Vitrea. A. testa ovata, ventricosa, alba, tenerrima, val- 
vula altera rostro incurvata, perforata. Margine acuto 
integerrimo, undique clauso. 
(Chemnitz. 1. c. fig. 707- seq.) 
In the Mediterranean, the Atlantic Ocean, &c. One of the few 
marine animals of the present creation, which may be consi- 
dered as the original of a really similar petrifaction, found in 
the strata of Transition Lime-stone. 
45. Mytilus. Muscle. Ger. Miesmuschel. Fr. Moule. 
—Testa bivalvis rudis, sajpius affixa bysso. Cardo 
edentulus, distinctus linea subulata excavata longi- 
tudinali. 
1. Margaritifer. M. testa compresso-plana, suborbiculata, 
basi transversa imbricata tunicis dentatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. SO. fig. 717- sec l) 
Remarkable as well for the very fine pearls found in the ani- 
mal, as for the Mother of Pearl afforded by the shells. From 
the tendinous band closing the shell, and which glitters like 
Labrador-stone, is cut, the so called Gemma penna favoms, 
or helmintholithus androdamas — Linn. 
<2. Lithophagus. M. testa cylindrica utrinque extremitatibus 
rotundatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. lab. 82. fig. /29. seq.) 
Bores holes in rocks, coral-stems, &e. : even in the hardest 
marble, as is shewn by the celebrated, but mysterious pheno- 

OF WORMS. 
257 
menon of the three large columns of Cipollino antico, in the 
Temple of Serapis, at Pozzuolo, which, though at a elevation 
of 27 feet above the level of the Mediterranean near them, are 
perforated in a circular manner by these animals. See P. A. 
Paoli, Antichita di Pozzuoli. Tab. 15. 
3. Edulis. M. testa laeviuscula violacea, valvulis antice sub- 
carinatis, postice retusis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. S4. fig. 750. seq.) 
A doubtful kind of food, which has occasionally proved fatal. 
4. Bidens. M. testa striata subcurvata, margine posteriore 
inflexo, cardine terminali bidentato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 83. fig. 742. seq.) 
5. Modiolus. M. testa laevi margine anteriore carinato, nati- 
bus gibbis cardine sublaterali. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 85. fig. 757.) 
Particularly fine on the Coasts of New Guinea ; but found 
also on the Coasts of the North of Europe. 
46. Pinna. Sea-wing. Ger. Steckmuschel. Fr. Jambon. 
— Testa subbivalvis, fragilis, erecta, emittens bar- 
ham byssinam. Cardo edentulus, coalitis in unam 
valvulis. 
These Testacea are celebrated for their beard, by means of 
which they attach themselves, and from which gloves, &c. 
are manufactured at Smyrna, Tarentum, Palermo, &c, 
1. Rudis. P. testa sulcata : squamis formicatis, per series 
digestis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 88. fig. 773. seq.) 
2. Nobilis. P. testa striata : squamis canaliculato-tabulosis 
subimbricatis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. VIII. Tab. 89. fig. 775. seq.) 
(C.) Univalve, Shells with regular turns. 
Conch.®. (Mollusca testacea cephalopoda et gasteropoda.) 
The direction of the turns of the Shells is almost universally 
the same 3 viz., so that when the point is turned downwards, 
and the opening upwards, the latter is turned to the left, and 
the turns are to the right from above downwards, correspond- 
ing to the apparent course of the sun. Some few Species have 
naturally their turns in the opposite direction 3 ( Abbild . Nat. 
Hitt. Gegenst. Tab. 20.) and occasionally, though rarely, mon- 
strosities are found turning to the left in those Shells which 
commonly turn to the right, (anfractis sinistris sive contra- 
s 

OF WORMS. 
258 
riis.)* Some Snails are enabled to close their Shells by a pe- 
culiar covering, and others, on the approach of Winter, deposit 
a calcareous screen before the orifice. 
47. Argonauta. Testa univalvis spiralis, involuta, mem- 
branacea, unilocularis. 
1. Argo. (Nautilus papyraceus.) The Paper-Sailor. — A. Ca- 
rina subdentata. (Animal sepia?) 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 17- fig- 156. seq.) 
A milk-white, light, and very delicate Shell, of considerable 
size, supposed to be inhabited by an animal like the Cuttle- 
fish. The latter can sail on the surface of the Ocean by means 
of an expansible membrane, and can also sink at pleasure. 
48. Nautilus. Testa univalvis, isthmis perforatis con- 
camerata, polythalamia. 
The Shells are divided into chambers, in the anterior of which 
the animal lives, and can make itself heavier or lighter at 
pleasure, by pumping water into or out of the others. 
1. Pompilius . The Sailor. Ger. das Schiffboth. Fr. le Bur- 
g au _N. testa spirali apertura cordata, anfractibus con- 
tiguis obtusis loevibus. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 18.) 
2. Calcar. N. testa spirali, apertura lineari, anfractibus eon- 
tiguis : geniculis el’evatis. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 19. fig. 168, seq.) 
One of the very small Shells of the sand of Rimini. 
49. Conus. Ger. Tute. — Testa univalvis, convoluta, 
turbinata. Apertura effuse longitudinalis, linearis, 
edentula, basi integra. Columella fevis. 
1. Marmoreus. C. testa conica fusca, maculis ovatis albis, 
splrse anfractibus canaliculatis. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab. 62. fig. 6S5-S8.) 
2. Ammiralis summus. C. testa ferruginea maculis albis 
squamatis sparsis ; fasciisque tribus flavis tenuissime 
reticulatis; media cingulo ferrugineo itidem squamulis 
albis interrupto. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab. 57- fig. 634.) 
In the East Indies. 
3. Locumtenens. C. testa ferruginea maculis albis squamatis 
tota reticulata. 
* See Chrmnltz, Conchy lien- Cabinet. B. ix. Absch. 1. fort >t»n L inter tr- 
nccken. « 

OF WORMS. 
259 
Particularly abundant in the Red Sea: 
4. Aurisiacus. C. testa pallide aurantia, fasciis fuscis catenu- 
latis : lineisque punctatis. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab. 57- fig- 636.) 
5. Textile. C. testa venis reticulatis luteis, maculis luteis 
fuscisque. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab, 54. fig. 598. seq.) 
50. Cypraea. (Concha veneris, sive cytheriaca, sive pa- 
phia.) Testa univalvis, involuta, subovata, obtusa, 
ltevis. Apertura utrinque effusa, linearis, utrinque 
dentata, longitudinalis. 
The animals of this Genus at certain periods cast off their 
Shells and obtain new ones 3 which in many of the Species are 
so unlike the former, as to have given rise to numerous errors. 
1. Arabicd. C. testa subturbinata characteribus inscripta, 
macula longitudinali simplici. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 31. fig. 328. seq.) 
2. Manritiana. C. testa obtusa triquetro-gibba postice de- 
pressa, acuta 3 subtus nigra. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 30. fig. 317. seq.) 
3. Tigris. The Leopard-cowry Shell. — C. testa obtusa ova- 
ta, postice obtusa, antice rotundata, linea longitudinali 
testacea. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 24. fig. 232. seq.) 
In the East and West Indies, and also the South Seas. At Ota- 
heite, it is used as a drinking vessel. 
4. Moneta. The Cowry. — C. testa marginato-nodosa albida. 
Principally in the Philippine and Maidive Islands, but also on 
the Coast of Guinea, and many Islands of the South Seas. 
They form, as is well known, the current coin of many Indian 
nations * , as well as of the Negroes of a great part of Africa 
and the West Indies. The Bramins use them as counters. 
51. Bulla. Dipper. Ger. Blasenschnecke. — Testa uni- 
valvis, convoluta, inermis. Apertura subcoarctata, 
oblonga, longitudinalis, basi integerrima. Columella 
obliqua, laevis. 
1. Ovum. B. testa ovata obtuse subbirostri, labro dentato. 
* In Bengal 2,500 are worth about half a florin, and yet there are arti- 
cles in the markets to be bought for a single cowry, such as Betel-leaves, 
Areca-nuts, &e. — See Rennell’s Geographical Illustrations of M. Park’s 
Journey, p. 86. t 
s 2 

260 
OF WORMS. 
(Martini. .Vol. I. Tab. 22. fig. 205. seq.) 
2. Physis. B. testa rotundata glaberrima pellucida lineis 
crispata, spira retusa. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 21. fig. 196.) 
3. Ficus. B, testa obovata-clavata, reticulato- striata, cauda 
exserta, spira obliterata. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 66. fig. 733. seq.) 
In both Indies. 
52. Voluta. Rhomb-shell. Ger. Walze. — Testa unilo- 
cularis, spiralis. Apertura ecaudata subeffusa. Colu- 
mella plicata ; labio umbilicove nullo. 
1. Anris Midce. V. testa coaretata, ovali-oblonga, spira ru- 
gosa columella bidentata. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab. 43. fig. 436. seq.) 
2. Oliva. V. testa emarginata eylindroide lsevi, spirse basi 
reflexa, columella oblique striata. 
(Martini. Vol. II. Tab. 45. fig. 472. seq.) 
n the East Indies, North America, &c. 
3. Mitra. V. testa marginata fusiformi lsevi, labro denticu- 
lato, columella quadriplicata. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 147- fig- 1360.) 
4. Musica. V. testa marginata fusiformi, anfractibus spinis 
obtusis, columella octoplicata, labro laevi crassiusculo. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 96. fig. 926. seq.) 
5. Pirum. V. testa obovata subcaudata : spirae anfractibus 
striatis : apice producto glaberrimo, columella tripli- 
cata. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 95. fig- 916-17-— And in Chemnitz. 
Vol. IX. p. 1 . Tab. 104. fig. 884. seq. turning to the left.J 
Particularly on the Coast of Coromandel. It is made into arm 
and finger rings, worn by the poorer Hindoos j. after their 
death, these rings are thrown by their relations into some holy 
river, and never again taken up by any of the people. Hence 
the great consumption of such rings, and the importance ot 
the fishery for the Shells from which they are manufactured. 
6. Vexillum. V. testa ventricosa flavicante aurantio striata ; 
anfractu primo reliquis triplo majore tuberculato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. X. Vign. 20. A. B.) 
In the Indian Ocean. A Shell, the value of which has been 
much enhanced by the cupidity of collectors. 
53. Buccinum. Whelk. Ger. Sturmhaube.— 1 Testa umval- 
vis, spiralis, gibbosa. Apertura ovata, desinens in 

OF WORMS. 261 
canaliculum dextrum, cauda retusum. Labium inte- 
rius explanatum. 
The eggs of many Species are called Sea- Grapes, of others 
Sea-Hops, whilst in others they form a long’ row of horny, 
flat capsules, which lie close to one another, fastened by one 
edge to a rib a foot long. 
1. Harpa. B. testa varicibus aequalibus longitudinalibus 
distinctis mucronatis, columella laevigata. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 119. fig. 1090.) 
2. Lapillus. B. testa ovata acuta striata laevi, columella 
planiuscula. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 121. fig. 1111. seq.) 
The animal gives a purple dye, which is used by the Norwe- 
gians. 
3. Undatum. B. testa oblonga rudi transversim striata : an- 
fractibus curvato-multangulis. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 126. fig. 1206. seq.) 
4. Maculatum. B. testa turrita subfusiformi, anfractibus lae- 
vibus indivisis integerrimis. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 153. fig. 1440.) 
54. Strombus. Screw. Ger. Fliigelschnecke. — Testa 
univalvis, spiralis, latere ampliata. Apertura labro 
ssepius dilatato, desirens in canalem sinistrum. 
1. Fusus. S. testa turrita laevi, cauda subulata, labio den- 
tato. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 158. fig. 1493. seq.) 
2. Chiragra. S. testa labro liexadactylo, digitis curvis, cauda 
recurvata. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. S6. seq. fig. 853. seq.) 
3. Lentiginosus. S. testae labro antice trilobo incrassato, 
dorso verrucoso coronato, cauda obtusa. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 78. fig. 800.) 
The operculum of this and some similar Shells was formerly 
officinal, under the name of Unguis odoratus ; or Blatta by- 
zantina. 
55. Murex. Rock-shell. Ger. Stachelschnecke. — Testa 
univalvis, spiralis, exasperata suturis membranaceis. 
Apertura desinens in canalem 'integrum, rectum sive 
subascendentem. 
1 . Tribulus. M. testa ovata spinis setaceis trifariis, cauda 
elongata subulata recta, similiter spinosa. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 113. fig. 1055. seq.) 

262 
OF WORMS. 
■2. Brandaris. M. testa subovata spinis rectis cincta, cauda 
mediocri subulata recta spinisque oblique cireumdata. 
(Martini. Vol. III. Tab. 114. fig. 1058. seq.) 
In the Mediterranean ; as is also the following Species. 
3. Trunculus. M. testa ovata nodosa anterius spinis cincta, 
cauda breviore truncata perforata. 
(Listkr. Tab. 947- fig. 42.) 
Together with the above, one of the Purple-shells of the an- 
cients *. 
4. Antiquus. M. testa patulo-caudata oblonga, anfractibus 8 
teretibus. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 138. fig. 1292. seq.) 
On the Coasts of Great Britain, Iceland, &c. 
5. Vertagus. M. testa turrita, anfractibus superne plicatis, 
cauda adscendente, columella intus plicata. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 156. seq. fig. 1479. seq.) 
56. Trochus. Top-shell. Button-shell. Ger. Krausel- 
schnecke. — Testa univalvis, spiralis, subconica. 
Apertura subtetragono-angulata sive rotundata, su- 
perius transversa, coarctata : columella obliquata. 
1. Perspectivus. The Staircase. Ger. die Perspectivsclinecke. 
— T. testa convexa obtusa marginata, umbilico pervio 
crenulato. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 172. p. 1691. seq.) 
A remarkable shell with very delicate windings, leaving a fun- 
nel-shaped cavity in the middle f. 
2. Magus. T. testa oblique umbilicata convexa : anfractibus 
supra obtuse nodulosis. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 171- fig- 1656. seq.) 
3. Telescopium. T. testa imperforata turrita striata, colu- 
mella exserta spirali. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 160. fig. 1507- seq.) 
4. Iridis. The Beauty. Fr . la Cantharide. — T. testa imper- 
forata ovata, subcierulea, lsevi, oblique striata. 
(Martyn’s South Sea Shells . Tab. 21. (24.) m.) 
When the bluish layer covering this beautiful New Zealand 
* See Mich. Rosa, Delle porpore degli Antichi. Moden. 1786. 4to. 
With plates. 
f Linnaeus calls this cavity or umbilicus “ stupendum natures artifi- 
cium,” and modern archaeologists consider the shell as the prototype ot the 
volute of the Ionic column. 

OF WORMS, ^63 
Shell is removed, it displays most splendid gold and green 
colours. 
6. Lithophorus. T. testa imperforata rugosa, quisquiliarum 
impressionibus scabra. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 172. fig. 1688. seq.) 
In the West Indian Islands. It has its name from the irregu- 
larities, like blows from a hammer, or small-pox marks, 
caused by the little pebbles, and fragments of other shells at- 
tached to it. 
57- Turbo. Whirl- wreath. Ger. Mondschnecke. — Testa 
univalvis, spiralis, solida. Apertura coarctata, orbi- 
culata, integra. 
1. Littoreus . T. testa subovata acuta striata, margine co- 
lumnari piano. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 185. fig. 1852.) 
In many Seas : among others the Adriatic, the nations near it 
eating the animal in great numbers. 
2. Cochlus. T. testa imperforata ovata striata ; stria unica 
dorsali crassiore. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 172. fig. 1S05. seq.) 
The operculum of this and some similar Species forms the um- 
bilicus veneris. 
3. Scalaris. (Scalata.) T. testa cancellata conica anfractibus 
distantibus. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 152. fig. 1426. seq.) 
Principally on the Coast of Coromandel. It is distinguished 
by its turns being distant, and apparently interrupted. 
4. Clathrus. T. testa cancellata turrita exumbilicata, anfrac- 
tibus contiguis laevibus. 
(Martini. Vol. IV. Tab. 152. fig. 1434. seq.) 
5. Terebra. T. testa turrita : anfractibus carinis 6 acutis. 
(Frontispiece to Martyn's South Sea Shells .) 
6. Perversus. T. testa turrita pellucida : anfractibus contrariis, 
apertura edentula. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. IX. Tab. 112. fig. 959.) 
This little Shell, which turns to the left, is, with this exception, 
very similar to the Turbo muscorum, and is very common on 
the stems of old willows and other trees. 
7. Nautileus. T. testa planiuscula anfractibus annulatis, 
dorso cristatis. 
(Rose i.. Vohjpen- Histone. Tab. 97- fig- 7 •) 
In fresh water. 

OK WORMS. 
264 
58. Helix. Snail. Periwinkle. Ger. Schnirkelschnecke. 
Fr. Escargot.' — Testa univalvis, spiralis, subdiapha- 
na, fragilis. Apertura coarctata, intus lunata sive 
subrotunda : segmento circuli demto. 
Mostly land and fresli water animals. 
1. Hispida. H. testa umbilicata convexa hispida diaphana, 
anfractibus quinis, apertura subrotundo-lunata. 
2. Pomatia. H. testa umbilicata subovata, obtusa decolore, 
apertura subrotundo-lunata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. IX. Tab. 128. fig. 1138.^ 
In many places, particularly Switzerland, a considerable trade 
is carried on in these Snails, about the period of Lent. In the 
same country there are also gardens, in which they are fed in 
many thousands together. Their great reproductive powers 
have been already alluded to. 
3. Arbustorum. H. testa umbilicata convexa acuminata, aper- 
tura suborbiculari bimarginata, antice elongata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. IX. Tab. 133. fig. 1102.) 
4. Ianthina. H. testa subimperforata subrotunda obtusa dia- 
phana fragilissima, apertura postice dilatata, labro emar- 
ginato. 
(Fab. Columna. p. 22.) 
In the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and South Sea. The animal, 
like many others of the same kind, affords a purple fluid. The 
shell is of a purplish blue colour. 
5. Vivipara. H. imperforata subovata obtusa cornea : cin- 
gulis fuscatis ; apertura suborbiculari. 
(Frisch, lnsecten. p. 13. Tab. 1.) 
6. Nemoralis. H. testa imperforata subrotunda lsevi diaphana 
fasciata, apertura subrotundo-lunata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. IX. Tab. 133. fig. 1196. seq.) 
7. Decollata , H. testa imperforata turrita ; spira mutilato- 
truncata, apertura ovata. 
(Chemnitz. Vol. IX. Tab. 136. fig. 1254. seq.) 
8. Haliotoidea . H. testa imperforata depresso-planiuscula 
striis undatis ; apertura ovali dilatata usque in apicem. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 16. fig. 151. seq.) 
59. Merita. Testa univalvis, spiralis, gibba, subtus 
plauiuscula. Apertura semiorbicularis : labio colu^ 
mellse transverso, truncato, planiusculo. 
1. Canrena. N. testa umbilicata leevi, spira submucronata, 
umbilico gibbo bifido. 

OF WORMS. 
265 
(Chemnitz. Vol. V. Tab. 1S6\ fig. I860, seq.) 
2. Fluviatilis . N. testa purpurescente, maculis albis tesselata. 
A very delicately marked animal, which, as well as the next 
Species, carries its young about on its shell*. 
3. Pulligera. N. testa laevi rudi, spirula excuvato-oculata, 
labio interiore laevi crenulato. 
A fresh water Shell, from the East Indies. 
60. Haliotis. Sea-ear. Venus’s ear. Ger. Seeohr. — Testa 
auriformis patens : spira occultata laterali j disco 
longitudinaliter poris pertuso. 
1. Tuberculata. H. testa subovata dorso transversim rugoso 
tuber culato. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 15. seq. fig. 145. seq.) 
2. Lis. (Hipaiia.) H. testa ovata, dorso gibbo, spira alte 
prominula. 
(Martyn’s South Sea Shells. Tab. 61. a. a.) 
This glittering and indescribably splendid Shell is found among 
our antipodes at New Zealand. 
(D.) Univalve, Shells without any regular convolutions. 
Found in water only j and by far most frequently in the Ocean. 
61. Patella. Limpet. Ger. Napfschnecke. — Testa uni- 
valvis subconica absque spira externa. 
1. Neritoidea. P. testa integra ovata apice subspirali, labio 
laterali. 
2. Vulgata. P. testa subangulata : angulis 14 obsoletis ; 
margine dilatato acuto. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 5. fig. 38.) 
3. Lacustris. P. testa integerrima ovali, vertice mucronato 
reflexo, 
4. Fissura. P. testa ovali striato-reticulata, vertice recurvo 
antice fissa. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 12. fig. 109.) 
5. Grceca. P. testa ovata convexa : margine introrsum cre- 
nulato, vertice perforato. 
(Tournefort. Voy. du Levant. Vol. I. p. 294.) 
A common article of food in the Islands of the Archipelago. 
62. Dentalium. Tooth-Shell. Ger. Meerzahn. — Testa 
univalvis, tubulosa, recta, utraque extremitate pervia. 
* Rappolt, in Commerc. Nor. 1738. p. 177. set). 

26(3 
OF WORMS. 
1. Entalis. D. testa tereti subarcuata continua laevi. 
(Martini. Vol. I. Tab. 1. fig. 1. seq.) 
2. Minutum. D. testa tereti erectiuscula laevi minuta. 
Found in the sand at Rimini. 
- 
63. Sehpula, Worm-shell. Ger. Wurmrohre. — Testa 
univalvis, tubulosa, adhaerens. 
1. Filigrana. S. testis capillaribus faseieulatis ramoso-glo- 
meratis cancellatisque. 
(Seba. Vol. III. Tab. 100. fig. S.) 
2. Contortuplieata. S. testa semitereti rugosa glomerata cari- 
nata. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 59.) 
This little animal, which I have had an opportunity of examin- 
ing, has a very pleasing form ; having seven long arms con- 
verging, bent into an arch, and beset with sixty short, straight 
fibres at the root. 
3. Perforata. The 'Watering-pot. — S. testa tereti recta, ex- 
tremitatibus disco poris pertuso, margine reflexo, tubu- 
loso. 
{Museum Leersianum. Tab. 1.) 
A singular Species, which has considerable resemblance to the 
tube-coral. The orifice is like the end of a watering-pot, and 
its edge is surrounded with a ring of little tubes. The poste- 
rior extremity is almost always broken off. 
4. Gigantea. Testa subflexuosa lente attenuata violacea, in- 
tus laevi lutea : apertura alba undulatim striata dente eo- 
nico munita. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 9.) 
In the West Indies. The animal resembles the stone-borer. 
(Mytilus lithophagus.) It inhabits excavated passages in large 
Madrepores. 
64. Teredo. Testa teres, flexuosa, lignum penetrans. 
1. Navalis. T. corpore tereti elongato, ore attenuato, extre- 
mitate postica pholadiforma , quadrivalvi. 
{Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. S9.) 
This destructive animal is about a foot long. It attacks oak, 
alder, fir, and other timber, boring passages as wide as a fin- 
ger, which it lines with a calcareous layer. It has threatened 
great danger in Holland, particularly in IJ30, by perforating 
the dams of Zealand and Friezland, in such a manner as to ren- 
der them incapable of supporting the force of the waves : even 

OK WORMS. 
267 
at present, it causes great devastations, particularly in the dyke 
of Westkappler. 
IV. CRUSTACEA. 
I have arranged these animals in a particular Order, as they 
differ in many respects from Worms, and have many common 
characters. They live only in the sea and in general no ani- 
mals of the three remaining Orders live out of water. 
65. Echinus*. Sea-liedgeliog. Ger. See-Igel. Fr. Oursin. 
— Corpus subrotundum, crusta spatacea tectum, spi- 
nis mobilibus ssepius aculeatum. Os quinquevalve 
subtus. 
The Shell'of the Sea-hedgehog (which in texture resembles 
that of the Crab,) is provided with moveable prickles, which, 
however, must not be confounded with the actual organs of 
motion. The latter are about a third longer than the prickles, 
and visible only whilst the animal is under water, being re- 
tracted when it is taken out of its element. A Sea-hedgehog, 
which has perhaps 2000 prickles, has about 1400 such organs 
of motion. Those Echini which are convex, have within a re- 
markable bony frame, known by the singular name of Aris- 
totle’s lantern. The very numerous Species of this extensive 
Genus vary considerably, as well in the form of the Shell as of 
the prickles. 
1. Esculentus. The Sea-egg. — E. hemisphgerico-globosus ; 
areis obsolete verrucosis. 
(Klein. Tab. 1. et 38. fig. 1.) 
2. Cidaris. E. hemisphserico-depressus : ambulacris 5 repan- 
dis linearibus ; areis alternatim bifariis. 
(Klein. Tab. 7. A. et 39, fig. 2.) 
3. Orbiculus. E. planus suborbiculatus ; ambulacris 5 ovali- 
bus, ano subremoto. 
(Klein. Tab. 21. seq.) 
66. AsTERiAsf. Sea Star. — Corpus depressum, crusta 
subcoriacea, tentaculis muricata. Os centrale, quin- 
quevalve. 
The organs of motion are similar to those of the Echini. 
They move, however, much more slowly, like Snails. Many 
of the Species are noxious to Oysters, others to Cod-fish, &c. 
+ 
. J. T. Klein m, naturalis dispositio echimdermalum cx eel. N. G. Leske, 
Lips. 1778. 4 to. 
t J. H. Linkius, de stetli* marinit. Lips. 1733. fol. 

268 
OP WORMS. 
1. Rubens. A. stellata, radiis lanceolatis gibbis, undique 
aculeata. 
(Link. Tab. 4. fig. 5, &c.) 
In this Species the power of reproduction is particularly strik- 
ing. In a series of this Species, in progress of reproduction, 
I possess one in which regeneration had begun of the four rays 
that had been removed, out of five which it originally pos- 
sessed. 
2. Glacialis. A. stellata, radiis angulatis, angulis verrucoso- 
aculeatis. 
(Link. Tab. 38, 39.) 
3. Ophiura. A. radiata radiis 5 simplicibus, stella orbiculata 
quinqueloba. 
(Link. Tab. 37. fig- 65, &c.) 
4. Caput Medusa. (Gorgono-cephalus.) A. radiata, radiis di- 
chotomis. 
(Link. Tab. 18. fig. 28, &c.) 
In many Seas of the Old World, and also in the Caspian. 
That of the Northern Ocean, however, appears to differ speci- 
fically from that of the Southern Indian Seas. A very inactive 
and singularly formed animal, on the circumference of which 
S2,000 extremities have been reckoned. 
There is a popular idea among the Norwegians, that this 
animal is the young of the famous Kraken, of which Pontop- 
pidan has related so many wonders in his Natural History of 
Norway. This monster is supposed to live in the depths of 
the sea, rising occasionally to the great danger of the ships 
with which it comes in contact, at which times the projection 
of its back above the surface of the sea, resembles a floating 
island. 
When all that has been said about it is carefully examined, 
it is clear that various circumstances have given rise to the 
misconception. Much of it is applicable to the whale 3 (see 
for instance the narrative of an accident from the rising of such 
an animal, in W. Tench’s Account of the Settlement at Port Jack- 
son ;) much is referable to thick, low, fog-banks, which even 
experienced seamen have mistaken for land 3 (see a remarkable 
instance in Voyage de La Perouse autour du Monde. Vol. III. 
p. 10.) an opinion coinciding with what was long since said of 
this same Kraken by old Thormod Torfesen in his Groen- 
landia antiqua, p. 100 “ Tractahaec fabula videtur ex insula 
aliquando conspicua, sajpius tamen inconspicua.’ 

OF 'WORMS. 
269 
67. Encrinus. Stirps elongata, corpore terminali radiato. 
1. Asteria. (Isis asteria. Linn.) E. stirpe spatacea articulata 
pentagona, ramis verticillatis : Stella terminali sexfida 
ad basin, turn diehotoma. 
(Gukttard. Mem. de l Ac. des Sc. 1755.) 
This rare animal has hitherto been found on the Coasts of 
Barbadoes only : it resembles the fossil Pentacrinites or Me- 
dusa-Palms, without, however, being specifically similar. The 
head, as' it is called, has considerable resemblance to the Caput 
Medusae just mentioned. 
2. Radiatus. (Vorticella encrinus. Linn.) E. stirpe cartilagi- 
nea continua, Stella terminali octoradiata. 
(C. Mylius, Schreiben an Haller. Lond. 1755. 4to.) 
V. CC'RALLIA. 
This Order bears nearly the same relation to the following one 
that the Testacea do to the Mollusca. Even the animals, at 
least in many of the Genera of the two Orders, coincide in 
several particulars. In the one, however, they are uncovered, 
and have the power of locomotion ; in the other, they inhabit 
certain immovable dwellings, which in most cases are of a 
stony consistence, and are called Corals. These last, however, 
are not to be considered in the light of habitations constructed 
by the animals, but rather as inseparable and congenital parts 
of their structure, not as analogous to the cells of Bees, but 
rather to the shells of Snails : in their propagation, however, 
the young animal is produced together with its calcareous 
dwelling, in the same manner that a twig is shot out from a 
tree. Hence, too, the speedy increase and growth of these 
singular animals, will serve to explain their immense size and 
extent *. 
* On the History of Corals, see P. S. Pallas, Elenchus Zoophytorum. 
Hag. 1766. 8vo. — In German, with Additions, by C. F. Wilkens. Nurnb. 
1787. 4to. 
J. Ellis, Natural History of the Corallines, &c. Loudon, 1753. 4to. 
In German, with Additions, by J. G. Krunitz. Numb. 1767. 4to. 
Ej. Natural History of many curious and uncommon Zoophytes systema- 
tically arranged and described by D Solander, London, 1786. 4to. p.449- 
(I quote this excellent work by the name of Solander, to distinguish it 
from the preceding.) 
Vital. Donati, Della Storia Naturelle marina dell' Adriatico. Ven. 1750. 
4to. F. Cavolini, & c. 

OF WORMS. 
S»70 
Remark. I know from eye-witnesses, that pieces of wreck 
are often found in the West Indies to be overgrown with 
Madrepores and other Corals, within three quarters of a 
year. From the same cause, the Harbour of Bantam, for- 
merly so excellent, is now almost wholly obstructed. 
Many volcanic Islands of the South Seas and West In- 
dies, Barbadoes for instance, are, as it were, invested with 
a circle of Coral. Captain Cook, in his first voyage round 
the World, had ample experience on the East Coast of 
New Holland, which he first explored, of the danger to 
navigators of unknown shores, caused by the projection of 
Coral stems to a vast height from the bottom of the Sea. 
68. Tubipora. Corallium tubis cylindricis, cavis, erec- 
tis, parellelis. 
1. Musica. T'. tubis fasciculatis combinatis : dissepiraentis 
transversis distantibus. 
(Solander. Tab. 27-) 
In the East and South Indies only. 
69. Madrepora. Corallium cavitatibus lamelloso-stellatis. 
1 . Fungites. M. simplex acaulis orbiculata, Stella convexa : 
lamellis simplicibus longitudinalibus, subtus concava. 
(Solander. Tab. 28.) 
2. Muricata. M. ramoso-composita subimbricata, stellis 
oblique truncatis prominentibus adscendentibus. 
(Solander. Tab£)57-) 
3. Oculata. M. caulescens tubuloso-glabra flexuosa oblique 
substriata, ramis alternis, stellis immersis bifariis. 
(Seba. Vo\. III. Tab. 116. fig. 1, 2.) 
70 . Millepora. Corallium poris turbinatis teretibus. 
1. Lichenoides. M. caulescens decumbens bifarie dichotoma, 
ramis denticulatis binis porosis scabris. 
(Ellis. Tab. 35. fig. h. B.) 
2. Cellulosa. M. membranacea reticulata umbilicata, turbi- 
nato-undulata, hinc porosa pubescens. 
(Ellis. Tab. 24. fig. d . — Cavolini. Tab. 3. fig. 12. seq.) 
F. Cavolini, Memoria per servire alia storia dei polipi marini. Mass. 
1785. 4to. — In German by W. Sprkngel. Numb. 1813. 4to. 
E. J. C. Espers, Pfianzenthiere, &c. Nurnb. 1788. seq. 4to. 
J. E. Roques de Maumont, sur les Polypiers de il fer. Zelle. 1782. 8vo. 
j. A. H. Reimarus, von der Natur der Pfianzenthiere, (as an Appendix 
to S. Rei MAR ns’ Considerations on the various kinds of Animal Instincts.) 
Hamburg, 1773. 8vo. 

OK WORMS. J>71 
71. Cellepora. Corallium t’oraminulis ureeolatis, raem- 
branaceis. 
1- Spongites. (Adarce. — Lapis spongise offic.) C. lamellis 
simplicibus undulato-turbinatis cumulatis 3 cellulis se- 
riatis j oseulo margiaato. 
72. Isis. Stirps radicata solida, cortice molli habitabili 
obducta *. 
1 . Hippuris. I. stirpe articulate geniculis attenuatis. 
(So lander. Tab. 3. fig. 1. Tab. 9. fig. 3, 4.) 
2. Nobilis. I. stirpe continua, aequali, striis obsoletis obliquis 
ramis vagis. 
(Cavolini. Tab. 2. fig. 1-6.) 
Is collected principally from the shores of the Mediterranean, 
and manufactered at Marseilles, &c., into various works of 
art 3 which in the East Indies, and especially China and 
Japan, are held in nearly equal estimation with precious stones. 
73. Gorgoxia. Crusta ealcarea corallina stirpem vege- 
tabilem obducens. 
The stems appear to be really vegetables (the woody nature of 
which in the larger ones cannot be mistaken) incrusted with 
Corals. The Gorgonia Jlabellum is often found without this 
covering, and it then certainly shews no signs of animality f. 
1. Antipathes. G. panieulato-ramosa ligno extus flexuose 
striato. 
(Seba Thesaur. 3. Tab. 104. fig. 2.) 
2. Flabellum. G. reticulata, ramis interne compressis, cortice 
flavo. 
(Ellis. Tab. 26. fig. k.) 
74. Alcyonium. Stirps radicata, stuposa, tunicato-cor- 
ticata. Animal hydra. 
1 . Exos. (Manus marina.) A. stirpe arboreseente coriaeea 
coccinea superne ramosa 3 papillis stellatis. 
(Gesner. de aquatil. p. 619.) 
2. Epipetrum. A. stirpe cavata carnosa rufescente, 
(Gesner. 1. c.) 
75- Spongia. Stirps radicata flexilis, spongiosa, bibula. 
I think it every day more doubtful that this Genus really be- 
longs to the animal kingdom. 
On this, and the following Genera of Corals, sec J. V. F. Lamouroux, 
Pfiitoire des Polypiera coraHighnea fle.viblea. Caen. 1816. 8vo. with plates, 
t See Ellis’ reasons for a contrary opinion iu the Phil. Trans. Vol. 
ee. p. r. p. 1. 

272 
OF WORMS. 
1 . Officinalis. S. foraminulata subramosa difformis tenax 
tomentosa. 
2. Fluviatilis. (Russ. Badiaga.) S. conformis polymorpha, 
fragilis granulis repletu. 
This Species diffuses a peculiar strong smell, and is often in- 
terwoven, but only accidentally, with stems of the plumed 
Polype. When it is young it lies flat on banks, dykes, &c.: 
but in time shoots out branches like fingers or antlers. When 
dry, it is brittle and friable. I have found it in the foss of this 
place (Gottingen,) and have experimented upon it in many 
ways without being able to discover any decisive evidence of 
its animal nature. 
76 . Flustra. Stirpis radicata foliacea, undique poris 
cellulosis tecta. 
1 . Foliacea. F. foliacea ramosa, laciniis cuneiformibus rotun- 
datis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 29. fig. a.) 
77. Tubularia. Stirps radiata, filiformis, tubulosa. 
This Genus includes, among others, the fresh-water Corals, 
viz. the plume-Polypes (Ger. Federbusch Polypen. Fr. les 
Polypes & panache.) in which the crust must be distin- 
guished from the little animal inhabiting it, and whose prin- 
cipal character consists in a very delicate little plume which 
it retracts on the least disturbance, and when dying. The 
crust is originally gelatinous, but gradually hardens and pre- 
sents very different forms, even in the same Species. Some 
such tubes 1 have seen projecting from aquatic plants ; others, 
which shot out twigs like little trees in the interstices of the 
Spongia fluviatilis ; others lying flat near one another on 
dykes, &c. ; others heaped together in vast numbers, forming 
large masses. 
1 . Inclivisa. T. culmis simplicissimis, geniculis contortis., 
(Ellis. Tab. 16. fig. c.) 
2. Acetabulum. T. culmis filiformibus, pelta terminali stri- 
ata radiata calcarea. 
(Donati. Tab. %.) 
3. Campanulata. T. crista lunata, oriticiis vagime annulatis, 
corpore intra vaginam abscondito. 
(Rosel. Hist, der Polypen. Tab. 73-75-) 
Together with the next Species in fresh-water. It has about 
sixty arms or fibres in its plume. 
4 . Sultana. T. crista infundibuliformi, ad basin ciliata. 

OF WORMS. 
273 
A very delicate little animal, which I have found in the foss of 
this place. It has twenty arms, which are arranged very 
regularly in a little plume *. 
78. Corallina. Stirps radicata, geniculata, filamentosa, 
calcarea, 
1. Opuntia. C. trichotoma : articulis compressis subrenifor- 
mibus. 
(Solander. Tab. 20. fig. b .) 
2. Officinalis. C. subbipinnata, articulis subturbinatis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 24. fig. b.) 
3. Rubens. C. dichotoma capillaris fastigiata : articulis su- 
perioribus elevatis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 24. fig./, g.) 
79. Sertularia. Stirps radicata, tubulosa, cornea, nuda, 
articulata : dentibus calyciformibus obsita. 
An extensive Genus, many Species of which are found on the 
convex shell of the common Oyster. The stems are generally 
very delicate, and the whole of their beauty scarcely discern- 
ible by the naked eye. They increase by means of bladders, 
which may be compared to ovaria. 
1. Abietina. S. denticulis suboppositis tubulosis, ovariis ova- 
libus, ramis pinnato-alternis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 1. fig. b.) 
2. Falcata. S. denticulis secundis imbricatis truncatis, ova- 
riis ovatis, ramis pennatis alternis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 7- fig. a.) 
3. Polyzonias. S. denticulis alternis subdenticulatis, ovariis 
ovatis polyzoniis, stirpe ramosa. 
• (Ellis. Tab. 3. fig. a.) 
The difference of size excepted, Trembley found these Sertu- 
lariae very similar to his Arm-polypes of fresh-water. 
80. Cellularia. Stirps Crustacea lapidescens, e cellulis 
seriatis composita ; plerumque ramosa et articulata, 
tubulis adhserens. 
1. Fastigiata . (Sertularia fastigiata. Linn.) C. denticulis 
alternis acutis, ramis dichotomis erectis fastigiatis. 
(Ellis. Tab. 18. fig. a.') 
2. Cirrata. C. lapidea articulata ramosa dichotoma, articulis 
subciliatis, ovato-truncatis, uno latere planis celliferis. 
(Solander. Tab. 4. fig. d.) 
* Cutting. Magazin. 1. J. 4 St. — S. 117, &c. 
• T 

274 
or WORMS. 
VI. ZOOPHYTA. 
The term Zoophyte has been indiscriminately applied to the 
animals of this and the last Order j and in fact, as has been 
already mentioned, many Polypes in this resemble the inha- 
bitants of the Corals, differing in being uncovered, and without 
coralline habitations. Besides, most, if not all of them, are 
capable of changing their position ; (with a — stirps libera — as 
it is expressed.) Some are connected together on a common 
stem ; others are single. The infusory animalculse, and some 
similar creatures, are also included in this Order. 
81. Pennatula. Stirps libera, penniformis. 
In these remarkable marine animals there are, as in the feathers 
of birds, two principal parts, the quill and the vane. The 
latter consists of forty, sixty, or more, curved arms or fibres, 
attached to both sides of the upper half of the quill. On each 
of these arms stand ten, twelve, or more, small and very 
delicate shells, denticulated at the edge, in each of which 
is a little gelatinous Polype with eight arms ; so that at least 
500 such Polypes may be reckoned on a single Sea-feather. 
(Pennatula.) 
1. Grisea. P. stirpe carnosa, rachi Isevi, pinnis imbricatis 
plicatis spinosis. 
(B. S. Albini. Annot. Acad. L. 1. Tab. 4. fig. 1, 2.) 
2. Phosphor ea. P. stirpe carnosa, rachi scabra, pinnis imbri- 
catis. 
( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 90.) 
Shines vividly in the dark. 
82. Hydra. Corpus gelatinosum conicum, os terminate 
cinctum cirris filiformibus. 
These celebrated animals * are gelatinous, semi-transparent, 
and therefore not easily detected by unpractised eyes. In a 
state of rest, the body and arms are extended ; but when 
disturbed and taken out of the water, they contract into a 
shapeless mass. They are found in ponds and gently-running 
* A. Trembley, Memoires pour servOir a fhistoire d’ un genre de Polypes 
d’eau douce a bras en forme de comes. Leid. 1744. 4 to. 
H. Baker’s Natural History of the Polype. Bond. 1743. 8vo. 
Rosel’s Historic der Polypen, &c. Numb. 1754. 4to. (In the third Vol. 
of his lnsecten — Belusligiengen.) 
J. C. Schaefer’s Armpolypen in den sffssen Wassern um Regensburg. 
1754. 4 to. 

OF WORMS. 
275 
streams, from the commencement of the Spring- until Autumn, 
attached by the posterior extremity to aquatic plants, shells, 
&c. Their whole body is in fact but a stomach provided with 
arms for taking- their prey. They propagate during Summer, 
by shooting out living young ones like buds, which frequently 
detach others previous to their separation from the parent 
stem. On the approach of Winter, however, they have also 
the power of laying eggs *, whence a new progeny escapes in 
the ensuing Spring. When divided into six, or even more 
pieces, each piece is within a few days converted into a perfect 
Polype. By dividing the head or the posterior part of the 
body longitudinally, the number of those parts may be in- 
creased at pleasure. Several may be stuck together, and in 
this or other ways formed into singular and monstrous groups. 
They may be turned inside out like a glove ; a manoeuvre, it 
is true, requiring considerable dexterity and practice. They 
may be divided longitudinally, and expanded like a piece of 
ribband, and in that state, as Rosel has remarked, they have 
the power of destroying each other in an incomprehensible 
manner, or rather of running together. According to the re- 
markable observations of the late Prof. Lichtenberg, when 
included in a noose of hair, in proportion as the loop cuts its 
way through them, the divided parts are reunited +. 
1. Piridis. H. viridis tentaculis brevioribus. 
This Species appears to vary more than the others, with re- 
gard to the strength and length of the arms and body. It is 
found near this place, and the observations of its reproductive 
powers, first led to my investigations on the Nisus for mativus. 
2. Fusca. H. fusca, corpore longiore, cirris longissimis. 
(Rosel. Tab. 84.) 
3. Grisea. H. aurantia, corpore longiore, cirris longioribus. 
(Rosel. Tab. 78.) 
83. Brachionus. Blossom-polype. Ger, Blumenpolype. 
Fr. Polype a bouquet. — Stirps ramosa, polypis ter- 
minalibus ore contractili (plerisque ciliato.) 
These Polypes are attached like branches to a common stem. 
Such a collection of them appears to the naked eye like a lump 
of mould, (mucor,) which, on the least agitation, contracts, 
and seems to vanish for a moment. 
*' Pallas, Elenchus Zoophytorum. p. 28. 
t Got ting. Ma%. J. 3. St. 4. S. 565, &c. 
T 2 

276 
OF WORMS. 
1 . Anastatica. B. stirpe multifida, floribus campanulatis. 
These very delicate little animals propagate in the most simple 
manner, by division. (§ 20 .) 
2. Umbellarius. (Vorticella umbellaria. Linn.) B. stirpe 
umbellata, floribus ciliatis globosis muticis. 
(Rosel. Tab. 100 .) 
Together with the preceding Species and the next Genus, in 
ponds and ditches, on aquatic plants, shells, &c. 
S4. Vorticella. Corpus nudum, simplex, vagum. 
They live in societies of many thousands together, and have 
then almost the appearance of mucor. I have even seen the 
back of living Salamanders covered with vast numbers. 
1 . Stentorea. (Hydra stentorea. Linn.) V. corpore infundi- 
buliformi, tentaculis ciliaribus. 
(Rosel. Tab. 94. fig. 7> 8.) 
2. Socialis. (Hydra socialis. Linn.) V. mutica torosa rugosa. 
(Rosel. Tab. 95.) 
85. Furcularia. Corpus liberum nudum oblongum, ten- 
taculis rotatoriis ciliatis, cauda bicuspidata. 
1 . Rotatoria. The Wheel-animal. Ger. das Raderthier. Fr. 
le Rotifere, 
This very singular microscopic animalcule exists in stagnant 
waters and various infusions. It swims very actively, and 
changes its form almost every moment. It is capable of re- 
viving by the contact of a drop of water, after having lain :n 
the dry state for a year, apparently dead 5 and this may be 
repeated ten or twelve times. The dark substance in the ante- 
rior part of its body, which, notwithstanding its voluntary 
motion, so many naturalists have considered as a heart, is not 
so, but, as I have convinced myself, an organ belonging to the 
alimentary canal*. 
86 . Vibrio. Corpus liberum, teres, elongatum. 
] . Aceti. V. subrigidus, cauda longiore tenuiore acuminata . 
mucrone retractili ad basin prominente. 
(Goeze in the Naturforscher 18. Tab. 3. fig- 12. &c.) 
In vinegar. A similar Species in book-binder s old paste, lhe&e 
are Species of animals which should seem to have been formed 
long after the general Creation. As far as is known, they are 
found only in vinegar and paste, products of the ingenuity of 
man in a cultivated state. 
* See my Manual of Comparative Anatomy , p. 245. 

OF WORMS. 277 
S7. Volvox. Corpus liberum, rotundum, gelatinosum, 
gyratile. Tubus alimentarius vix ullus. 
1. Globator. V. globosus, superficie granulata. 
(Rosel. Tab. 101. fig. 1-3.) 
A little ball, of yellow, green, or other colours, which, without 
having any evident organs of locomotion, moves and turns 
actively in water. When full grown, the progeny can be dis- 
tinguished in its body, even to the fourth generation. 
28. Chaos. Corpus liberum. 
(Generi pohjmorphon, speciebus uniforme 
Following the plan of Linn^us, we conclude the general his- 
tory of animals by including, under this generic term, the in- 
numerable* creatures not visible by the naked eye, of which, 
many Species are found in sea and fresh water j others in the 
infusions of various animal and vegetable substances, (hence 
called Infusory Animalcules ; ) and others in the mature semen 
of male animalsf. 
They may be divided into three families, of which, each 
embraces numerous Species : — 
(A.) Aquatile. 
Those of sea, and stagnant fresh water, particularly such as 
the green matter of Priestley vegetates|. 
(B.) Infusorium. 
The Infusory Animalcules, properly so called. 
(C.) Spermaticum. (Cercaria spermatica.) 
The Animalculse found in semen. The late M. Hollmann has 
computed, that the Milt of a Carp, two pounds weight, con- 
tains upwards of 253,000 millions of Spermatic Animalcules. 
* Even in the seventieth year of the last Century, O. F. Muller was ac- 
quainted with 400 Species of Infusory Animalcules. 
f See G. R. Treviranus, Biologie. B. 2. S. 264., &c. — And C. L. 
Nitzsch, Beytrag zur Infusorien-kunde. Halle. 1817. 8vo. with plates. 
X Which matter may be considered the lowest degree of vegetation, 
as the Chaos aquatile, present in it, is of actual animality. 

278 
OF PLANTS. 
SECT. X. 
OF PLANTS. 
§ 158. We come now to the second kingdom of living or 
organized bodies. Plants, which, according to the definitions 
already established, (§ 3 and 4.) differ from animals in this 
respect, that they absorb their homogeneous nutritive juice 
without any evident voluntary motion, and principally by 
means of the root, which is, therefore, by far the most uni- 
versal of all their external parts, existing in nearly all, a few 
such as the Nostock, Truffles, &c., being the only exceptions. 
§ 159. In addition, the form of plants in general, is different 
from that of most animals, inasmuch as their growth, and 
in particular the numbers of individual parts, branches, leaves, 
flowers, &c. are much less definite, and altogether infinitely 
more mutable. ( Extensio minus definita.) 
§ 160. On the contrary, their internal structure appears to 
be in an equal degree more uniform, exhibiting nothing which 
can be compared to the viscera, so essential to the economy of 
animals, and nothing similar to their nerves, muscles and 
bones : their organization is ultimately reducible to vessels, 
properly so called, and the cellular structure intervening be- 
tween them *. 
§ 161. The latter has a more perfect claim to the term cellular 
than the mucous tissue of animals to which it has been ap- 
plied, since, in many parts of plants at least, it presents a 
real cellular disposition, sometimes including air, at others 
fluids. It is particularly evident in the bark and pith (medulla) 
of many plants, inclosing numerous large vesicles (utriculi,) 
and occasionally forming long tube-like cavities. 
§ 162. The vessels, properly so called, which appear to be 
* See on this subject, the two Gottingen Prize Essays ; Rudolphi. Ber- 
lin, 1807. 8vo. — and Link, Getting. 1807, with additions, 1809. 8vo. — 
Also L. C. T. Treviranus, vom inwendigen Ban der Geteachse. Gotting. 
1806, which obtained the Aceessit. — Of earlier works, see J. J. Bern- 
hardi, Beobachtungen Tiber die Pflancngefasse. Erf. 1805. 8vo. 
For an account of Osiander’s successful attempts to inject plants with 
Mercury, see Commentat. Societal. Reg. Scient. Gottingen. Vol. XVI. p. 
100. &c. 

OF PLANTS. 
279 
wanting in many Families and Genera of cryptogamic plants, 
in the same manner as in the Zoophytes and various Mollusca 
of the animal kingdom, are distinguished, at least in by far 
the greater number of cases, by the spirally convoluted fibres 
(or tubes r) entering into the composition of their parietes, 
and having the appearance of woven silk. 
§ 163. However varied the reticular and other connexions 
(Anastomoses) of these vessels may be, no relation can be 
detected between them, of such a nature as to keep up a cir- 
culation of fluids, such as is found in all red-blooded, and so 
many white-blooded animals. 
§ 164. By the simple uniformity of the organic elements of 
plants, (partes similares,) may be explained the facility of the 
conversion of their compound parts (partes dissimilares) into 
one another j of the leaves into the calyx or corolla of the 
blossom, particularly in double flowers *; the possibility ol 
planting trees reversed in the ground, so that their branches 
are converted into roots, and their roots, on the contrary, into 
branches covered with leavest • 
§ 165. The particular parts of plants compounded of their 
organic elements, and the functions of those parts, may be con- 
veniently arranged, according as they relate to the preservation 
of the individual, or to its propagation. We shall speak first 
of the former. 
§ 166. Plants derive the materials necessary to their support 
partly from the atmosphere, and partly from water, or earth 
impregnated with it. They obtain their nourishment from the 
former, by means of the absorbing vessels dispersed in in- 
calculable numbers under the cuticle, particularly in the 
leaves j and from water, by means of their root fibres, which 
are renewed every year, and by which most of them are im- 
mediately attached to the ground 5 whilst some, as the Misle- 
toe. Vanilla, &c. are fixed on other plants^; whilst some 
* See M. von Goethe, Versuch die Metamorphose der PJlanzen zu 
trkldren. Gotha. 1790. 8vo.— And especially on the identity of the tubero- 
sity and the stalk, (in the Potatoe for instance.) Westfeld, in Voigt’s 
Neues Magain. B. 6. S. 378. 
f M. Marcelljs has a whole alley of Lime-trees planted in this way on 
his estate, Vogelsang, on the Leyden Canal, near Haarlem. 
X There are also plants which appear to be rooted in the ground, and 
which are, in reality, attached by their root- fibres to the roots of other 
plants, and nourished in that way ; as for instance, the Hydnora /tfricana, 
or the Euphorbia mauritanica ; &c. See Schwed. Abhandl. B. .59. S. 132. 

280 
OF PLANTS. 
others, as the Water lily, merely float upon the water’s surface. 
* — (§3. Remark.) 
§ 167. However different the habits of plants in this respect 
may be, water, whether in the fluid state or dissolved in va- 
pour, appears to serve as the vehicle for supplying them with 
carbonic acid, which, according to the experiments of Ingew- 
Housz * is the principal material serving for the nutrition of 
vegetables. In this way it is intelligible how the Hyacinth- 
bulb will grow in water, and Cresses on moist flannel ; others. 
as the House-leek, on the roofs of houses ; and how many 
others, and those very succulent plants, natives of the hottest 
and most parched regions, can, during a long time, derive suf- 
ficient nutriment by absorption from the airf. 
§ 16S. The root fibres, the most universal of all the external 
organs of nutrition or ingestion in plants, shoot out leaves in 
many cases immediately above the surface of the ground ; in 
others, however, they previously unite into a common trunk 
(of roots ) •, and this again, is in many instances elongated 
into a stem, stalk or haulm, the structure of which, however, 
is essentially the same with that of the trunk of root-fibres. 
§ 169. The stem of trees and shrubs is covered externally 
with a very fine cuticle, under which lie the bark and the liber 
(Bass), the latter consisting almost entirely of the most active 
sap vessels, and consequently, one of the parts most essential 
to the support of the plant. Placed more internally, is the al- 
burnum (sap) ; next to it is the true wood, and next, the me- 
dulla, (pith) partly within the interstices of the wood, partly 
down the middle of the stem, its quantity gradually diminish- 
ing as the age of the tree increases. In plants of this kind 
too, one, or more properly, two new layers of wood are pro- 
duced yearly, probably by the alburnum, whence it is possible, 
from the number of such concentric layers, to form an esti- 
mate of the probable age of the plant. 
Remark. The wood of Palms forms an exception to this 
disposition, in which no such concentric layers exist, the 
* Voigt’s Neues Magazin. B. 1. St. 2. 1798. S. 101. &c. 
f As the Epidendrum flos a'cris . — See J. de Loureiro, Flora Cochin- 
chinens. T. 2. p. 525. — “Mirabilis hujus. plautae propiietas est, quod ex syl- 
vis domum delata, et in aere libero suspensa, in nmltos anuos durct, cres- 
cat, floreat, et genninet. Vix crederein, nisi diuturna experieutia com- 
probassem.” 

OF PLANTS. 
281 
trunk being equally dense throughout, very hard, and 
apparently traversed by partial tubes of alburnum. This 
circumstance is of importance in assisting the decision as 
to the nature of fossil woods. 
§ 170. The trunk generally divides into branches ; these 
again into twigs, on which the leaves are placed, being, how- 
ever, essentially the same in composition with the root or the 
stem, in as much as it is possible to distinguish in them cuticle, 
bark, woody substance, and medullary cellular structure. 
The latter occupies the middle of the leaf, between The two 
reticular layers of woody substance, from which the other 
parts may be removed by corrosion and similar processes, 
leaving a skeleton leaf, as it is called. This reticular woody 
substance is covered on both sides of the leaf with a peculiar 
membrane, generally called cuticle, but differing materially 
from the proper cuticle already mentioned, (which is really ex- 
panded over the outer surface of the leaves,) and penetrated 
by numerous absorbing vessels. (§ 166.) 
§ 171 . This organization of the leaves is worthy of notice, 
in proportion as the functions which they perform are more 
extensive and important to the plants on which they are placed. 
They serve, in particular, for the execution of the phlogistic 
process, which, in animals, is effected principally by the inspi- 
ration of the respirable part of the air on its basis, oxygen ; and 
which, in plants, is performed almost exclusively by the 
leaves. 
§ 172. In plants also, this respirable gas or its basis is, as in 
animals, indispensible to the support of life : particularly, as 
Ingen-Housz’s experiments have rendered probable, for the 
purpose of preparing in their vital laboratory, their principal 
material of nutrition, carbonic acid, the excess of which they 
subsequently exhale in the form of carbonic acid gas. 
§ 173. This important process is carried on in its greatest 
activity in the dark. During the day-time, on the contrary, 
and particularly in sun-shine, it is much more languid : hence, 
at such time, plants prepare and consume carbonic acid in 
smaller quantities ; and, on the contrary, evolve oxygen, the 
respirable part of the atmosphere, from their leaves. 
§ 174. The leaves, however, those important organs, are in 
most plants of cold climates but a temporary ornament, exist- 
ing during Summer, and withering and falling off on the ap- 
proach of Winter. It is probable that this fall of leaves is 

282 
OF PLANTS. 
caused by the frost which plunges plants into their Winter 
sleep, and as in animals, retards the course of their juices, and 
constringes their vessels, so as to render the leaves unfit for 
their former functions : in support of this idea, it may be re- 
marked, that plants of warm climates, with few exceptions, do 
not cast their leaves, and that even in cold climates, those 
in which the leaves are firm and resinous, as most kinds of 
Pine, Ivy, the Whortle-berry, (vaccinium vitis idcca), Heath, 
the Box-tree, &c. remain green through the Winter. 
Remark . On the other hand, as among animals, there are 
some which are most active during Winter, copulate in 
that season, and so forth, — so also, there are many plants 
of which the vegetation is then most vigorous, as the 
Black Hellebore, Meadow-saffron, Snow-drop, &c. 
§ 176 . It is remarkable in many plants, that on the approach 
of evening, their leaves or their blossoms close and recline, 
apparently sinking into a state of rest resembling sleep ; a phe- 
nomenon too, which does not depend on the cold of the even- 
ing air, as it occurs in the same manner in the hot-house : and 
scarcely on the absence of light, as many sleep in Summer even 
until noon ; nay, as some nocturnal animals devote the day to 
sleep, such is also the case with the blossoms of certain Plants, 
for instance, of the Cactus grandijlorus, Mesembryanthemum 
noctiflorum, Hesperis tristis, &c. 
§ 176. Besides this, many plants display real motion of 
other kinds 3 such, for instance, is the tendency which they 
evince to follow light*, so extremely essential to them in va- 
rious ways, a tendency existing in most plants, as well as the 
Sun- flowers, but particularly in hot-houses, where, from this 
cause, the blossoms often appear as though they had been 
pressed against the windows f. Many parts of certain plants 
* See the Petersburg Prize-Essay by P. Heinrich, on the Nature and P 10 - 
perties of light. 1806. 4to. 
f The following exemplification of this tendency, is taken from the Me- 
moirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, Vol. II. P- 
147. — In the Spring, a potatoe was left behind in a cellar, where sonic 
roots had been kept during the Winter, and which had only a small apei - 
lure for light at the upper part of one of its sides. The potatoe which a\ 
in the opposite corner to this aperture, shot out a runner, which fii>t ran 
twenty feet along the ground, then crept up along the wall, and so thi oug 1 
the opening hy which light was admitted. See also R. Bertuch s Beo ar > 
tungen an der Indianischen Kresse. Allg. Teutsch. Garten Magaz. 
St. 5. S. 226. 

OF PLANTS. 
283 
have very considerable motion when they are touched ; for in- 
stance, the Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica ,) the Averrhoa ca- 
rambola in their leaves and twigs, — and the anterior appen- 
dages of the leaves of the Venus Catch-fly, (Dionea muscipula ,) 
which, when even a gnat lights upon them, close together, and 
crush it instantaneously. 
§ 177- The motion which is observed at the time of impreg- 
nation in the sexual organs of many hermaphrodite flowers, is 
still more remarkable, and often very considerable : thus, for 
example, the stamina of the common Barberry, when touched 
on their inner side, (that turned towards the germen) — as may 
happen Mhen an insect settles on the flower, to suck the honey 
from its basis, suddenly move inwards, and strike their an- 
thers against the female stigma, by that means effecting the 
fecundation. 
§ 1/S. But remarkable as all these motions maybe, and 
however strong the evidence they afford, of the actual exist- 
ence of vital powers in plants, when submitted to accurate 
physiological examination, they are found altogether distinct 
from voluntary motion, the exclusive property of animals, and 
of which not the least trace is discernible even in those plants 
which have been most famed for their motions, such for in- 
stance as the Hedysarum gyrans. 
Remark. At least I am not acquainted with any single ani- 
mal that procures its nutriment without, or any plant with 
voluntary motion. 
§ 179. From the nutritive matter which plants thus absorb 
and assimilate, the specific juices peculiar to them are subse- 
quently secreted j thus, many contain milky, and occasionally 
acrid fluids j others afford gum j and various trees, particularly 
of the Pine kind, when advanced in growth, prepare resin. 
Various parts of certain plants, contain flour, manna, wax, 
fixed and essential oils, camphor, &c. j some few afford caout- 
chouc, Indian-rubber, as it is called*. To this head also be- 
Among the most remarkable products of the secretory process in 
p ant.,, is the Tabasheer, long celebrated, but not properly undelstood un- 
t. a very recent period. It is a whitish blue substance, transparent at the 
edges, rather hard and brittle, occasionally found in the joints of the tube of 
he Bamboo, and bearing a resemblance to the mineral iydrXne wel 
in its external appearance, and its transparency in water as in its’eomn 
nent elements. See Dr Path r,,,™, i r „ lt& compo- 
Vol LXXX and F Yvv'i I a r, ~ aud J L ‘ Mac,e > the Phil. Tram. 
1819 bXXXI. And Dr. Dav. Brewster, in the same work for 

OF PLANTS. 
284 
long the specific exhalations of certain plants, as for instance, 
that from the Fraxinella (Dictamnus albus), in which it is re- 
sinous and inflammable. 
§ 180. It is evident, however, that these different juices 
must be prepared in the plant itself, by various secretions and 
changes of the nutritive lluids which it absorbs : thus we find, 
that in the same climate, nay even in the same spot of ground, 
llue has its bitter. Sorrel its acid, and the Lettuce its cooling 
juices 5 and that the juices of various parts of one plant, or 
even of one fruit, are extremely different. 
§ 181. At the same time it must be allowed, that the diffe- 
rences of soil* and climate contribute in a considerable degree 
to the differences in the composition of the juices of plants. 
Thus, there are some plants which, when transplanted into a 
foreign soil, deteriorate as well in their form as their nature, 
lose some of their qualities, and so forth ; whilst others are in 
an equal degree ameliorated by the same operation. 
§ 1S2. In general, almost every soil nourishes plants pecu- 
liar to and suited to it f, so that in many cases it is possible to 
estimate the nature of a soil by the kinds of plants on its sur 
face. But Providence has endowed many of the plants most 
important to the human species with the valuable properties, 
either of adapting themselves to a great variety of climates, as 
the apparently delicate species of grain thrive in different re- 
gions much better than the Oak, and other trees which seem 
much more hardy, and as the Potatoe, a native of Chili, is no" 
dispersed over every part of the world} or that, when confinec 
to any individual climate, they are capable of flourishing there 
in every kind of soil, as the Coco-palm, for instance, \egetates 
vigorously in sandy and stony, as well as the richest earth. 
§ 183. On the other hand, it is also remarkable, that certain 
countries. South Africa and New Holland, for example, exclu- 
sively produce a great variety of distinct and peculiar Genet a 
of plants, whilst entire and considerable Orders are wanting in 
extensive portions of the earth. Thus, the ionid Zone has 
* Der Borlen and sein Verhaltniss zu den Gewachsen; von G. F. W. 
Crome. Hannov. 1812. 8vo. 
+ F. Stromeyer, Histories vegetabilium geographies; specimen. GOtt. 
A De Humboldt, Essaisur la Geographic des Plantes. Paris, 1807. fol. 
And his Prolegomena de distributions geographica Plantarum , at the head 
of his Nova Genera et Species. 

OF PLANTS. 
285 
scarcely any Species of plants of the Cabbage and Turnip kind : 
so also, comparatively few Mosses are found in the West In- 
dian Islands, and, on the contrary, a great variety of Ferns: 
§ 1ST. Another notable difference in the growth of plants, 
which also exists in the animal kingdom, particularly among 
Insects, is, that many are solitary, and as it were, isolated ; 
whilst others are closely associated, and often, as the common 
Heath, cover large portions of the earth, or, as the Sargasso 
(fucus natans ), of the Sea. 
§ 1S5. The various modes of the propagation of plants may 
ultimately be reduced to three principal kinds : First, by roots 
or branches ■, secondly, by buds ; and lastly, by seeds. 
§ 1S6. The first kind, by branches, of which some traces 
are observable in the animal kingdom, among - Polypes and 
others, is in plants much more common. Many naturally pro- 
pagate in this way, and in others, the process has been imi- 
tated by art, in the formation of layers. In the Banian-tree 
(ficus indica,) the branches are pendant, and shoot out roots as 
soon as they touch the ground, so that a single tree of this 
kind in time resembles a little wood, the stems of which are 
connected above by arches. 
Remark. Some miles from Patna, in Bengal, is a tree of this 
kind, with fifty or sixty connected trunks, its diameter 
being 3/0 feet, and the shadow which it casts at noon, up- 
wards of 1100 feet in circumference. 
§ 187- The second kind of propagation, by buds, is less 
common. They are the little tubercles which appear on trees 
in Autumn, at the point of insertion of the leaf-stalks, but 
which, in most cases, do not open and expand until the follow- 
ing Spring. They are found chiefly on the trees of cold cli- 
mates, and in some, fall off spontaneously, or occasionally, 
when carefully placed in the ground, germinate like seeds. As 
is well known, these buds may be inoculated, or even the shoot 
which they contain, inserted into other trees. (Budding.) 
§ 188. Bulbs have a considerable resemblance to buds, ex- 
cept that the latter are found above the surface of the ground 
in trees, whilst bulbs, which are peculiar to liliaceous plants, 
are attached to the roots under-ground ; in the one case, the 
trunk continues to live, and supplies the bud with nourish- 
ment , in the other, on the contrary, the whole plant, with the 
exception of the roots and bulb, perishes in Autumn. This 

286 
OF PLANTS. 
mode of propagation has considerable resemblance to that of 
tuberous plants, (Potatoes, &c.) 
§ 189. The third kind of propagation, by blossoms, which 
subsequently ripen as fruit, or in other ways into seeds, is much 
more common, and occurs in almost the whole of the vege- 
table kingdom. The flower, whatever may be its form, whe- 
ther it be single, or whether several be connected together in 
a cluster, a spike, a catkin, &c. contains, in the middle on the 
receptacle, parts having distinct forms, of which some are male, 
the others female, the latter, at the time of impregnation, be- 
ing fecundated by the former. In respect to their object and 
their functions, these vegetable organs have considerable simi- 
larity to the organs of generation in animals. They differ, how- 
ever, remarkably in one particular, viz. that in plants they are 
not congenital, and do not remain through the whole term of 
life, new organs being prepared for each process of generation. 
Remark. The observation already made (§ 136.) that the 
life of many Insects may be prolonged by retarding the 
period of propagation, is also, to a certain extent, appli- 
cable to the blossoms of many plants. Thus the sexual 
organs of the female Hemp continue to live a considerable 
time, if they are not fecundated by the pollen of the male 
plant 3 as soon as this fecundation takes place, they 
wither immediately. 
§ 1 90. The female organs are generally placed in the middle ; 
they are called by the common name of pistil, and consist of 
the germen, the style, and the stigma. The germen is placed 
either with the other parts within the corolla, (germen supe- 
rum,) or, as in the Rose, Apple, &c., below it, (germen infe- 
rum.) It contains the seeds, and on that account may in some 
degree be compared with the ovaries of animals. The style 
is hollow, supporting the stigma above, connecting it AVith the 
germen, and all three forming a common cavity. 
§ L91. Round these female parts are placed the male, the 
stamina, consisting of two parts, the filaments and the 
anthers, which they support. The anther is covered with a 
farinaceous, and generally yellow powder (Pollen); which, 
however, when considerably magnified, is found to consist ot 
delicate little bags, in many plants having very singular forms, 
and containing an inconceivably fine powder, which, from its 
destination, is commonly compared to the semen of male 
animals. 

OF PLANTS. 
287 
Remark. The yellow pollen of many plants is occasionally 
blown, or in wet weather, washed away in abundance 3 
and falling- on stagnant waters, canals, &c., may probably 
have suggested the supposed rains of sulphur. 
§ 192. At the time of fecundation, this pollen falls on the 
female stigma. It appears to burst there, and to eject its 
subtle powder, which probably penetrates to the germen 
through the style, and impregnates the seeds, previously bar- 
ren, enclosed within it. If, previous to the time of fecundation, 
the flower be deprived of any of these essential parts, it 
becomes barren as decidedly as an animal after it has been 
castrated . 
§ 193. In most plants, the organs of both sexes exist to- 
gether in the same flower, and they are consequently herma- 
phrodite. (§ 20 .) In others, on the contrary, they are placed 
in separate flowers, of which some contain the male, and some 
the female organs, both kinds of flowers, however, existing on 
the same plant, (Monoecia. Linn.) as for instance in the Hazel- 
nut, the Walnut, the Cucumber, the Bread-fruit tree, &c. 
Other plants have flowers of three kinds, viz. male, female, 
and hermaphrodite 3 such are the Maple, Ash, &c. In others, 
again, as in Palms, the Hop, Hemp, &c., the two sexes are 
separated on the plants, as is the case in all red-blooded and 
many other animals : so that one plant bears male, and another 
of the same kind female flowers only ; the fecundation of 
the latter being effected only when the pollen of the flowers 
of the male plant is conveyed to them by the wind, by means 
of Insects, or by the interposition of art. (Dioecia. Linn.) 
§ 194. Amongst the other parts of plants, not altogether 
universal, but yet existing in most, the calyx and the nec- 
taries are deserving of notice. Flowers in general are divided 
according to their form and the disposition of their parts, into 
regular and irregular 3 in the former, all the individual parts 
of the same kinds, for instance, the leaves of the corolla are 
of similar form, size, and proportion ; in the latter of unequal 
proportions. 
§ 195. The discoveries of Hedwig have shewn that the 
organs of fecundation in the true Mosses (musci frondosi) are 
more similar to those of other plants than was formerly sup- 
posed. Ihe delicate and nearly cup-shaped little head (capi- 
tulum) contains the seeds in the manner of a germen. The 
^eeds, through the medium of the little pointed cap (calyptra) 

288 
OF PLANTS. 
which supplies the place of the style and stigma, are fecun- 
dated by the male pollen of certain rose or star-shaped parts, 
and are subsequently ejected. 
§ 196. In those simple plants, however, which live in water, 
the Tremellte, Ulvae, Confervae, and Fuci, the mode of propa- 
gation is very different, though in most of them as yet but 
imperfectly examined : in many of them, as the Conferva 
fontinalis already mentioned, (§ 9. Remark— § 20.) it is won- 
derfully simple. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 49.) 
§ 197. Still less is known of the mode of propagation of 
Fungi, Mushrooms, Truffles, &c., and of Mucor, their Natural 
History in general being very obscure * * * § . 
§ 19S. In perfect plants, which really blossom, all the super- 
fluous parts of the flower fall off after fecundation is com- 
pleted j and the impregnated germen begins to increase in 
size, and to bring to maturity the seeds, of which the number 
is often very considerable f. 
§ 199. The form, as well of the different seeds J, as of the 
coverings in which they are inclosed, is as various as that of 
the flowers, and adapted in the most admirable manner to the 
preservation of the Species as regards their extended disper- 
sion §, their security, &c. The provision, too, is remarkable, 
by means of which, whatever may be their position in the 
ground, when they germinate, invariably shoot their radicle 
(rostellum) downwards, and the plumula upwards ||. The 
new plant is nourished in the first instance, at least in most 
cases, by the double seed-leaves, (cotyledones), which origi- 
nally formed the principal bulk of the seed. 
§ 200. Many seeds are contained in a covering resembling 
wood, but considerably firmer, and when of tolerable size and 
firmness called a Nut. When the seeds are covered by a 
■fleshy or succulent cellular substance, the covering is called a 
* Dr. Persoon is inclined to consider them as plants, in which only 
the parts of fructification appear.-VoiGT’s Mag. B. 8. St. 4. S - 80 ; 
f L.C. Richard, Analyse dcr Frucht und des Samenkorns, translated 
into German (with Additions by the Author,) by F. S. Voigt, Leipz. 18 . 
8 VO 
+' Jos. Gaertner de fructibus et seminibus plantarum. Stutz. 1/88-91. 
2 Vol 4to.— And a 3d Vol. C. F. Gaertner carpologia. Lips. 1805. 4to 
§ See Rosee's Insecten-Belustigungen. B. 2. Preface to the Water 
Insects of the second Class. , 
|| See J. Hunter’s experiments in his Treatise on the Bloo , fi 
motion, &c. 4to. p. 237. 

OF PLANTS. 
289 
Berry, and that even if it be of considerable size or grow on 
a large tree, as is the case with the Bread-fruit. In some 
cases the seeds are placed externally on the receptacle, which 
is fleshy and of considerable size ; such as the Strawberry, 
which therefore is, strictly speaking, not a berry. 
§ 301. Fruit trees form a very peculiar and distinct family 
of plants, which either contain a core with pippins, as the Ap- 
ple, Pear, Quince, & c., forming the Order pomacea ; or, as in 
the Plum, Cherry, Appricot and Peach, inclose a stone, being 
called Stone-fruit, and the trees drupacecc. 
§ 202. The causes of degeneration (§ 15-16.) appear to ope- 
rate more readily upon the Nisus Formativus in plants than in 
animals, and to be more capable of producing a change or de- 
viation in its direction *: hence many of them have degenerated 
into very numerous varieties, partly as to their general form, 
but particularly with regard to the flowers and fruit. Thus, 
at the present time, the varieties of the Tulip are reckoned at 
three thousand, though the yellow stock kind was the only 
one known in Europe 200 years back. So also the stalk 
(§ 16S.) is in many plants merely a consequence of degenera- 
tion, appearing in the cultivated state of those which, when 
wild, are aeaules ; — the Carlina acaulis and others, for instance. 
On the other hand, many plants, when cultivated, lose parts 
which they possess when in a state of nature 3 thus the wild 
Lawsonia spinosa of India, becomes inermis by cultivation in 
Syria. 
In general also, plants are subject to many kinds of degene- 
ration which cannot occur in animals, such for instance, as 
the conversion of the male organs of fecundation into petals 
in double flowers, and so on. 
§ 203. The degeneration of plants by bastard impregnation 
(§ 14.) is particularly remarkable ; a point on which Kol- 
rectf.b performed many ingenious experiments, and by the 
repeated impregnation of fertile bastard plants, ultimately 
converted one Species of Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica ), into 
another, (Nicotiana paniculata,) f a fact which ill coincides 
with the doctrine of the supposed preformed germs, but per- 
fectly with that of the Nisus Formativus. (§ 9 .) 
Dav. Hockirk, on the Anomalies in the Vegetable Kingdom. Glasgow 
1817. 8vo. B 1 
•f - Sec the third Appendix to his Essay, as already quoted, p. 51. 

OF PLANTS. 
290 
Remark. So also bastard plants may accidentally be formed 
in gardens, when two distinct, but yet connected, Species 
flower near each other at the same period. 
§ 204. Monstrosities, also, are infinitely more numerous 
among’ plants than animals, and incomparably more abundant 
among the cultivated than the wild kinds. ( Remark . § 12.) 
These monstrosities occur in all parts of plants, but in some 
with unusual frequency*. The most common instances are 
of increase in the number of parts, (monstra per excessum.)— 
as for instance, double stems connected together, double or 
multiple fruits, ears of corn, &c. ; roses with others growing 
from the centre, and so on. 
§ 205. The duration of life in plants differs so much that in 
many it is scarcely an hour, whilst in others it is extended to 
several centuriesf. In general, however, they are divided into 
perennial and annual , the latter perishing at the end of their 
first Summer. 
Remark. There are some instances in the vegetable kingdom, 
of the kind of revival already mentioned in speaking of the 
Wheel-animal and Eel of Vinegar ; particularly in the 
Tremella nostoc, famed from this circumstance. I have 
considered this remarkable occurrence in my Treatise — 
De vi vitali sanguini deneganda. Gotting. 1795. 4to. 
S 206. Want of space compels me to speak briefly of the 
uses of plants. I have already ](§ 172, &c.) noticed the great 
influence which they exert upon the atmosphere by their phlo- 
gistic process; by means of which, they, on the one han , 
incessantly abstract from it, and apply to their own nutriment, 
the irrespirable carbonic acid gas, as constantly formed y am 
mals j and on the other, exhale oxygen gas from their leaves 
when exposed to light. , , 
S 207. In certain parts of the World, particular y 
islands of the Torrid Zone, vegetation of trees especially, is 
of the utmost importance by attracting clouds, and m that way 
providing for the watering of the soil J. 
§ 208. Various kinds of vegetables, roots, fruits, & c.. 
* G. F. Jager, liber die Missbildungen dev Gewachse. Stuttg. 1814. 8vo. 
+ See Hufeland’s Makrobiotik. Th. 1. P- 58. Edition 3d. . 
+ Compare J. R. Forster’s Staff zur kiinftxgen entwerfung e '™J he °™ 
der Erde. S. 14. with the Voyage de La Perouse autour du Monde. \ol. 
II. p. 81. 

OF PLANTS. 
291 
for the food of the most important domestic animals, properly 
so called ; and of the two Species of Insects under the protec- 
tion of man. Bees and Silk- worms. 
§ 209. With regard to the immediate utility of plants to 
man himself, there are some which are capable of supplying 
nearly all the wants of particular nations, in the same manner 
as the Seal, Reindeer, &e. among animals. Of such a kind is 
the Cocoa-palm, to the Malay Race in particular ; to a certain 
extent, the Date-palm to many people of the Caucasian, and 
the common Birch to many of the Mongolian Race. 
§ 210. Of the articles of vegetable food for the human race, 
the various tiuits eatable without any kind of preparation de- 
serve the first place. Such are, in hot climates. Figs j Dates 
(from the Phoenix dactyliferaj ; Plantains (from the Musa para- 
disiacaj; Bananas (from the Musa sapientum); among the Ma- 
lay nations, the Bread-fruit, (Artocarpus incisaj *, which only 
needs to be peeled and roasted ; in Hindostan, Ceylon, &c. 
the Jacca, another kind of Bread-fruit, from the Artocarpus 
integrifolia. So also, many other kinds of berries, (for, as 
already mentioned, the Bread-fruit is a berry,) afford a most 
valuable supply of food to various people, the Laplanders, for 
example. Of like use are the Chesnut, Cocoa-nut, &c. 
§ 211. ISext come those which require some preparation, as 
Roots, Turnips, Truffles, Potatoes, Jerusalem Artichokes 
(Helianthus tuberosus ), and in both Indies — the Batatas (Con- 
volvulus batatas ) ; in the warmer parts of America, Yams 
(Dioscorea alata, sativa &c.); Manioc (Jatropha manihot), and 
others : also the various siliquose and leguminous plants. The 
various kinds of grain, no longer found in the wild state : 
Maize (Zea mays)-. Buck- wheat (Polygonum fagopyrum); Rice 
(Oryza sativa and montana ), principally in the East j Millet 
(Holcus sorghum), in China, and many parts of Africa -, Teff 
(Poa abyssiaica ), among the Abyssinians. So also, the celebra- 
ted Lotus Berries, (from the Rhamnus lotus,) among the Loto- 
phagif. Some other plants, of which particular parts are 
* This very Important tree has been introduced into the West India Is- 
lands since 1792, by the great Navigator, Captain Bligh. I have given an ac- 
count of its success there, in Voigt’s Neues Magaz. B. 1. St. 2. S. 110. 
t\ the P n? nt , the Negroes in the anter ‘ or of Africa, prepare 
from a weB -tasted kind of ginger-bread and a very favourite drink.— 
“rf \ TaVeU m * he interi ° r Distrlcts °f Africa. Lond. 1799. 
u 2 

292 
OF PLANTS. 
used by certain nations as their ordinary food ; as Sago, (from 
the Cvcas circinalis, &c.) Gum Senegal, (from the Mimosa 
Senegal), &c. 
§ 212. Under this head are included the various kinds of 
Spices; Sugar, commonly procured from the Sugar-Cane, but 
also from other plants, — in Europe from the Beet ; in North 
America, from the Sugar-Maple (Acer saccharinum) : in Ice- 
land, from the Fucus saccharinum : in Sumatra, from the Anu- 
Palm; in Kamtschatka, from the Heracleum sibiricum ; &c. 
oil, vinegar, &c., used as additions to food. Excellent butter 
in the interior of Africa, from the Butter-tree (Shea toulou ) t”. 
Betel (Piper betle), for chewing ; Tobacco, for SnuiF. 
§ 213. Among the articles which are employed as beverage, 
are the milky fluid of the immature Cocoa-nut, and various 
kinds of beer ; among others. Spruce-beer, from the Pinus 
canadensis ; the different vinous liquors; the juice of the Grape, 
palm-wine, from the female Borassus fiabcllijer , and from the 
female Cocoa-palm ; other intoxicating liquors, as brandy, ar- 
rack, rum, &c. The fermented liquors from chewed roots, as 
among the Brazilians from their Cassava, and the South Sea Is- 
landers from the Piper latifolium. Opium, employed for the 
same purposes. Tobacco, for smoaking ; and Hemp, &c., used 
in the same way. Our three kinds of fluids taken warm. Tea, 
Coffee, Chocolate. The Paraguay Tea of South America, from 
some Species of the Genus Cassine ; and the Tea of the Mon- 
gols, from a wild shrub, but imperfectly known, with leaves 
resembling those of the Mountain-ash. 
§ 214. For the purposes of clothing: Cotton, (the flocculent 
fibres covering the seed-membrane in the fruit-capsules,) from 
the different Species of Gossypium and Bombax; the sap-vessels 
of Flax, Hemp, several Species of Nettle, &c., for making 
linen ; the excellent silky Flax of New Zealand, from the 
Phormium tenax; the manufactures of the South Sea Islanders 
from the inner bark of the Broussonetia papyrifera , and of the 
Bread-fruit tree. 
§215. For fuel; besides the great variety of common 
wood, some particular kinds employed in certain places; as 
for instance, on the Alps, Rhododendron ferrughieum ; on 
Heaths, Erica vulgaris. — For the same purpose. Turf, (chiefly 
■j- Mungo Patik, I. c. p. 224-352. pi. 5. 

OF PLANTS. 
293 
composed of conferva rivularis, Sphagnum palustre, Carex cces- 
pitosa, Myriophillum spicutum , &c.) ; Coal, Touch-wood, &c. 
§ 216. For the construction of houses and ships, a great va- 
riety of timber, (and in India, the Bambos arundmacea.) For 
thatch, and other purposes, reeds, straw 5 and, in the South 
Sea Islands, the Palmetto-leaves from the Pandanus tectorius. 
For forming fences, hedges, &c., a variety of shrubs. For the 
protection of dams against the Teredo, &c., the Sea-wire, 
(Zostera marina,) also employed for stuffing cushions. 
§ 217. Many different kinds of wood* are employed in a 
great variety of ways in arts and manufactures, by carpenters, 
cabinet-makers, turners, &c. So also the various kinds of 
Canes f ; and both for the purpose of instruments of defence in 
many nations ; for instance, the beautiful wood of the Casua- 
rina equisetifolia for the ingeniously constructed spears and 
other weapons of the South Sea Islanders. 
Cocoa-nut Shells and Calabashes, (from the Crescentia cu- 
jete,) with others, used as drinking vessels. 
Canes, Osiers, the Bark of the Cocoa-nut tree, &c., for mak- 
ing baskets. — Cork, &c. 
Many vegetable substances used for dyeing, (as Indigo,) 
tanning, washing, &c 5 others for making paper, paste-board, 
paper-hangings, &c. 
Gum, employed for many well known purposes. — Resin, 
Pitch, Tar, Lamp-black ; Wax (from the Myrica cerifera, & c.) 
Tallow (from the Croton sebiferum.) — Oils, Varnishes, &c. 
(The very costly Japaneze Lac-varnish from the Rhus vernix.) 
Soda and Potash. 
§ 218. Most of the materials used in writing are obtained 
from the vegetable kingdom : as Reeds, Papyrus, (Cyperus 
papyrus ,) 8 cc. 
§ 219. Lastly, the number of medicinal plants of impor- 
tance is considerable, the knowledge of which composed near- 
ly the whole of the medicine of the ancients, as it does at pre- 
sent of many nations. 
* We may notice here the drift-wood (Poplar, Larch, &c.) of the ut- 
most importance to the inhabitants of the Coasts of the Northern polar coun- 
tries, without which those icy regions, where no trees grow, would be un- 
inhabitable. 
t Sec an account of the uses for which the Chinese employ the Bamboo- 
cane in Van Braam, Voyage dc l' Ambassade, & c. Philad. 1797. 4to. T. 1. 
p. 314, &c. 

294 ' 
OF PLANTS. 
§ 250. On the other hand, weeds, in the most extended 
sense of the word, (including the destructive Fungi of wood, 
Merulius destruens and vastator, together with the microscopic 
Fungi, Uredo segetum., &c., causing smut, rust, &c. in Grain,) 
and poisonous plants are injurious, 
§ 221. Of the numerous Systems of Plants which have been 
proposed since the time of C®salpinus, the sexual sjstem of 
Linn® us, and that of Jussieu, have been most generally 
adopted and followed in modern times. The former is founded 
upon the number and relations of the organs of fecundation al- 
ready described. The latter, on the contrary, is deduced prin- 
cipally from the presence, the absence, and the nature of the 
seed-vessel ; on the relative position of the stamina ; and from 
the absence, the presence, and the form of the corolla. 
Botanical Works for the Purpose of Reference. 
On Terminology. 
C. v. Linne, termini botanici explicati. 1762. Lips., 1767- S vo > 
(And in Vol. VI. of his Amcenitat. Academ.J 
T. L. Oskamp, Tabula plantarum terminologies. Lug., Bat. 
1793. folio. 
F. S. Voigt, Handworterbuch der botanischen Kunstspraclie 
Jena, 1803. 8vo. 
Elementary and Systematic. 
C. v. Linne, Philosophia botanica. Holm., 1761. Svo. 
Genera plantarum. Ib. 1764. 8vc. 
Species plantarum. Ib. 1762. Vol. II. Svo. 
Systema vegetobilium. Ed. 15. Curante C. H» 
Persoon. Gottingen, 1797- Svo. 
Synopsis plantarum sive Enchiridion botanicum, cur. G. H. 
Persoon. Paris, 1805. seq. Vol. II. 12mo. 
J. Miller’s Illustration of the Sexual System of Linn® us. 
London, 1775. 2. Vol. folio.— and 1789. Svo. 
S. Schintz, erster Grundriss der Kr outer wissenschaf t . Xu rich. 
1775. folio. 
N. J. v. Jacquin, Anleitung zur Pfanzenkenntniss nach Lin- 
ne’s Meihode. Wien, 1800. 8vo. 
G. A. Suckow, Anfangsgrunde der theoretischen und angewand - 
ten Botanik. 2te. Aufl. Leipz., Th. 2. Svo. 

OF PLANTS. 
295 
A. J. G. O. Batsch, Versuch einer Anleitung zur Kenntniss und 
Geschichte der Pfianzen. Halle. 1?87- Th. 2. 8vo. 
C. L. Willdenow, Grundriss der Kriiuterkunde. 3te. Aufl. 
Berlin, 1S02. 8vo. 
C. F. Ludwig, Handbuch der Bolanik. Leipz,, 1800. 8vo. 
J. E. Smith’s Introduction to the Study of Botany. Ed. 4th- 
London, 1S19. Svo. 
K. Sprengel, Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Gewaclise. 2te. 
Aufl. Halle, 1 S 17 . Th. 2. Svo. 
F. S. Voigt, System der Botanik. Jena, 1808. Svo. 
E. P. Ventenat, Tableau du regne vegdtal selon la Methode 
de Jussieu. Paris, 1792. Vol. IV. Svo. 
Darstellnng des natiirlichen PJlanzensy stems von Jussieu, nach 
seinen neuesten Verbesserungen , in Tabellen. Herausgegeben von 
F. S. Voigt. Leipz., 1806. fol. 
For the History of German Plants in particular. 
A. v. Haller, Historia stirpium Helvetia; indigenarum. Bern., 
176S. Vol. III. fol. 
G. C. Oeder, icones Florae Danicae. Havn., 1761. seq. fol. 
A. W. Roth, tentamen Florae Germanicce. Lips., 1788. seq. 
Vol. III. Svo. 
C. Schkuhr, botanisches Handbuch. Wittenb., seit 1791. 8vo. 
Deutschlands Flora oder botanisches Taschenbuch von G. F. 
Hoffmann. Erlangen, seit 1791. 12mo. 
H. A. Schrader, Flora Germanica. T. 1. Gottingen, 1806. 
8vo. With plates. 
For the Physiology of Plants. 
Nehem. Grew’s Anatomy of Plants. London, 1682. folio. 
Marcell. Malpighii, Anatome Plantarum. Ib. 1686, folio. 
Steph. Hales’s Vegetable Staticks. Ib. 1738. Svo. 
Du Hamel Physique des Arbres. Paris, 1778. Vol. II. 4to. 
J. Ingen-Housz. Versuche mit Pfianzen ,- ubersetzt von J . A, 
Scherer. Wien, 1786-90. Th. 3. Svo. 
Th. v. Saussure, Chemische Untersuchungen uber die Vegeta- 
tion, ubersetzt mit einem Anhange und Zusutzen von F. S. Voigt. 
Leipz., 1805. Svo. mit Kupf. 
F. A. v. Humboldt, Aphorismen aus der Chemischen Physiolo- 
gic der Pfianzen. Leipz., 1794 . 8vo. 
C. G. IIafn, Entwurf einer Pfianzcnphysiologie. Aus deni 

296 
OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
Danisehen. Copenh., 1798. 8vo. 
J. Senebier, Physiologie vdgdtale. Genev., 1800. Vol. V. 8vo. 
C. F. Brisseau-Mirbel, Traite d' Anatomie et de Physiologie 
Vdgdtales. Paris, 1802. Vol. II. 8vo. 
J. v. Uslar, Fragmente neuerer PJlanzenlcunde. Braunsch,, 
1794. 8vo. 
F. Cas, Medicus, Kritische Bemerlcungen uber Gegenstande 
aus dein Pjlanzenresche. Mannheim, seit 1793. 8vo. 
} Beytrdge zur Pjlanzen- Anatomie und Physiologie. 
Leipz. seit 1799. 7 Hefte. 8vo. 
, PJlanzenphysiologische Abhandlungen. Leipz. seit 
1803. 8 vo. 
K. Sprengel, von dem Ban und der Natur der Gewachse . 
Halle, 1812. 8vo. 
H. F. Link, Kritische Bemerkungen zu K. Sprengel’s Werk. 
Halle, 1812. 8vo. 
G. D. Kieser, Grundziige der Anatomie der Pjlanzen. Jena, 
1815. 8vo. 
J. Hedwtg, Sammlung seiner zerstreuten Abhandlungen und 
Beobachtungen , &c. Leipz., 1793. und 1797- Th. 2. 8vo. 
SECT. XI. 
OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
§ 222. Minerals or Fossils are those unorganized natural 
bodies (§ 2-4.) which are formed by physical and chemical 
laws within and upon the Earth. 
§ 223. With the exception of some few liquid Minerals, as 
Mercury and Petroleum, most are solid j although they ha-i e 
formerly existed in the fluid state. 
§ 224. For it is demonstrable, that at least the firm crust of 
our planet, as deep as it is known, (which, in truth, is not v to 
* On these geogcnetical principles, indispensible in the philosophical 
study of Mineralogy, see J. A. De Luc, Lettres sur l’ Histoire physique de la 
Terre. Paris, 1798, 8vo.— And Mayer’s Lehrbuch i/ber die Physische As- 
tronomie, Theorie der Erde, &c. Gottingen, 1805. Svo. 

OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 297 
the amount of ^Vd-o- of the semidiameter of the Earth,) must 
itself have been originally fluid*. 
§ 2*25. It is more than probable too, that the primordial fluid 
formed a universal menstruum, holding in solution the sub- 
stances afterwards precipitated from it. 
§ 226. Consequently, the various mineral strata have derived 
their origin from successive precipitations, and other chemical 
processes, gradually occurring in this fluid, and in a chronolo- 
gical point of view, may be arranged in two principal divi- 
sions : viz. 
(A.) The Primitive, formed previous to the organized 
Creation, and 
(B.) The Secondary, which has been formed at a time 
subsequent to the existence of Plants and Ani- 
mals. 
Each of these again is subdivided into two Classes : — 
The Primitive into 
(a.) The Granite Rocks ; and 
( b.J Rocks containing Mineral Veins. 
The Secondary into 
(c.) The Fldtz Rocks ; and 
(d.J The Alluvial Strata. 
Of each of these we shall say a few words. 
§ 22y. The first great and general precipitation of which 
we find the most evident traces, gave origin to the true Gra- 
nite, which appears to form the primary and essential part of 
the crust of our planet ; serving as a substratum to the more 
recently formed mountains and strata ; and occasionally break- 
ing its w r ay out from beneath them, particularly in the largest 
and most elevated mountain-chains. It is on this account, 
that the Granite-rocks are named in Geology, primitive or 
fundamental. 
§ 228. The proportions of the contents of the primordial 
fluid (§ 224.) necessarily changing after each successive preci- 
pitation, it follows that the various strata deposited subseqent- 
ly to the Granite must differ, as well from it as among them- 
selves. These rocks of the second Class are for the greater 
part of slaty texture, (as for instance, Gneiss, Mica-slate, Clay- 
slate, &c.) and stratified in extensive layers ; the strata being 
in general distinguished by their inclined or subverted dispo- 
sition. 
In these strata too, which rest, or, as it were, lean, upon the 
primitive rocks, fissures and crevices commonly present them- 

298 
OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
selves, filled to a greater or less extent with extraneous fossils, 
apparently of more recent origin*' It is in these more recent 
depositions, or veins, as they are called, (Ger. Gange. Fr. hi- 
lons.) that Ores are most commonly found, whence they form 
the principal and most important object in practical mining. 
From them also, the mountains of this second Class are dis- 
tinguished as mountains containing veins, (Ger. Ganggebirge. 
Fr. Montagnes a filons.) because in them are found, though not 
exclusively, the most numerous and the richest metallic veins. 
§ 229. As already mentioned, the solid crust of our planet 
was composed of these two Classes of primitive rocks, pre- 
vious to being enlivened by vegetation, and animated by the 
animal Creation. For, in neither one or other, is there any 
trace of petrifactions of previously existing organized bodies. 
The fact is just the reverse, as far as regards the two Classes 
of secondary rocks and strata. 
§ 230. The Flotz rocks are also for the most part stratified, 
but with strata in general, more level than those of the rocks 
containing veins, and much more diversified, as regards their 
component parts. In general too*, they form only the lower 
parts of mountain-ridges. They are, however, more particu- 
larly distinguished from the two Classes of primitive rocks by 
the abundance of petrified remains of organized bodies which 
they almost always contain. Most of these petrifactions are of 
Incognita; i.e. without any corresponding originals in the pre- 
sent organized Creation 5 as for instance, the Belemnites, some 
hundred Species of Ammonites, &c. All analogy, however, 
tends to prove, that the greater number of these Incognita 
were marine animals; and at the present day they are found 
in these strata in a regular undisturbed position (the Concby- 
liolitlia as on an Oyster-bed, the Coralliolitha as on a Coral- 
reef, &c.), so that we cannot avoid concluding, that the dry 
land now existing, must once have formed the bed of the Sea 
of the former world, and must have been elevated from its sub- 
mersed condition by some sudden and violent revolution. 
* A. G. Werner’s neue Theorie von der Entstehung der Gange. Freyb , 
1791. 8 vo. 
* In general -.-for occasionally, mountains of this thud Class arc found 
considerably more than 1000 toises above the surface of the Sea.;(asin 
rone among the Pyrenees and the Savoy and Swiss Alps,) and on the olht 
hand Stive rocks much less elevated ; for instance, the Brocken on 
the Hartz, the highest part of which is only 573 toises aboic the c'c 0 
Sea. 

OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
299 
The mountains of this Class have received their name from 
the word Floze, applied by the German miners to the variously 
alternating strata composing them. 
§ 231. Besides these three principal Classes of mountains, 
properly so called, which have all been formed, though at very 
different times, by depositions from water, and which collec- 
tively form the solid crust of our planet, — there is a fourth 
consisting of the Alluvial strata, as they are called, occurring 
here and there, principally in low countries, but occasionally 
of considerable size and extent : of this kind are the strata 
of Sand, Bog Iron Ore, Loam, Marl-tuff, &c., which also 
contain in abundance, wonderfully well preserved remains of 
sea-shells in a calcined state ; as for instance, in the Faluniere 
in Touraine, which is a stratum of such shells, amounting, by 
Reaumur s calculation, to 130 millions of cubic toises. 
§ 232. In addition to these four Classes of mountains and 
strata formed in the humid way, we meet with a fifth, com- 
posed partly of entire mountains, and partly of level strata, 
which, subsequent to their aqueous origin, have undergone 
considerable changes from the operation of subterraneous fire, 
by which they have been, as it were, metamorphosed, and 
have assumed their present form. 
Mountains of this kind, as is well known, are called Vol- 
canos. 
The level strata are called scorified, and the fossils peculiar 
to them are called pseudo-volcanic productions, in order to 
distinguish them from those actually ejected from Volcanos. 
§ 233. However easily and clearly these five Classes of fos- 
sils may be distinguished abstractedly, from what has been 
said of their origin, there can be no difficulty of understanding, 
that at the boundaries where they come in contact, they must 
occasionally be connected by imperceptible transitions *. 
* On the various kinds of rocks and their Classification, see J. C. W. 
Voigt’s Brief e uber die Gebirgslehre, Zweyte 4usga.be. Weimar. 1768. 8vo! 
C. Haidinger’s Entwurf einer systematischen Eintheilung der Gebir<*s- 
arten. 1785. 4to. 
A. G. \\ erner s kurze Classification und Beschreibung der verschiede- 
nen Gebirgsarten. Dresden, 1787. 8vo. 
C. A. S. Hoffmann’s kurzer Entwurf einer Gebirgslehre in A. W. 
Kohler’s Bergmannischen Kalender. 1790. S. 163. And particularly the 
Irological part of the Systemalisch- Tabellarischcs Uebcrsicht der Miner al- 
k'/rper iron Leonhard, Merz und Kopp. Frankf., 1806. folio. 

300 
OF MINERALS IN' GENERAL. 
§ 234. From the consideration of the mode of origin of fos- 
sils, as contrasted with the procreation of organized bodies, it 
must be evident, that, with the exception of some of the most 
simple minerals, as for instance, Diamond, Sulphur, native 
metals, &c. the characters of the Species* * * § must be less definite- 
ly marked in the former than in the latter, and their arrange- 
ment in Genera or even Classes much more arbitrary ; thus, for 
instance. Chlorite, Red Chalk, &c. are arranged by some mine- 
ralogists with ores, and by others among earthy minerals. 
§ 235. As many fossils, otherwise very similar, differ in an 
infinite manner, as regards the original proportions of their 
elements, the mode of their connexion, &c., there results an 
equally great number of variations, with almost imperceptible 
transitions into each other, the whole forming a series of 
which the extremes are sufficiently distinct, but between the 
individual members of which no such definite limits can be 
drawn, as in the case of organized bodies. This is particularly 
the case with the metalliferous minerals, but also in some de- 
gree with the compound earthy ones. 
§ 236. These transitions are still farther increased by the 
decomposition and dissolution of fossils already existing ; for 
many earthy minerals are gradually altered by the loss of their 
water of crystallization ; many ores by the action of acids, 
&c. ; and thus, for instance. Feldspar is converted into Por- 
celain-earth, and Copper Pyrites into black oxyde of Copper. 
§ 237. Hence it will appear how absolutely necessary it is, 
in order to obtain a satisfactory knowledge of minerals, to 
combine the precise determination of their external characters 
with the examination of their composition by chemical analy- 
sis! j recollecting that the relation of the external characters 
with the composition is by no means constant!. 
§ 238. Among those external characters § which are most 
* Deod. Dolomieu, sur la Philosophic Mineralogique, et sur /’ espece mi- 
ndralogir/ue. Paris, 1801. 8vo. 
! F. Bouterwek, iiber die Moglichkeit einer philosophischen Classifica- 
tion der Miner alkorper. Gotting. 1808. 8vo. 
+ J. F. L. Hausmann, de relatione inter corporum naturalium anorgani- 
coruin indoles chemicas atque externals . — in Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. 
Gotting. recent. Vol. II. 1813. 
§ A. G. Werner, von den dusserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossihen. Lcipz. 
1774. 8 vo. 
J. F. L. Hausmann, Versuch einer Entwurfszu einer Einleitung in der 
Qryktognosie. Braunschw. 1805. 8vo. 

OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
301 
certain and most important in distinguishing minerals, are, 
specific gravity *5 hardness ; above all when it exists, crystal- 
lization, which consists in definite form produced by a deter- 
minate number of facets, combined in an equally determinate 
manner ; and cleavage, or the direction of the lamellae, which 
in many minerals is regulated by the relation of the external 
surfaces to the primary crystal or form f. Of a less constant 
and positive kind are, colour, degree of transparency, lustre, 
fracture, the streak which many minerals shew when scratch- 
ed, &c. 
§ 239. Physical characters are also of assistance in distin- 
guishing many minerals ; as for instance, fusibility, solubility, 
phosphorescence, electricity, magnetism, and single or double 
refraction. And in many cases also, the empirical characters 
derived from the locality or the nature of the substances with 
which a fossil is associated, are of great utility for immediate 
application. 
§ 240. In the chemical examination of fossils, (§ 237-) the 
mode in which they are affected by fire, and particularly by the 
blow-pipe, will occasionally suffice; but more frequently it is 
necessary to have recourse to analysis by means of re-agents 
via humida. 
Remark. That the results of analyses of the same fossils by 
different chemists are occasionally very different, only 
proves how much attention, caution, and above all fre- 
quent repetition are necessary, in order to guard against 
error and self-deception. 
Nor must it be forgotten in the most perfect analysis, 
that it cannot, and does not, show any thing more than the 
quality and quantity of the materials into which the fossil 
is decomposable; and, on the contrary, that it explains 
nothing of that which forms the peculiar character of 
many fossils, viz. the wonderful composition and mode of 
“ Pemnteur specifique des corps par M. Brisson. Paris, 1787. 4to. 
Remark. The Specific Gravities in this work are estimated in parts of a 
thousand, that of water being assumed as 1000 at about 64° Falir. An 
L prefixed, denotes that it is on the authority of the late M. Lichten- 
berg. 
f Theoriesur la Structure des Cristaux ; par R. J. Hauy in Journal de 
Physique. T. 43. p. 103. 
J. F. L. Hausmann’s Krystallogisnhe Beytriige. Braunschw. 1803. 4to, 

302 
OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
connexion of those materials, by which, for instance. 
Alumina forms the Sapphire, and in combination with a 
few equally common substances. Tourmaline ; or by which 
Nature produces out of Silex combined with Alumina, 
Agalmatolite, and combined with Magnesia, Soapstone, 
in other respects so closely similar. See Lichtenbkrg’s 
Vermischte Schriften. B. 5, S. 16T. — De Luc, in Voigt’s 
Magazine. Vol. IX. p. 1. p. 74. — And Klaproth’s Bey- 
trcige. B. 1. S. 89. 
§241. Minerals in general, according to the old division, 
first, I believe, suggested by Avicenna, may be arranged in 
four Classes the distinctions and peculiarities of which are 
more precisely explained at the commencement of the four 
following sections. 
I. Stones and Earthy Fossils. 
II. Salts. 
III. Inflammable Minerals, properly so called. 
IV. Metals. 
Sources of Reference, 8fc. on Mineralogy . 
G. Agricola, De re Metallica. L. 12 — It. De Natura fossili- 
um. L. 10. Basil. 1546. fol. 
A. Cronstedt’s Versuch einer Miner alogie, aus dem Schwed. 
vermehrt durch M. C. Brunnich. Copenhag. 1770. Svo. 
J. G. Wallerii, Systema Miner alogicum. Holm. 1772. Vol. 
II. Svo. 
D.L. G. Karsten, MinerallogischeTabellen. Berlin, 1808. fol. 
F. A. Reuss, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie nach Karsten’s Ta- 
bellen. Leipz. 1801-6. B. 8. 8v«. 
Systematised Tabellarische Uebersiclit und Characteristic: der 
Miner alkorper ; von C. C. Leonhard, R. F. Merz und J. H 
Kopp. Frankft. 1806. fol. 
Propcidentik der Mineralogie ; von C. C. Leonhard, J. H. 
Kopp und C. L. Gartner. Daselbst. 1817- fol. 
Taschenbuch fur die gesammte Mineralogie , mit Hinsicht auf 
die neuesten Entdeckungen, herausgegeben von C. C. Leonhard. 
Daselbst seit 1807- Svo. 
C. A. E. Hoffmann, Handbuch der Mineralogie. Freyb, 1S11. 
Svo. 
J. F. L. Hausmann, Entwurfeines Systems der unorganisirten 
Naturkorper. Cassel. 1809. 8vo. 
, Handbuch der Mineralogie. Gotting. 1813. 3. B. Svo. 

OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 303 
J. C. Ullman, Syslematisch-Tabellarische Uebersicht tier Mi- 
neralogisch- einfachen Fossilien. Cassel. 1814. 4to. 
Hauy, Traite de Miner alogie. Paris, 1801. 5 Vols. 8vo. 
Ej. Tableau eomparatif cles Resultats de la Cristallographie et 
de Vanalyse Chimique relativement d la Classification des Mine- 
raux. Paris, 1S09. Svo. 
Tableau methodique des Espe'ces Minerales extrait du Traite de 
Mineralogie de M. Hauy, et augment e des nouvelles Ddcouvertes ; 
par J. A. H. Lucas. Paris, 1806. 8vo. 
A. Brongniart, Traite (tlementaire de Mineralogie, avec des 
Applications aux Arts. Paris, 1807. Vol. II. Svo. 
R. Jameson’s System of Mineralogy. Ed. 2d. Edinb., 1816. 
3 Vols. 8vo. 
P. Cleaveland s Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology. Bos- 
ton, 1816. Svo. 
M. H. Klaproth’s Beytrdge zur Chemischen Kenntniss der 
Miner alkorper. Berlin, seit 1793. 5. B. 8vo. 
Foi the Determination of Fossils by their external 
Characters. 
H. Struve, Methode Analytique des Fossiles, fondee sur leurs 
Caracteres exterieurs. Lausanne, 1797. Svo. 
Handbuch des Mineralogen von H. Struve, aus desselben 
Handschrift ilbersetzt durcli D. B. Ratzer. Bern., 1806. 4to. 
J. G. Lenz, Mineralogisches Taschenbuch. Erf. 1798. 12mo. 
On Geology. 
J. A. De Luc, Traite EUmentaire, de Geologie. Lond., 1809. 
8vo. 
Essay on the Theory of the Earth, by M. Cuvier, with Mine- 
ra logical iSotes by Prof. Jameson, and Observations on the Geo- 
logy of N. America, by Prof. Mitchell. N. York. ISIS. Svo. 
S. Breislak’s Lehrbuch der Geologie, mit Anm,. von F. R. von 
Strombeck. Braunschw., seit 1819. 8vo. 
G. B. Greenouch s Critical Examination of the first Princi- 
ples of Geology. Lond. 1819. 8vo. 
Journals. 
Chemische Annalen von L. von Crell. 
Journal der Chemie, von N. A. Scherer. 

304 
OF MINERALS IN GENERAL. 
Neues allgetneines Journal der Chemie, herausgegeben von A. F. 
Gehlen. 
Magazin der Bcrgbaulcunde, herausgegeben von J. F. Lempe. 
Dresden, seit 1805. 8vo. 
Bergmannisches Journal. Herausgegeben von A. W. Kohler 
und C. A. S. Hoffmann. Freyberg, seit 1788. 8vo. 
Journal des Mines. Paris, seit 1794, 8vo. 
C. E. von Moll, Jahrbiicher der Berg und H'uttcnkunde. Salz- 
burg, seit 1797- 8vo. 
Dess, Annalen derselben. seit 1801. 
Von Hoff, Magazin fur die gesammte Mineralogie. Leipz., 
1800. Svo. 
Transactions of the Geological Society of London , from 1811. 
Some of the most instructive Catalogues of Collections of 
Minerals. 
An Attempt towards the Natural History of the Fossils of 
England , in the Collection of J. Woodward. Lond., 1729. 2 
Vols. 8vo, 
Lithophylacium Bornianum. Prag. 1772. seq. Vol. II. 8vo. 
Catalogue de la Collection des Fossiles de Mlle. De Raab par 
M. De Born. Vienn., 1790. Vol. II. Svo. 
N. G. Leske’s Miner alien- Cabinet, beschrieben von D. L. G. 
Karsten. Leipz., 1789. 2 B. Svo. 
Verzeichniss des Miner alien-C abinet' s des B. H. M. Pabst von 
Ohain. Herausgegeben von A. G. Werner. Freyberg, 1791. 
B. 2. Svo. 
Gianv. Petrini, Gabinetto Mineralogico del Collegio Nazareno. 
Rom.. 1791. 2 Vols. Svo. 
Mineralien - Cabinett, gesammelt und beschrieben von dem 
Verfasser der Erfahrungen vom Innern der Gebirge. Clausthal. 
1795. Svo. 
W. Babington’s System of Mineralogy in the Form of a Ca - 
talogue. Lond., 1799. 4to. 
Des Hrn. J. F. von der Null, Mineralien- Cabinet, als Hand- 
buch der Oryctognosie brauchbar gemacht von F. Mohs. V ien, 
1804. 3. B. 8vo. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
305 
SECT. XII. 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
§ 345. Those minerals are known by the name of Earthy 
Fossils, which, when pure, are not of themselves soluble in wa- 
ter*, as Salts, nor in oil, as Bitumen ; nor like the latter, burn 
in the open fire 5 nor like metals, admit of extension under the 
hammerf. In general they are very difficult of fusion, but when 
melted become transparent. Their specific gravity mostly 
exceeds that of water four or five times. 
§ 343. At the present time nine primitive or elementary 
earths are known, whence the fossils of this Class are arranged 
in an equal number of Genera named after them : 
Silex is not by itself fusible, and is equally unalterable in 
air and in water •, it is not acted upon by any acid except the 
fluoric 5 but when combined with the two fixed alkalies, soda 
and potash, it melts into glass, whence it is sometimes called 
'vitrescible earth. 
1 . Quartz. 
Its proper form when crystallized, is that of a six-sided 
:prism of various length, terminated by six-sided pyramids, the 
•surfaces of the prism being frequently marked with fine trans- 
verse striae. 
* They are soluble when combined with acids or alkalies, particularly at 
a high temperature. For that even siliceous earth itself, combined with soda, 
i3 found dissolved in many hot springs, is proved by the siliceous sinter about 
.many of them, (particularly in Iceland and Kamtschatka,) as well as by 
the analysis of the water. See Black, in the Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of 
Edinburgh. Vol. III. p. 119. &c. 
f “ Terra characteres vix nisi privativi habentur.” — B ergmann, 
I. Silex. 
II. Zircon. 
III. Yttria, 
IV. Glucine 
VI. Magnesia. 
VII. Lime. 
VIII. Strontian, 
AND 
IX. Barytes. 
V. Alumina. 
I. SILEX. 
x 

306 OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
It is hard, and gives a phosphorescent light when two pieces 
are rubbed together in the dark. 
It includes two principal varieties; viz. 1st, Rock Crystal, 
and 2d, Common Quartz. 
(1.) Rock Crystal. Ger. Berg-crystall. Fr. Crystal de Roche. 
Properly colourless and limpid ; lustre vitreous : fracture 
slightly conclioidal ; the crystals generally attached by one ex- 
tremity to a quartzy matrix, and then often weighing a hun- 
dred-weight, (particularly in Switzerland and Madagascar); on 
the contrary, often unattached and perfectly crystallized, i. e. 
with both pyramids ; of this kind the small, but very clear 
ones, with very short intermediate prisms are worthy of notice ; 
the Hungarian ones, for instance, from the Palatinate of Mar- 
maros. Lastly, very abundant in the form of rounded pebbles, 
occasionally of extreme hardness and transparency, as for in- 
stance, the keys of Ceylon. Specific gravity 2653. Contents 
according to Bergmann — Silex 93 ; Alumina 6 ; and Lime 1. 
It not infrequently incloses extraneous fossils, as for instance, 
chlorite, asbestus, actinolite, mica, grey oxyde of manganese, 
sphene, &c.; and occasionally drops of water. It is rarely, 
as upon St. Gothard, found perforated by little hollow canals, 
straight and with six angles. 
Among the most remarkable of the coloured Varieties of 
Rock Crystal are : — 
(a.) Yellow Quartz. Citrin. Quartz hyalin jaune. 
Generally of a wine yellow colour, and rarely crystallized. Of 
this kind are the large false topazes. 
(b.J Brown Quartz. Ger. Rauchkry stall. Fr. Quartz hyalin 
enfumi. — Smoke-brown in every shade. The darkest is also 
called morio. 
(c.J Amethyst. Fr. Quartz hyalin violet , Generally violet 
in a variety of shades ; sometimes of a compressed columinar 
structure, partly with fortification-like processes. The finest 
coloured specimens are found in Persia and the East Indies. 
(2.) Common Quartz. 
One of the most ancient and most generally diffused fossils. 
Commonly milk-white, but also in a variety of other colours : 
more or less transparent. Lustre generally vitreous, but oc- 
casionally dull; mostly uncrystallized; sometimes crystallized; 
occasionally pseudo-morphous *; now and then of peculiai 
* Exhibiting impressions of the forms peculiar to the crystals of other 
s ubstances. 

OF STONES AND EARTIIY FOSSILS. 
307 
form, as notched, cellular, &c. Fracture mostly conchoidal ; 
occasionally splintery or granular. It sometimes assumes a 
glittering appearance, from a peculiar kind of scaly structure, 
or from the intermixture of fine lamellse of mica ; such is the 
cinnamon-brown avanturine quartz from the Cape de Gatte in 
Spain, called natural avanturine, from its resemblance to the 
well-known glass composition, avanturine flux. (Avanturin- 
fluss.) 
Two notable varieties are : — 
(a.) Rose Quartz ; so called from its pale red colour, depend- 
ing on the manganese it contains. Fracture generally amor- 
phous j occasionally in conchoidal scales. It occurs particularly 
in Bavaria and on the Altai mountains, in large masses. 
Ch.J Prase. It has its name from its leek-green colour, which 
is derived from the intermixture of actinolite ; generally amor- 
phous ; found in particular at Breitenbrunn, in the Erzge- 
birge. 
2. Siliceous sinter. — Stalagmitical Quartz. Ger. Kieselsinter. 
Quarzsinter. 
Silex is held in solution in hot springs, partly from the ele- 
vation of temperature, partly from its combination with soda 
(§ 242. Note.), and is afterwards deposited in the form of sin- 
ter. This substance is white, varying into milk-blue, wax- 
yellow, &c. ; it is but slightly transparent. Like calcareous 
sinter, (stalactitic carbonate of lime,) its form and fracture 
are vej-y various ; sometimes it appears in the form of drops ; 
or as if melted ; botryoidal, &c.: its structure is generally 
loose, occasionally lamellar, &c. Specific gravity 1917-— Con- 
tents of that from Iceland, according to Klaproth — Silex 98 ; 
Alumina 1.5; Oxyde of Iron 0.5. It is found in abundance 
and in a great variety of forms near the hot springs of Iceland 
and Kamtschatka, and the pearl sinter or fiorite, at Santa 
Fiora, near Florence. 
3. Hyalite. Ger. Gummistein. Miillerisches glas. Fr. Quartz 
hyalin concr^tionne. 
Whitish in a variety of shades; more or less transparent; 
lustre vitreous ; stalactitic, fusiform or botryoidal, &c. ; some- 
times like resin or gum in colour and form ; most commonly 
found incrusting TufF-wacke.— Contents, according to Bucholz 
Silex 92. ; Water 6.33; with a trace of Alumina. Found 
chiefly near Frankfort on the Maine. 
4. Chalcedony. Ger. Chalcedon. Fr. Quartz agate calc^doine. 
x 2 

308 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
It includes the Onyx, Cornelian, Heliotrope, Chrysoprase and 
Agate. For the first four differ in little more than colour from 
common Chalcedony, and Agate is composed of a mixture of 
these and some other minerals. 
(1.) Common Chalcedony . 
Mostly milk or azure blue ; partly, also, passing into the 
honey-yellow and red of cornelian, the smoke-brown of the 
onyx, &c. Often streaked and clouded. In many places very 
common with dendritical marks *, and then called Mocha- 
stone, Moss-agate, &c. In general more or less transparent ; 
lustre greasy ; fracture smooth ; often occurring in a variety 
of peculiar forms, particularly kidney or almond shaped, stalac- 
titic and in balls. The latter found in the Vicenzine, not uncom- 
monly has cavities sometimes containing a drop of water (Hy- 
drocalcedon.) Chalcedony is also found cellular, pseudo-mor- 
phous, or crystallized itself, mostly in cubes. Specific gravity, 
2615. Many specimens are phosphorescent when rubbed toge- 
ther. That from Faroe contains, according to Bergmaxn, — 
Silex 84 5 Alumina 16. It passes into Quartz, Horn-stone, 
Opal; and is found in abundance in Trapp. 
(2.) Onyx. 
Smoke-brown, sometimes passing into black-blue ; often with 
alternate layers of milk-blue Common chalcedony, (the Aia- 
bian Sardonyx. Ital. Niccolo.) Very commonly employed by 
the ancient Romans for cameos. 
(3.) Cornelian . Ger. Carneol. Fr. Cornaline. 
Flesh-red, passing on one hand into wax-yellow or horn- 
brown, and on the other into the darkest garnet-red. Of the 
latter kind is the most valuable of all, Corniola nobile ( Fr . 
Cornaline de la vielle roche), which by reflected light is of a 
black-red, but with transmitted light, blood-red, like a Bohe- 
mian garnet, (pyrope,) and almost as transparent. It is upon 
this that the master-pieces of Grecian and Etruscan intaglios 
are executed. Its locality is at present unknown. 
The Indian Sardonyx, on the contrary, of which the most 
valuable ancient cameos are composed, mostly consists ot 
horn-brown Cornelian, with layers ot Chalcedony. 
* These dendritical marks are, particularly in many Oriental specimens, 
occasionally of thecolourof Cornelian or Onyx ; more commonly, however, 
they appear to depend on the presence of Manganese. Many Icelandic speci- 
mens contain a greenish web, which, when viewed through a magnifying 
glass, has, in every respect, the appearauce of a conferva. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
309 
( 4 .) Heliotrope. 
Colour dark leek-green, commonly with blood-red spots 3 
transparent at the angles at least 3 lustre greasy 3 fracture 
conchoidal 3 uncrystallized. Specific gravity 2633 . Found 
principally in Egypt. Very common in ancient intaglios. 
To this Species, also, probably belongs the Plasma or Sma- 
ragdo-prase, of a light leek-green colour, mostly with small 
white or yellow spots 3 transparent. Its locality is unknown, 
but probably in Egypt. Very commonly used by the ancient 
Roman artists for seals, &c.* Of this kind are also the greater 
number of ancient Smaragds, as they are called. 
( 5 .) Chrysoprase. 
Mostly apple-green, partly with a bluish play of colour 3 has 
its beautiful colour, which is very transient in the fire, from the 
contained Oxyde of Nickel ; translucent 3 uncrystallized. Con- 
tents according to Klaproth — Silex 96.16 ; Oxyde of Nickel 
I3 Lime 0. 83 j Magnesia 0.08 ; Alumina 0.08 3 Oxyde of Iron 
0.0S. Found particularly at Kosemitz in Silesia. 
(6.) Agate. 
Agate, as already mentioned, is a mixture of several of the 
preceding Species, with occasionally an addition of Quartz, prin- 
cipally Amethyst, Jasper, he.-, and occurs in an endless variety 
of composition, colour and marks. Hence the variety of names. 
Agate-onyx, Jasper-agate, Ribband-agate, Cross-agate, Point- 
agate, Fortification-agate, &c. Brecciated-agate consists of 
fragments of the different kinds connected by a cement of 
Quartz. Rainbow-agate viewed in transmitted light presents a 
play of variegated colours. Agate is common in nodules, often 
hollow. It occurs in great abundance and variety in Germany, 
particularly the Palatinate. 
5 . Opal. Fr. Quartz-resinite. 
The colour is different in the different Varieties 3 all are more or 
less transparent 3 they have commonly a greasy lustre, in some 
cases dull, in others vivid 3 their fracture is conchoidal 3 they 
are found massive only 3 and are generally only semi-hard. 
The principal kinds are : 1st, True Opal 5 and 2d, Semi Opal. 
( 1 .) True Opal, with the following varieties, viz. — 
(a.) Noble Opal. Precious Opal. Ger. Edler Opal. 
Mostly yellow by transmitted light 3 by reflected light, milk- 
* In lay Specimen Histories Nuturalis antique: artis operibus illustrate, 
I have treated more fully of this remarkable stone, which has often been 
mistaken by modern writers and confounded with others. 

310 OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
blue with a peculiar fiery play of iridescent colours. Specific 
gravity 2114. Contents according to Klaproth — Silex 90 5 
Water 10 . Found particularly in Upper Hungary. 
(b.) Common Opal. Ger. Gemeiner Opal. 
Less transparent 3 and without the play of colours. A cream- 
yellow variety has the Mongolian name of Kascholong, (Cach- 
olong 3 i. e. beautiful stone.) Contents of a specimen from 
KosemitZ 5 — Silex 98.75 3 Alumina I 3 Oxyde of Iron 1 j Klap- 
roth. Found in the Erzgebirge, Silesia, the Faroe Islands, 
&c. It passes into Chalcedony, Chrysoprase, &c. 
( c .) Hydrophone. Ger. Weltauge. Fr. Quartz resinite hydro- 
phone. 
Mostly cream-yellow 3 probably produced by the decomposi- 
tion of the preceding Variety 3 hence its locality and composi- 
tion are the same ; it is softer 5 sticks to the tongue 3 absorbs 
water and then becomes transparent (whence its name) 3 oc- 
casionally iridescent. 
(2.) Semi Opal. Ger. Halbopal. Fr. Demiopale, in two Va- 
rieties 3 viz. 
(a.) Pitch Opal. Ger. Pechopal. Telkobanier stein. 
Commonly wax-yellow (Wax Opal) 3 but also brownish-red, 
olive-green, &c. 5 more or less transparent 3 lustre sometimes 
vitreous, sometimes greasy 5 fracture conchoidal. It passes 
into yellow chalcedony, pitchstone and flint. It occurs in great 
variety at Telkobanja, in Upper Hungary. Contents — Silex 
93.5 3 Oxyde of Iron I 3 Water 5 3 Klaproth. 
(a.) Wood Opal. Ger. Holzopal. Fr. Quartz resinite xylo'ide. 
The wood of pines petrified in a kind of Wax Opal 5 yellow- 
ish, brownish, &c. The longitudinal fracture is occasionally 
fibrous and sometimes with the detachment of conchoidal layers 
corresponding to the annual increase of wood. Found particu- 
cularly at Schemnitz, in Hungary. 
6 . Cat’s Eye. Ger. Katzenauge. Schillerquarz. Fr. Quartz 
agathe chatoyant. 
Generally yellowish or greenish, and sometimes smoke-blue ; 
has a peculiar reflection, from which its name is derived 3 but 
little transparent ; lustre greasy .It is found in rolled masses in 
Ceylon and Malabar. Specific gravity 2657 • Contents — Silex 96 5 
Alumina 1.75 5 Lime 1.5 5 Oxyde of Iron 0.25. (Klaproth.) 
7 . Pitchstone. Ger. Pechstein. Fr. Petrosilex resinite. 
Of a variety of colours, but mostly inclining to blue 3 but 
little transparent 5 lustre greasy ; fracture conchoidal 5 gene- 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
81 1 
rally massive j sometimes kidney-shaped 5 semi-hard. Specific 
gravity of a Saxon specimen, 2314. Passes into Wax Opal 3 
occasionally intermixed with grains of Felspar and Quartz 
(Pitchstone-Porphyry.) 
S. Menilite. Ger. Blauer Pechstein. 
Hair-brown, with greasy lustre 3 transparent only at the thin- 
nest corners 5 fracture from flat conchoidal to coarse slaty j 
scratches glass. Contents — Silex 85.5 ; Alumina 1 ; Lime 0.5 3 
Oxyde of Iron 0.5 3 Water and carbonaceous matter 11 . (Klap- 
roth.) In rounded and kidney-shaped masses in the polishing 
slate of Menil-montant, near Paris. 
9. Polishing Slate. Ger. Polirschiefer. Klebschiefer. Saug- 
kiesel. 
Generally yellowish-white, brownish, and often striped 3 stain- 
ing a little 3 fracture slaty 3 fine-earthy 3 meagre to the touch 3 
adheres strongly to the tongue 3 very soft ; light. Contents, 
Silex 66.5 3 Alumina 7 3 Magnesia 1.5 3 Lime 1.25 3 Oxyde of 
Iron 2.53 water 19. (Klaproth.) Found chiefly at Menil- 
montant. 
10 . Tripoli. Ger. Tripel. Fr. Quartz aluminifere Tripoleen. 
Generally yellowish grey 3 earthy 3 meagre 3 soft. Contents, 
according to Haase — Silex 90 ; Alumina 7 ; Oxyde of Iron 3. 
Found, among other places, at Ronneburg, in the District of 
Altenburg. 
11 . Spongiform Quartz. Ger. Schwimmstein. Fr. Quartz 
nectique. 
Yellowish- grey 5 dull; not transparent ; fracture earthy ; very 
soft 3 tasteless. — Specific gravity 0.800. Contents, according 
to Vauquelin, Silex 98 3 Carbonate of Lime 2. Found near 
Paris, chiefly in globular masses. 
12. Pumice-stone. Ger. Bimstein. Fr. Pierre-ponce. 
Generally whitish-grey 3 lustre silky 3 spongy 3 structure irre- 
gularly fibrous 3 brittle 3 sharply granular 3 very light. Con- 
tents of that from Lipari, according to Klaproth, Silex 77-5 3 
Alumina 17*5 ; Oxyde of Iron 1.75. Found in many volcanic 
countries, as in the Lipari Islands, Santorini, Vera Cruz, &c. 
13. Porcelain Jasper. Ger. Porcellan-Jaspis. Fr. Therman- 
tide Porcellanite. 
Generally pearl-grey or lavender-blue, but sometimes also 
straw-yellow, brick-red, & c. Fissured ; lustre greasy ; frac- 
ture conchoidal. A pseudo-volcanic product, probably de- 
rived from shale (slate-clay.) Found among other places, e 4 

312 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
Stracke, in Bohemia. Contents of a specimen from thence, 
according to Rose, Silex 60.75 ; Alumina 27-25 ; Magnesia 3 ; 
Oxyde of Iron 2.5 ; Potash 3.66. 
14. Obsidian. Fr. Lave vitreuse obsidienne. 
Varying from smoke-grey to coal-black ; more or less trans- 
parent ; sometimes however only at the edges, as in the an- 
tique kind, from the west coast of the Red Sea, of a blackish- 
grey or leek-green colour* ; lustre vitreous; fracture con- 
choidal ; uncrystallized. Contents Silex 73; Alumina 10; 
Potash 6; Lime 1 ; Oxyde of Manganese 1.16. (Vauquelin.) It 
sometimes contains a mixture of granular portions of Quartz 
and Felspar, (Obsidian-porphyry.) Found particularly in vol- 
canic countries, as Iceland, Ascension, Easter Island, &c. 
15. Flint. Ger. Feuerstein Kreide-Kiesel. Fr. Pierre k feu. 
Generally grey, passing into blackish, yellowish; &c. ; but 
little transparent ; fracture conchoidal, acutely angular ; most- 
ly in dense masses ; sometimes in hollow balls, of which kind 
are the melons of Mount Carmel, as they are called ; harder 
than quartz ; when struck, emits a peculiar smell. Specific 
gravity 2595. Contents, Silex 98 ; Lime 0.5 ; Alumina 0.25 ; 
Oxyde of Iron 0.25. (Klaproth.) It passes into Hornstone, 
Semi Opal, &cf. Abundant in chalk-beds. Often contains 
petrifactions of Sea-urchins, delicate corals, cellularia, &c. 
Occurs in rolled masses in the pudding-stone of Hertfordshire. 
Principally used for gun-flints 
16. Hornstone. Ger. Hornstein. Fr. Pierre de Corne. (Petro- 
silex.) 
Commonly grey, passing into a variety of colours mostly dull. 
At Altai, milk-white, with delicate dendritical marks. (White 
Jasper.) Transparent at the edges only ; fracture generally 
splintery ; uncrystallized, but sometimes in pseudo-morphous 
crystals of calcareous spar ; less hard than quartz. Specific 
gravity 2708. Contents, Silex 72 ; Alumina 22 ; Lime 6. (Kir- 
wan.) Passes into Flint, Chalcedony, Jasper, &c. Forms the 
basis of many kinds of Porphyry. 
Sinopel (Ferrum jaspideum Bornii) is a brownish-red Horn- 
* I have spoken of this, the tme Obsidian of the ancients, in the Comm. 
Soc. Reg. Gutting, recent. \ ol. III. p. 76. 
t Very neat cameos are made in Rome, from fine flint with perfect layers 
of cream-yellow Semi-Opal. 
+ See B. Hacquet, physische und tedmische Beschreibung der Flinten- 
fine . Wien, 1792. 8vo. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 313 
stone, very rich in iron, and forming the principal veins at 
Schemnitz in Hungary. 
Woodstone is wood petrified in a kind of horn-stone 3 it is of 
a variety of colours 3 among others cochineal-red, and more 
rarely apple-green. Found principally in alluvial strata 3 but 
occasionally also in Flotz rocks, (in the Rothe todte liegende , a 
species of conglomerate.) 
1 / . Flinty-slate. Siliceous schist. Ger. Kieselschiefer. Horn- 
schiefer. 
Black, smoke-grey, and partly also of other colours, mostly 
dull ; transparent at the edg;es only 3 lustre greasy, with a dull 
glimmering 3 fracture mostly coarse-splintery, partly scaly 3 
structure slaty 3 amorphous (not crystallized) 3 hard 3 often 
permeated by veins of quartz. Passes into clay-slate. 
A Jasper-like variety, called by Werner Lydian stone, varies 
from black-grey to coal-black, has a more even fracture, and 
is found chiefly in rolled masses. 
18. Ferruginous Quartz. Ger. Eisenkiesel. Fr. Quartz hema- 
toide. 
Principally liver-brown 3 not transparent 3 lustre greasy 3 ge- 
nerally amorphous 3 sometimes in small crystals of six-sided 
prisms, with six or three-sided terminal pyramids 3 hard. 
Contents, Silex 92; Oxyde of Iron 5.753 Oxyde of Manganese I3 
volatile parts 1 3 (Bucholz.) Found particularly in Bohemia, 
and in the Erzgebirge in Saxony. 
19. Jasper. Ger. Jaspis. Ital. Diaspro. 
Of all colours and patterns, whence the names of Ribband-jas- 
per, &c. j not transparent 3 fracture faintly conchoidal 3 mostly 
amorphous 5. rarely in (primary) kidney-shaped masses 3 very 
hard. Specific gravity 2691, Contents, Silex 75 3 Alumina 
20 j Oxide of Iron 5. (Kirwan.) Passes into Horn-stone, fer- 
ruginous Quartz, &c. 
The Egyptian Jasper forms a remarkable variety : it is brown 
in all shades 3 sometimes striped or veined 3 also with dendri- 
tical marks 5 in the form (primary) of pebble 3 exceedingly 
susceptible of polish. Specific gravity, 2564. Found chiefly 
in Upper Egypt. 
20. Arendalite. 
Dark leek-green 3 not transparent 3 partly massive, partly crys- 
tallized in broad six-sided prisms, terminated at the extremi- 
ties by two or four planes. The crystals with vitreous lustre 3 
- e fracture greasy 3 the longitudinal fracture lamellar, the 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
314 
transverse, conchoidal. Specific gravity, 3G40. Contents, 
Silex 37 3 Alumina 21 ; Lime 15 ; Oxyde of Iron 24 ; Oxyde 
of Manganese 1.5 (Vauquelin.) Found in the iron mines at 
Arendal in Norway. 
Epidote or Thallite, or the Green Schorl of Dauphiny resem- 
bles it j whence Werner united both minerals under the com- 
mon name of Pistacite. 
21. Axinite. Ger. Thumerstein. Glasstein. 
Clove-brown 3 transparent 3 lustre vitreous 3 fracture small 
conchoidal 3 amorphous as well as crystallized in flat rhom- 
boids. Specific gravity, 3166. Contents, Silex 50.5 : Alumina 
17 j Lime 17 ; Oxyde of Iron 9.5 3 Oxyde ot Manganese 5.2o ; 
Potash 0.25 3 (Klaproth.) Found principally in Dauphiny 
and Thum, in the Erzgebirge. 
22. Harmotome. Cross-stone. Ger. Kreuzstein. Fr. Pierre de 
la Croix. . 
Mostly milk-white ; transparent, but rarely limpid ; the longi- 
tudinal fracture lamellar, the transverse conchoidal ; always 
crystallized *, and primarily as small, thick, right-angled, 
four-sided prisms, bevelled and pointed at the extremities ; but 
almost always as twin crystals, so that two are applied toge- 
ther longitudinally, and appear to intersect each other, (lab. 
fig. 15.) giving the appearance of a cross on the transverse 
fracture. Specific gravity, 2355. Contents, Silex 49 3 Barytes 
I83 Alumina 16 5 Water 15. (Klaproth.) Found chiefly at 
St. Andreasberg, in the Hartz, 
23. Apophyllite. Ger. Fischaugenstein. 
Mostly greyish- white 5 transparent, partly limpid 3 fracture 
lamellar 3 cleavage in three directions at -right ang ^ 3 
scratches glass imperfectly. Specific gravity, 246/ . Contents 
Silex 52 3 Lime 24.5 3 Potash 8 3 Water 15 3 with traces ot 
Muriate of Ammonia. (Rose.) Found particularly at Uto m 
Roslagen (Sweden), and in perfect Crystals at St. Ant ieas erg. 
24. Prehnite. 
Commonly apple-green 3 transparent, with faint nacreous 
lustre ; partly amorphous, partly crystallized in short, coin 
nar, four-sided prisms, closely aggregated. Specific gr a y, 
2942. Contents, Silex 43.83 3 Alumina 30.33 5 Lime IS .33, 
* L. Von Been iiber den Kreuzstein. Leipz., 1794. F. B- 
Hausmann in Weber und Mohr's Jrckiv fur die Natur-Gesch. B. 1. 
S. 111. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 315 
Oxyde of Iron 5.66 ; Water 1 .83. Found principally at the Cape, 
and in Dauphiny ; also on many parts of the Flartz ; as crys- 
tallized at Goslar. 
25. Zeolite. Mesotype. 
It has its name (Zeolite) from its principal quality, viz. that 
ot bubbling up into twigs before the blow-pipe, without run- 
ning into a bead. It is white in a variety of shades ; sometimes 
also brick-red, green ; when fresh, more or less transparent ; 
lustre mostly nacreous, particularly of Stilbite (a Variety) ; 
when exposed to the weather, on the contrary, not transparent, 
earthy, or mealy ; structure mostly radiated, divergent, partly 
lamellar (Stilbite) ; very frequently amorphous 5 often kidney- 
shaped ; often crystallized, and mostly in six-sided tables or 
prisms, more rarely in cubes, (Analcime, Cubicite), rhomboi- 
dal (Chabasie,) &c. acicular (the limpid Glass-Zeolite, Needle- 
stone, or Mesolite from Iceland,) fibrous (fibrous and capillary 
Zeolite); generally half-hard. Specific gravity 2134. Con- 
tents of a specimen from Faroe, Silex 49 ; Alumina 27 ; Soda 
1/ ; V ater 9. (Sjiithson.) Found, among other places, par- 
ticularly in Trap on Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Else- 
where also in many Basalts. 
j.o fibrous Zeolite belongs Natrolite ; colour cream and 
orange-yellow ; kidney-shaped and mamillary ; structure ra- 
diated divergent. In the Porphyry-slate of Hohentwyl, in the 
kingdom of Wurtemburg. 
26. Marekanite. 
Commonly smoke-grey, partly cloudy ; more or less transpa- 
rent ; rarely limpid and diaphanous ; lustre vitreous ; in round 
and obtuse-angled grains, mostly about the size of a pea, but 
sometimes as large or larger than a hazel-nut. Specific gra- 
vity 2365. Contents, Silex 74 ; Alumina 12; Lime 8 ; Magne- 
sia 3 ; Oxyde of Iron 1. (Lowitz.) Found particularly at the 
mouth of the Marekanka, in the Sea of Ochotsk. Enclosed 
like kernels in a lamellar cortex of Pearl-stone, both swelling 
before the blow-pipe like Zeolite. 
27. Pearl-stone. Ger. Perlstein. Ft. Lave vitreuse perlee. 
Mostly ash-grey, partly brick-red, both in a variety of shades ; 
but little transparent ; lustre sometimes silky, sometimes na- 
creous ; consists of fragments partly granular and detached, 
partly in curved lamell® crumbling and friable, in the latter 
iorm composing the external layer of the marekanite. Con- 

310 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
tents, Silex 75 ; Alumina 12 ; Potash 4.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 1.6 ; 
Water 4.5. (Klaproth.) 
28. Lazulite. Azurite. Lapis Lazuli. Sapphirus of the an- 
cients. Ger. Lasurstein. Fr. Pierre d’azur. 
Has its name from the Persian, on account of its fine blue co- 
lour ; not transparent ; fracture dull, almost earthy ; often 
with’ scattered points of iron pyrites ; amorphous. Specific 
gravity 2771. Contents, Silex 46; Alumina 14.5; Carbonate of 
Lme2S ; Sulphate of Lime 6.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 3 ; Water 2. 
(Klaproth.) Among other places, found of exceeding beauty 
and in large masses on the Baikal Lake. Employed for many 
purposes of art, and in particular for making ultra-marine. 
29. Ilaiiyne. Latialite*. 
From lazulite-blue to verdigris-green ; more or less transpa- 
rent ; lustre vitreous ; hard ; generally in grains. Specific 
gravity 3333. Contents, Silex 30; Alumina 15; Lime o; Sul- 
phate of Lime 20.5; Potash 11. (Vauquelin.) Found chiefly 
near Albano, accompanied by Mica. 
30. Augite. Pyroxene, 
Passing from dark leek-green and colophony-brown into 
black ; but slightly transparent ; lustre considerable ; longitu- 
dinal fracture lamellar ; transverse, conchoidal ; partly massive ; 
partly crystallized in flat, short, six-sided prisms, with four- 
sided extremities. Contents, Silex 52 ; Lime 13.2 ; Magnesia 
10; Alumina 3.33 ; Oxyde of Iron 14.66 ; Oxyde of Manganese 
2. (Vauquelin.) Commonly fixed in Basalt, Tuffwacke, am 
particularly in the Lavas of Vesuvius and Etna. 
Coccolite, a granular Variety of Augite is found principa y 
near Arendal in Norway. 
31. Vesuvian. Idocrase. 
Generally pitch-brown, partly dark olive-green; but little 
transparent; lustre externally generally greasy ; internally 
vitreous ; always crystallized ; particularly in short four-side 
prisms with truncated edges, and very obtuse terminal pyra- 
mids. Contents, Silex 35.5; Lime 33 ; Alumina 22.25 ; Oxyde 
of Iron 7.5; Oxyde of Manganese 0.25. (Klaproth.) Found 
among the primordial fossils of Vesuvius, but particularly in 
perfect crystals, sometimes as thick as a thumb, at the en- 
trance of the Achtaragda into the Wilvi in Sibena. 
The Loboite, so called by Berzelius alter Count \ on Lobo, 
t Lf.op. Gmelin. de Ha&ynu. Heidelb., 1814. 8vo. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
817 
to whom we are indebted for the first precise account of this 
remarkable fossil *, which, in many of its external characters, 
resembles Vesuvian, differs from it, besides its appearance un- 
der the blowpipe, and the absence of any indication of the pre- 
sence of electricity, more particularly by containing a conside- 
rable quantity of magnesia. It is found in a lime quarry near 
the iron mines of Dannemora in Upland. (Sweden.) 
3 l 2. Leucite. Amphigene. Ger. Weisser Granat, vulcanis- 
cher Granat. 
Greyish-white, milky 5 transparent 3 but mostly with fissures, 
and therefore turbid 3 externally rough 3 internally with vitreous 
lustre, and shews a concentric structure on the fracture. Ge- 
nerally crystallized, and for the most part as a double eight- 
sided pyramid, with four planes at each extremity (Tab. 2. 
14.) 3 very brittle. Specific gravity 2468. Contents, Silex 
^4 5 Alumina 23 3 Potash 22. (Klaproth.) Found principally 
in a variety of Lavas and Tuffwacke in lower Italy. 
33. Pyrope. Ger. JBohmischer Granat. 
Blood-red 3 more or less transparent ; lustre vitreous 3 frac- 
ture conchoidal 3 never crystallized, but in roundish grains, 
loose or fixed in serpentine, &c. Specific gravity 3941. Con- 
tents, Silex 4O3 Alumina 2S.53 Magnesia 10 3 Lime 3.53 Oxyde 
of Iron 16.5; Oxyde of Manganese 0.25. (Klaproth.) Found 
particularly in Bohemia and Saxony. 
34. Garnet. Ger. Granat. Fr. Grenat. — Carbunculus. 
Passing from carmine-red through pitch-brown into olive- 
green 3 of equally various degrees of transparency 3 lustre 
mostly vitreous 3 fracture conchoidal ; amorphous, as well as 
crystallized in a variety of forms 3 chiefly as dodecahedrons 
with rhomboidal planes (Tab. 2. fig. 13.) 3 also as the Leucite 
(Tab. 2. fig. 14.) 
The three following kinds of Garnets are distinguished ac- 
cording to the principal colours, of which the first is called 
Precious Garnet (almandinej , and the other two Common Gar- 
net. 
(1.) Red Garnet. Oriental Garnet, Ahnandine. 
Mostly of the red colour already mentioned. Specific gravity 
41S8. Contents, Silex 35-75 3 Alumina 27.25 3 Oxyde of Iron 
36 3 Oxyde of Manganese 0.25. (Klaproth.) Found princi- 
pally in Pegu. It is generally cut en cabochon. 
* See Leoniiakd’s Tatrhenbuch 5. Jahrg. S. 16. 

318 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
(2.) Brown Garnet. Ger. Eisengranat. 
Pitch-brown, cinnamon-brown, &c. Particularly fine on St. 
Gothard’s 3 also in the Vesuvian, from Vesuvius. 
(3.) Green Garnet. Ger. Gruner Eisenstein. 
Leek-green, olive-green, &c. Specific gravity 3754. Con- 
tents, Silex 36.45 ; Lime 30.83 ; Oxyde of Iron 28.75. (Wieg- 
leb.) Among other forms, the Grossular as it is called, in per- 
fect crystals resembling those of the Leucite (Tab. 2. fig. 14.) 
in the Vesuvian from the Wilui river. Common Varieties 
abundant in Thuringia and Misnia, and together with brown 
garnet on the Spitzenberg, in the Hartz. 
35. Staurolite. Staurotide. Grenatite. 
From red-brown to black-brown ; slightly translucent ; always 
crystallized, mostly in flat six-sided prisms ; sometimes in 
twin-crystals, either at right angles, or as a St. Andrew s 
cross, (the Basle Font, as it is then called. Busier Taufstein *) 
Contents, Silex 30.59 ; Alumina 47 ; Lime 3 ; Oxyde of Iron 
15.3. (Vauquelin.). Found in Brittany and on St. Gothard, 
in Mica-slate, and partly Avith crystallized Cyanite. 
36. Cyanite. Disthene. Ger. Blauer Schorl. 
Generally sky-blue, partly grey, silver-white 3 transparent 3 
lustre almost nacreous 3 fracture long- splintery, radiated and 
lamellar 3 mostly amorphous ; sometimes crystallized in flat 
six-sided prisms ; so hard in the cross fracture, as sometimes 
to give sparks with steel ; on the contrary, so soft in the lon- 
gitudinal fracture, that it may be scratched with the finger. 
Contents, Silex 43 3 Alumina 55.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 0.5 ; with a 
trace of Potash. (Klaproth.) Found particularly on St. Go- 
thard, and Zillerthal, in Salzburg. 
II. ZIRCON. 
This Earth, discovered by M. Klaproth, is soluble in sulphu- 
ric and concentrated acetic acids, but not in alkalies. V ith 
borax, it forms a limpid bead before the blowpipe, and is found 
in two precious stones, the Jargon and the Hyacinth. 
1. Hyacinth. Lyncurium veterum ? 
Mostly orange-yellow, fire-coloured 5 diaphanous ; usually 
perfectly crystalline 3 and for the most part in four-sided 
prisms, terminated by four planes placed on the angles. (Tab. 
f See C. Bernoulli, in Voigt’s Neu . Mag. B. 4. S. 524. Tab. 8. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 319 
l -J. fig. 20.) Specific gravity 36S7. Contents, Zircon 70 ; 
Silex 25. (Klaproth.) Found chiefly in Ceylon 
2. Jargon. Zircon. 
Mostly vellowish-brown ; occasionally in various pale colours, 
particularly yellowish, bluish, &c. ; transparent ; lustre pecu- 
liar, almost metallic, and yet somewhat greasy : crystallized 
in tour-sided prisms, with four terminal planes corresponding 
to the sides (Tab. 2. fig. 7) • very hard. Specific gravity 
4475. L. Many specimens are magnetical. Contents, Zircon 
69; Silex 26.5; Oxyde of Iron 0.5. (Klaproth.) Found in 
Cevlon and Norway ; in the latter at Friedrichs warn, in a Semi- 
granite. composed of opalescent Felspar and Hornblende. 
III. YTTRIA. 
This Earth, discovered by Prof. Gadolin, is distinguished from 
Glucine and Alumina, with which it coincides in many of its 
properties, among others by its insolubility in caustic fixed 
alkalies, and by the precipitation of its muriatic solution by 
tannin and the salts of prussic acid. 
1. Gadolinite, Ytterite. 
Black ; not transparent ; brilliant ; fracture small conehoidal ; 
semi-hard ; powerfully magnetic. Specific gravity 4237- Con- 
tents, Yttria 52.5; Silex 13; Glucine 4.5; Oxyde of Iron 
16.5. (Ekeberg.) Found at Falun and Ytterby, in Roslagen 
(Sweden.) 
IV. GLUCINE. 
This Earth, discovered by M. Vauquelin, resembles Alumina 
in many particulars, but is distinguished from it by not form- 
ing alum with sulphuric acid. Its name is derived from its 
forming with acids, salts which are sweet and slip-htly astrin- 
gent. 
1. Beryl. Aquamarine. Fr. Aigue marine. 
.^ea-green in a variety of shades, passing on the one hand into 
sky-blue, on the other into honey-yellow ; transparent ; lon- 
gitudinal fracture conehoidal ; transverse, lamellar ; crystal- 
lized in six-sided prisms with many varieties. Specific gravity 
26.83. Contents, Glucine 16; Silex69; Alumina 13; LimeO.5’; 
* Ve, T few Precious stones from Africa are yet known, but I have re- 
ceived from .Sir J. Hanks a coarse sand, collected on the Cape Coast by the 
botanist W. Brass, containing many grains perfectly resembling Hyacinth, 
and some small fragments approaching to the Spinelle. 

320 OP STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
Oxyde of Iron 1. (Vauquelin.) Found particularly on the 
Adonschelo, between Nertschinsk and the Baikal Lake ; also a 
greenish-grey, &c., almost untransparent \ ariety in large 
prisms near Chauteloup. (Department or Haute Vienne.) 
2. Emerald. Ger. Smaragd. Fr . Emeraud. 
It has given a name to its principal colour. It crystallizes in 
six-sided prisms (Tab. 2. fig. 10.) with many varieties. Spe- 
cific gravity 2775. Contents, Glucine 13 ; Silex 46.6 ; Alumina 
14; Lime 2.56; Oxyde of Chromium 3.5. (Vauquelin.) Found 
principally in Peru. 
3. Euclase. Euclasite. 
Generally greenish-white ; transparent ; lustre vitreous ; lon- 
gitudinal fracture lamellar ; with lamella: in two directions , 
hence easy to cleave. Cross fracture conchoidal j crystallized 
in oblique four-sided prisms ; hard. Specific gravity 30.62. 
Contents, Glucine 12 ; Silex 35 ; Alumina 22 ; Oxyde of Iron 
3. (Vauquelin.) Found in the Brazils. 
V. ALUMINA. 
Alumina (terra argillosa, aluminosa,) in combination with 
sulphuric acid, forms alum. It is also soluble in nitric and 
muriatic acids, and is precipitated from the solution by potash. 
Singly, it is infusible in fire ; it hardens there, and contracts 
considerably, and in proportion to the degree of heat. Many 
aluminous fossils, when breathed on, emit a peculiar (alumi- 
nous) odour. The softer ones generally adhere to the tongue, 
and many absorb water, thereby becoming tenacious. 
However strange it may at first sight appear, many coloured 
precious stones must be included in this Genus, some of them, 
as the most perfect analysis proves, consisting almost exclu- 
sively of Alumina, which is formed in an incomprehensible 
manner into transparent, sparkling gems of great hardness. 
— (§ 240.) 
1. Chrysoberyl. Cymophane. 
Generally wine-yellow, passing into asparagus-green , Wlt 
bluish opalescence ; transparent ; lustre vitreous ; fracture 
conchoidal ; mostly amorphous in grains ; rarely crystallized 
in eight-sided prisms terminated by similar pyramids. Specific 
gravity 3710. Contents, Alumina 71-5 j Silex IS Lime 6 ; 
Oxyde of Iron 1.5. (Klaproth.) Found in the Brazils. 
2. Topaz. 
(1.) Precious Topaz. Ger. Elder Topas. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
32 1 
Yellow in a variety of shades ; partly also on one hand, pass- 
ing into rose-red, on the other, into sea-green, bluish, &c. 3 
longitudinal fracture conchoidal 3 the transverse lamellar. 
Generally crystallized, and usually as four or eight-sided 
prisms, which in the Brazilian Topaz, are terminated by pyra- 
mids with four, six or eight planes (Tab. 2. fig. 16.), but in 
the Saxon by truncated six-sided pyramids. (Tab. 2 . fig. 9 .) 
Specific gravity of the Brazilian 3515. L. This also displays 
electricity like tourmaline. Contents of the Saxon, Alumina 
49; Silex 29; Fluoric Acid 20 : (Vauquelin.) Found, in Eu- 
rope, principally near Auerback in Voigtland on the Schneck- 
enstein, in a peculiar matrix (Topaz Rock. Topasfels )3 in Asia, 
particularly near Mukla, in Natolia, and on the Ural mountains, 
in Siberia 3 in America, Brazils. 
( 2 .) Common Topaz. Pyrophysalite. Physalite. Leucolite. 
Pycnite. Shorlaceous beryl. Ger. Stangenstein. Weisser 
stangenschorl. 
Yellowish and greenish white, partly also, reddish 3 but little 
transparent ; cross fracture lamellar 3 in aggregated columnar 
prisms, partly in six-sided crystals. Specific gravity 3530. Con- 
tents, Alumina 49.5 3 Silex 43 3 Fluoric Acid 4 3 Oxyde of Iron 
I5 Water 1. (Klaproth.) Found principally near Altenburg, 
in the Erzgebirge, in a matrix composed of Mica and Quartz. 
3. Ruby. Spinelle. 
Red in a variety of shades 3 hence the names 3 the poppy-red 
being called Spinelle 3 the rose-red, Balais 3 the hyacinth-red, 
Rubicelle, &c.: it sometimes passes also into bluish, whitish, 
Src. Its crystallization is various 3 mostly as double four-sided 
pyramids (Tab. 2. fig. 5.), or as six-sided prisms or tables, in 
many varieties. Mean specific gravity 3700. Contents, Alu- 
mina 74.5 3 Silex 15.5 3 Magnesia 8.25 3 Lime 0J5 3 Oxyde 
of Iron 1.5. (Klaproth.) According to Vauquelin, only 
Alumina with Magnesia 8.78 3 Oxyde of Chrome 6.18. 
4. Sapphire. Telesie. 
Mostly blue in a variety of shades 3 passing into white (White 
Sapphire), and occasionally even into wine-yellow*, of which 
kind are probably many of the so called East Indian Topazes • 
properly transparent; occasionally somewhat opalescent! 
* Sometimes even yellow and blue in the same specimen ; thus in the 
Inventaire des Diamans de la Couronne, &c. Imprimd par ordre de l’ Assem 
bUe Nationelle. Paris, 1791. T. 1 . p. 200. No. 4. “ Un Saphir d'Orient- 
S-ouleur Saphir des deux bouts, et Topaze au milieu." 
Y 

322 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
crystallized in six-sided pyramids, double or single, (lab. 2. 
fig. IS.) The hardest stone of the Genus. Mean specific gra- 
vity 4000. Contents, Alumina 98.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 1 ; Lime 
0.5. (Klaproth.) Found only in rolled masses, and principally 
in Ceylon. 
5. Adamantine Spar and Corundum*. 
The former smoke-grey, the latter generally apple-green, 
rarely passing into hair-brown ; both but little transparent ; 
of diamond-like lustre, and sparry structure ; crystallized in 
short six-sided prisms, sometimes becoming somewhat coni- 
cal. Mean specific gravity of the Chinese as well as the In- 
dian, 3911. L. Contents of the latter. Alumina 89.5; Silex 
5 5 ! Oxyde of Iron 1.25. (Klaproth.) Found in Granite, in 
China and Coromandel. Used in those countries for cutting 
and polishing gems and steelf. 
Under the name of 'precious Corundum are included the fine 
coloured Varieties, particularly ruby-red and sapphire blue, 
also found in the East Indies, of which the former are called 
Salam-Ruby, and the latter Star-Sapphires, because, particu- 
larly when the extremity of the prism is rounded off, they dis- 
play a star with six rays when they reflect light. 
Andalusite, Feldspath apyre, is closely related to Adamantine 
Spar ; it is generally of peach-blossom-red, occasionally (viz. 
in the Tyrol,) crystallized in four-sided prisms, and occurs in 
Gneiss and Mica- Slate. 
6 . Emery. Ger. Smirgel. Fr. Emeril. — Smiris. 
Black-grey, partly into Indigo-blue, &c.; transparent at the 
edges • glittering, sometimes with almost metallic lustre ; 
fracture small-granular, or splintery. Very hard. Specific gra- 
vity (variable), 3922. Contents, also variable ; but always, 
according to Tennant, a considerable quantity of Alumina, 
with a little Silex and Oxyde of Iron. The true Emery % is 
found, among other places, in Estremadura, Naxos, and Eiben- 
stock, in the Erzgebirge. . 
7. Agaphite, Turquoise. Solid Hydrate of Alumina. 
* See C. Grf.vii.lf, on the Corundum-stone /torn stsia. Phil. Frans 
1 T r nds 1 mnarkable fossil is noticed even by Thevenot in his Voyages. 
T 3 Paris, 1684. 4to. p. 292. , , * 
V For many other Fossils, (Woods tone, for instance, m many parte o 
Thuringia.) are called Emery, fro,,, being employed in .he name manner 
to polish hard Stones, Glass, Steel, &c. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
323 
From sky-blue to verdigris-green ; the former most valuable; 
decomposes into mountain-green ; not transparent ; in little 
knobby, botryoidal, kidney-shaped masses. Specific gravity 
2900. Contents, Alumina 73 ; Water 18 ; Oxyde of Copper 
4.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 4. (John.) Comes principally from Nis- 
chabur, in East Persia, and occurs in aluminous strata among 
Slate. It is commonly, but incorrectly, considered as a petri- 
taction, viz. of the teeth of fish. 
S. Schorl and Tourmaline. 
In the colours hereafter mentioned ; lustre partly vitreous, 
partly greasy ; fracture generally conchoidal. Partly in rolled 
masses, but commonly in three, six, or nine-sided prisms, 
striated longitudinally, and terminated by short three-sided 
pyramids (Tab. 2. fig. 12.) Many Varieties display a remark- 
able degree of electricity, sc. that when heated to a moderate 
degree, they attract and repel ashes, &c. ; these are called 
Tourmaline. 
(1.) Black or Common Schorl and Tourmaline. 
Commonly coal-black, not transparent ; but partly brown or 
green, translucent in thin splinters. Fracture vitreous. Ge- 
nerally iu long prisms (Columnar Schorl), or needle-shaped; 
partly in short thick prisms. Occurs in Granite as well as 
many other rocks, particularly Gneiss, Chlorite Slate, Topaz 
Rock, &c. Met with in almost all parts of the world ; as in 
the Tyrol, Greenland, Madagascar, &c. 
(2.) Brown Tourmaline. 
By reflected light black-brown ; by transmitted light almost 
colophony-brown ; transparent; like the black, partly in long 
prisms (as on the Pyrenees), partly in grains (as in Ceylon). 
Contents, Alumina 39 ; Silex 37 ; Lime 15 ; Oxyde of Iron 9. 
(Bergmans.) 
(3.) Red Schorl. Siberite. Daurite. Rubellite. 
Commonly carmine-red ; semi-transparent ; the prisms stria- 
ted longitudinally, partly columnar, aggregated. Specific gra- 
vity 3043. Contents, Alumina 40 ; Silex 42 ; Soda 10 ; Oxyde 
of Manganese 7. (Vauquelin.) Of this kind, also, is the crys- 
tallized Lepidolite from Rozena, in Moravia. 
(4.) Blue Schorl, lndicolite. 
Mostly dark indigo-blue; transparent at the edges only; lustre 
vitreous, approaching to metallic ; hard ; generally in needle- 
shaped, aggregated prisms, striated longitudinally. Found at 
Uto, in Sudermania. 
Y 2 

324 
OP STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
(5.) Green Tourmaline. Peridote. 
Chiefly leck-green ; partly passing into steel-blue ; transpa- 
rent J the prisms generally deeply grooved. Specific gravity 
3600. Contents, Alumina 50; Silex 34; Lime 11; Oxyde ot 
Iron 5. (Bergmann.) Found in the Brazils. 
9. Dichroite. Iolite. 
Dark violet-blue ; translucent at the edges ; lustre vitreous ; 
hard ; rarely crystallized in small six-sided prisms. Specific 
gravity 2560. Contents, Silex 49.17 ; Alumina 33.10 ; Mag- 
nesia 11.48 ; Oxyde of Iron 4.33. (Stromeyer.) Found in 
Bavaria, Spain, Greenland, &c. 
10. Hornblende. Amphibole. 
Black and green with many shades and transitions. Not trans- 
parent, or slightly translucent ; fracture generally lamellar ; 
streak greenish-grey. Specific gravity 3600 to 3900. When 
breathed on, emits the peculiar aluminous odour. 
Of the particular kinds there deserve notice 
(1 ) Common Hornblende . Fr. Roche de come striee. 
Radiated, fascicular, &c. One of the oldest and most widely 
dispersed Fossils of our planet, and forming one of the most 
usual components of many spurious Granites 
rq \ Hornblende Slate. Ger. Hornblendeschiefer. . 
Generally with short fibres radiated and intermixed ; in wedge- 
shaped fragments. 
(3.) Basaltic Hornblende. 
Mostly in short six or eight-sided prisms, partly tabular, and 
terminating in an edge or a point by two or three planes. Ge- 
nerally implanted in Basalt and Tuffwacke ; also intermixed in 
La n. Schiller Spar. Ger. Schillerstein. Schillers path. Fr. 
Diallage metalloi'de*. . . 
Brass-yellow, passing into green ; scarcely translucent ; lustre 
t Uic glittering ; lamellae rectilinear ; soft. Contents, Alu- 
” f r.l ' Magnesia lli, Oxyde of Iron *3* 
”~ MF , IN , Found in the Forest of Hamburg, on the Hertz, 
in a greenish-black Greenstone, intermixed with Serpentine 
and Asbestus. 
12. Mica. Ger. Glimmer. 
* t r Friesleben, uher das schillernde Fossil von der Baste hey Harz- 
. 1794. 8vo. — And J. F. L. Hausmann in den Aorddeutschen 
Beytrcigen zur Berg und H&ttenkunde. St.\. S. 1. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
325 
Generally smoke-grey in many shades, partly with silvery or 
brass-like lustre, or tombac-brown passing into black 3 more 
or less transparent 3 commonly with straight lamellae, rarely 
with curved (as in Mica hemisphcerica. Linn.) The former in 
sheets as large as paper, as in the Muscovy Glass*, (Russ. 
Sliuda. Ger. russiche FraucnglasJ; the lamellae are elastic and 
flexible 5 generally amorphous 5 but sometimes crystallized, 
and most commonly in six-sided tables. Specific gravity (2934. 
Contents of the Muscovy glass. Alumina 34.25 3 Silex 483 
Potash 8.75 3 Oxyde of Iron 4.5 ; Magnesia and Oxyde of 
Manganese 0.5. (Klaproth. ) One of the most ancient and most 
generally diffused Fossils in the crust of the earth 3 and found 
in all three of the principal kinds of rocks. (§ 227-230.) 
13. Lepidolite. Lilalite. Fr. Mica gr 6 nu. 
Lilac-red passing into grey., brownish, &c. 3 translucent at the 
edges 3 glittering; lustre almost metallic 3 fracture uneven, 
micaceous, in small scales ; semi-hard. Contents, Alumina 
38.25 ; Silex 54.5 ; Potash 4 3 Water 2.5 3 Oxydes of Iron 
and Manganese 0.75. (Klaproth.) Found near Rozena, in 
Moravia, in a rock composed of Felspar and large fragments 
of Quartz. 
14. Cryolite. Fr. Alumine fluatee alkaline. 
Almost milk-white 3 translucent ; lustre vitreous 3 structure 
with thick lamellae 3 soft. Specific gravity 2957. Fuses rea- 
dily before the blow-pipe into a milk-white bead. Contents, 
Alumina 24 ; Fluoric Acid 40 3 Soda 36. (Klaproth.) Found 
in Greenland. 
15. Tetraclasite, Scapolite with Wernerite or Fettstein and 
Sodalite, &c. Paranthine. 
From greenish-grey to yellowish-grey, leek-green, &c. ; 
translucent ; hard 3 massive, or crystallized in four-sided 
prisms. Contents (of Scapolite), Silex 50.25 3 Alumina 30 3 
Lime 10.45; Oxyde of Iron 3; Oxyde of Manganese 1.45 3 
Potash 2 3 Water 2.85. (John.) Generally found in Gneiss, 
in Norway and Sweden 3 the Sodalite in Greenland. 
16. Felspar. Ger. Feldspath. Fr. Spath etincelant. 
Of a variety of colours, mostly faint 3 but little translucent 3 
generally with true sparry texture 3 partly amorphous, partly 
1" See Baron von Zach’s Monathl. Corresp. B. 3. p. 239. for an account 
of the remarkable property possessed by the Muscovy Glass, of transmitting 
the rays of light perfectly parallel, and of the astrouomical purposes to 
which it can consequently be applied. 

326 OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
crystallized in various ways ; a very common ingredient in 
compound rocks ; occasionally intermixed with other Fossils, 
as Quartz or Hornblende. 
The five following Varieties are distinguished : — 
(1.) Compact Felspar. Ger. Dichter Feldspath. 
Without any evident sparry texture ; of this kind is the pale 
leek-green, in the Serpentino verde antico, from Egypt. 
(2.) Common Felspar. Ger. Gemeiner Feldspath. 
Generally whitish, yellowish, reddish, &c., but occasionally in 
other and more brilliant colours ; as for instance, emerald- 
green, with nacreous lustre in the Amazon stone from Catha- 
rinaburg ; structure evidently sparry ; frequently crystallized 
in (single or twin crystals) tables, bevelled or acuminated at 
the extremities, or in rhombs, four- sided prisms, &c. Many 
kinds readily disintegrate into Porcelain Clay. Sp. Gravity of 
the Emerald-green kind from Siberia, 2573. L. Contents of the 
same, Silex 65; Alumina 17; Lime 3; Potash 13. (\au- 
quelin.) Common Felspar in particular, is one of the most 
ancient Fossils of our Planet, as a principal ingredient in 
Granite, of which, in many instances, it constitutes by far the 
greatest proportion *. 
(3.) Vitreous Felspar. Ger. Glasiger Feldspath. 
Partly colourless and limpid ; partly white ; lustre vitreous ; 
amorphous, as it is found implanted in many Basalts ; or 
crystallized in prisms and tables ; the former in the Granite 
of Drachenfels, on the Rhine ; the latter on Vesuvius. 
(4.) Adularia. Moonstone. Ger. Mondstein. 
Generally white ; translucent ; lustre nacreous ; opalescent ; 
crystallized almost as common Felspar ; Specific gravity, 2561. 
Found chiefly on the Adula, Mount St. Gothard, occasionally 
in large crystals, and the true Moonstone, as rolled masses in 
Ceylon. Similar to this, is the Avanturine Spar (Feldspath — 
Avanturino) from the White Sea ; a pale, flesh-red Felspar, 
intermixed with lamellae of Mica, of a gold-like lustre, and 
the divided surfaces opalescent, with a fine blue reflection. 
(5.) Labrador Felspar. Ger. Labrador stein . 
Its principal colour is generally blackish -grey, but glittering 
* As in the remarkable Portsoy Granite of Aberdeenshire ; a mass ol 
Felspar, so perviated by fragments and lamellae of Quartz, that when cut in 
certain directions it has the appearance of a Cufic inscription, whence it 
has been called pierre graphique. See Voigt’s Magaxin. B. G. St. 4. S. 21. 

OF STONES AND EARTIIY FOSSILS. 
327 
by reflected light in a variety of brilliant colours, and some- 
times with brass or tombac lustre 3 translucent. Specific 
gravity, 2692 . Found particularly in Labrador in rolled 
masses, and in Ingermannia. 
Under Felspar, Werner has also classed Chiastolite. 
Ger. Hohlspath. Fr. Made, a remarkable Fossil, of white or 
yellowish-grey colour 3 in long, slender, four-sided prisms, 
which display in the centre of the cross fracture a four-cor- 
nered spot, of which the angles correspond to those of the 
prism. Its lustre is vitreous 5 its fracture fine splintery ; and 
it scratches glass. Specific gravity, 2944 . It occurs in Clay 
Slate, particularly in Brittany, and Gefrees, in Bayreuth. 
17 - Aluminite. Ger. Reine (so genannte) Thonerde. 
Chalk-white 3 fracture earthy 3 brittle 3 giving a stain 3 mea- 
gre to the touch 3 generally in small reniform masses. — Spe- 
cific gravity, 1669. Contents, Alumina 30.26 3 Sulphuric 
Acid 23.36 3 Water 46.37- (Stromeyer.) Found principally 
near Halle. 
IS. Porcelain Clay. Kaolin. Ger. Porcellanerde. 
Whitish, passing into a variety of pale colours : meagre 3 soft 
to the touch 3 of different degrees of consistence. Composition 
various, but usually about one fourth Alumina and three 
fourths Silex. Found in many countries of Europe and Asia. 
Produced, at least for the most part, by the disintegration of 
Felspar. 
19. Clay. Ger. Gemeiner Thon. Fr. Argile. 
Generally of a grey colour, passing into others by a variety of 
transitions 3 dull 3 soft 3 greasy to the touch 3 fracture most 
commonly tending to slaty ; emits the argillaceous odour 
when breathed on. To it belong : — 
(1.) Potter's Clay. Ger. Topferthon. Fr. Argile plastique. 
Very soft 3 becomes tenacious in water 3 generally burns 
brick-red j varies exceedingly in appearance, fineness, compo- 
sition, and consequent utility ; as for Terra cotta, China, and 
earthenware, tobacco-pipes, Turkish pipe-heads, crucibles, 
bricks, fulling of coarse cloth, refining sugar, &c. It is found 
principally in alluvial strata. 
Among the Varieties of Potter’s Clay, remarkable on account 
of the articles into which they are formed, are : — 
(a.) That of which the well-known ancient Greek and 
Etruscan Vases were manufactured, distinguished by their 
extreme lightness. 

328 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
(b.) That of which the Portuguese Bucaros de Estremoz are 
made, having a very astringent taste, which they impart to 
the liquids contained in them. 
(c.) That from which the remarkable Bladder-ware, (Bla- 
sentopfe,) with large cells in its substance, is made at Szent- 
Laszlo, in Transylvania. 
(2.) Indurated Clay. Ger. Verharteter Thon. Thonstein. 
Of various colours and degrees of consistence ; fracture ge- 
nerally fine-earthy ; occasionally forms the cement of many 
kinds of Porphyry. Employed in some places as a building 
stone. 
(3.) Slate Clay. Shale. Ger. Schieferthon. Zechstein. 
Generally smoke-grey, passing into black ; fracture slaty, 
lamellar j many Varieties adhere strongly to the tongue * ; 
often marked by the impressions of plants. It is a usual at- 
tendant on true Coal, and passes into Clay Slate, Porcelain- 
Jasper, &c. 
When impregnated with Bitumen, it is called Bituminous 
Shale. Ger. Brand- schiefer ; burns with a resinous odour, and 
becomes of a brighter colour. It can also be employed for 
many purposes of Fuel, and is therefore reckoned as Coal by 
some Mineralogists. 
20. Loam. Limus. Ger. Lehmen. Leimen. 
Generally liver-brown 5 coarse earthy ; softens in water ; in- 
termixed with Sand and Lime, whence it effervesces with 
Acids, and occasionally fuses readily ; mostly containing Iron. 
Found in alluvial strata. 
21. Bole (of Mineralogists.) Terra Lemnia sive sigillata. 
Generally liver-brown, passing into flesh-red ; greasy ; frac- 
ture conchoidal ; streak brilliant 5 soft j adheres to the tongue ; 
it falls to pieces in water, emitting numerous air-bubbles ; 
when breathed on, gives out the argillaceous odour. Found 
chiefly on the Island of Stalimene (Lemnos.) 
22. Fuller’s Earth. Argilla fullonum. Ger. Walkererde. 
Mostly liver-brown, but also in other colours ; partly streaked 
or spotted ; fracture dull, earthy ; greasy to the touch j gives 
* Of all known Fossils, this character is most evident in the ash-grey 
Hygrometric Slate, found by Lowitz the younger, in 1772, near Dmitriewsk, 
at the entrance of the Kamyschinka into the Wolga; its name being derived 
from the object to which it was applied by that able Chemist, and of which 
he has given an Account in Lichtenberg’s Gutting. Mag. D. 1. St. 4. 
S. 401, &c. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
329 
a brilliant streak and has the argillaceous odour. Readily 
absorbs oil, &e., whence its utility. Contents, Alumina 25 ; 
Silex 51.8; Lime 3.3; Magnesia 0.7; Oxyde of Iron 3.7 ; 
Water 15.5. (Bergmann.) The best found in Hampshire. 
23. Mountain Soap. Ger. Bergseife. 
Partly brownish-black, partly yellowish-white, with grey and 
liver-brown veins ; fracture soapy, very greasy to the touch ; 
adheres strongly to the tongue and may be sliced. Found 
principally near Medziana Gora, in Poland. 
24. Lithomarge. Stone-marrow. Lithomarga. Ger. Stein- 
mark. 
Whitish, but passing into other colours by many transitions ; 
sometimes striped or marbled, as in the violet-blue kind, from 
Planitz, near Zwickau ; of various degrees of consistence, 
from friable to half hard * ; the latter with conchoidal 
fracture . 
Here, also, is placed the officinal Armenian Bole, brick-red, 
and generally sprinkled with white. And similar to this, at 
least in external appearance, is the Sinopian Earth, celebrated 
among the ancients, and so called from the place where it is 
found. 
Also the milk-white Lithomarge, discovered by the late Von 
Trebra in the deepest galleries of the George Mine, near 
Clausthal, in Greywacke, which gives a phosphorescent streak 
when scratched with a pen. 
25. Agalmatolite. Ger . Bildstein. 
Varying from white to yellowish, greenish, red ; more or less 
translucent. Specific gravity 2600. In its external characters 
has a general resemblance to Soap stone, but does not contain 
any Magnesia. Composition, Alumina 36 ; Silex 54 ; Oxyde 
of Iron 0.75 ; Water 5.5. (Klaproth.) Found in China, 
where it is made into a variety of little articles. 
26. Red Chalk. Rubrica. Ger. Rothel. Fr. Crayon rouge. 
Blood-red, brick-red. See ; earthy ; leaving a stain ; frac- 
ture generally slaty. Specific gravity 3931. Intermixed with 
Red Ochre in small proportion. 
27. Yellow Earth. Ger. Gelberde. 
Ochre yellow, or brick-red ; earthy ; leaving a stain ; soft ; 
* I possess a cream-yellow, very fine grained, Lithomarge of this kind, 
from St. Helena, which retains its finest edges unaltered, in a temperature 
at which Iron melts. 

330 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
with a powerful argillaceous odour. Found in entire strata, 
in Upper Lusatia particularly. 
28. Green Earth. Ger. Griinerde. Griine Kreide. 
Mountain green in different shades ; fracture earthy ; partly 
massive, as near Verona ; partly as a covering of drusy cavities 
in Trap (Amygdaloid) and of the contained reniform masses of 
Chalcedony and Zeolite, as near Ilfeld, and in the Faroe 
Islands. 
29. Wavellite. Hydrargillite. Phosphate of Alumina, 
White in a variety of colours 3 generally with nacreous lustre; 
partly earthy ; partly radiated and translucent ; in the latter 
case, half hard. Contents, Alumina 37-2 ; Phosphoric Acid 
35.12; Water 28. (Fuchs.) Found in Devonshire (in Flinty 
Slate,) and in Bohemia (in Sandstone.) 
30. Alum Clay. Ger. Alaunthon. 
Like common Clay, in the following three Varieties, being 
distinguished from it principally by its sweetish, astringent, 
aluminous taste. 
( 1 . Alum Earth. Ger. Alaunerde. Lebererz.. 
Chiefly black-brown ; fracture earthy; streak glittering ; often 
in entire strata. Passes into Brown Coal. 
(2.) Alum Stone. Ger. Alaunstein. 
White, passing into yellowish, greyish, &c., and burning red ; 
partly somewhat transparent at the edges, and more so when 
lying in water ; half-hard ; sometimes leaving a stain. Con- 
tents, Alumina 43.92 ; Silex 24 ; Sulphuric Acid 25 ; Sulphate 
of Potash 3.8; Water 4. (Vauquelin.) In entire strata near 
Tolfa, in the States of the Church. 
(3.) Alum Slate. Ger. Alaunschiefer. 
Greyish, partly passing into black ; occurs in tables, some- 
times with straight, sometimes with curved lamellae ; some- 
times in balls ; the fracture sometimes dull, sometimes bril- 
liant ; very frequently intermixed with Iron Pyrites ; it some- 
times occurs, but by no means exclusively, in veins, as Clay 
Slate, from which it can scarce be distinguished ; and at others 
on the contrary, undoubtedly in Flotz Rocks with impressions 
of petrifactions belonging to both organized kingdoms, as of 
plants, near Saarbruck, and of animals (Trilobite,) near An- 
drarum, in Sweden. 
31. Slate. Schist. Ger. Thonschiefer. Layenstein. Wacke. 
Fr. Ardoise. 
Grey, passing through a variety of other colours into black ; 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
331 
sometimes striated, spotted, &c. 5 glimmering, sometimes with 
silky lustre 3 of very different degrees of fineness of grain 3 
fracture sometimes straight, sometimes undulated 3 fragments 
sometimes disk-shaped, at others in thick lamellae ; rarely 
trapezoidal 5 soft or half hard. Streak greyish-white. In an 
endless number of Varieties, often named from the uses to 
which they are applied, as Touch-stone, &c. Passes by nu- 
merous transitions into Siliceous Slate, Mica Slate, &c. Oc- 
curs chiefly in mountains containing veins 3 but sometimes also 
in Flotz Rocks, as for instance, the Tabular Slate, from the 
Blattenberg. 
Black Chalk. Ger. Zeichenschiefer , is a particular Variety, 
very soft, and soiling the fingers. 
32. Whet Slate. Ger. Wetzschiefer. Fr. Pierre a Rasoir. 
Generally greenish or yellowish-grey 3 sometimes cream-yel- 
low and greyish-black. 3 a little translucent at the edges only 3 
faintly glittering ; fracture slaty, sometimes splintery 3 half 
hard ; found in mountains containing veins, in the Levant, and 
in Germany. (Bayreuth.) 
33. Clinkstone. Ger. Klingstein. Phonolite. 
Grey, in a variety of shades, especially green 3 with a dull 
lustre 3 translucent at the edges ; thick slaty structure 3 frac- 
ture coarse splintery 3 half hard 3 tough. Specific gravity 
2575. Contents, Alumina 23.5 3 Silex 57-25 3 Lime 2-75 3 
Oxyde of Iron 3.25 ; Oxyde of Manganese 0.25 3 Soda 8 . 1 3 
Water 3. (Klaproth.) Its name is derived from the ringing 
of layers of it when struck. It forms the ordinary basis of 
Porphvry Slate. Found, among other places, in Bohemia and 
Lusatia. 
34 . Trap. W T hinstone. Ger. Trapp. Wacke. — Saxum trape- 
zium. Linn. Corneus trapezius. Waller. 
Generally greyish-black, but passing also into greenish and 
red-brown 3 not transparent 5 fracture dull, fine granular, 
sometimes earthy 3 amorphous 5 hardness and specific gravity 
various. It frequently forms the principal part of a compound 
Porphyry-like rock, with a mixture of other fossils, as Basaltic 
Hornblende, Mica, Zeolite, Chalcedony, Calcareous Spar, &c. 
To the same class belong most Amygdaloids, as for instance, 
that from Ilfeld, the Pearlstone from Lerbach in the Hartz, 
and the Toadstone from Derbyshire. It passes into green- 
stone, Basalt, &c. It is one of the rocks most extensively dif- 
fused into the most remote regions, viz. to the north, as far a s 

332 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
Iceland, Kamtschatka, &c., and in Kerguelen s Land, the most 
southerly of European discoveries. 
Here also probably belong, 
(a.) Many kinds of Compact Lava from Vesuvius. 
Generally brown-red ; intermixed with small grains of black 
or green Basaltic Hornblende and Calcareous Spar. It appears 
to be the primitive form of many of the Lavas of Vesuvius, 
among which it is commonly but erroneously reckoned : and 
fb.J Variolite. 
Dark leek-green, intermixed with pale mountain-green spots, 
which give the stone a pocky appearance. Found chiefly in 
Bayreuth, and as rolled masses in the Durance, near Brianeon. 
35. Basalt. Ger. Basalt. Beilstein. 
From black into greyish, bluish, and greenish ; of very irregu- 
lar grain ; more or less dense ; sometimes in rough, slaty exfo- 
liations, sometimes in rounded grains agglutinated together. 
Generally either amorphous or prismatic. The prisms, with 
from three to nine sides, stand sometimes in thousands close 
together ; generally oblique and inclined, but sometimes per- 
pendicular ; sometimes curved ; sometimes regularly articu- 
lated*, and the joints occasionally rounded by disintegration. 
Hardness and specific gravity very various 5 sometimes power- 
fully magnetic. Contents of a Bohemian prismatic Basalt, 
Alumina 16.75 j Silex 44,5 j Lime 9.5 ; Magnesia 2.55 ; Oxyde 
of Iron 20 j Oxyde of Manganese 0.12 ; Soda 2.6 ; Water 2. 
(Klaproth.) It commonly contains one or more Species of 
other Fossils, particularly Olivine, Augite, Steatite, Felspar, 
Zeolite, Basaltic Hornblende, &c. It passes particularly into 
Trap, Tuffwacke, and Lava ; and occasionally into Green- 
stone, a compound of Hornblende and Felspar. Fr. Roche Am- 
phiboliquet. It is commonly found in single hills, but occa- 
sionally forms entire chains of mountains. 
* As is particularly the case in the countless large Basaltic prisms com 
posing the Giant’s Causeway on the North Coast of Ireland, one 0 t ie mos 
prodigious phenomena in physical science. I have in my P®^* S10U 0l ' r 
joints of this celebrated Basalt, weighing together upvvards of 4°0 poum , 
and of which I have given a correct representation in my Abhild. A at.t . 
Gegenst. Tab. 18. The very regular articulation of these prisms still r - 
mains one of the. most obscure and remarkable circumstances in Geogeny. 
f Most of the ancient Egyptian Basalts appear to be of this kind, in 
many of the Varieties, particularly the black, the component parts may be 
distinguished, forming a transition into the Semi-granite compose 
Hornblende and Felspar. I have said more on this subject 111 my Spccm < 
Histories naturalis antiques artis operibus illustrates, p. 29. 

333 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
Both Basalt and Trap, which belong to the most extensively 
diffused Flotz Rocks of the primitive world, are easily affected 
by heat ; and as we now perceive the traces of many subterra- 
neous combustions subsequent to the formation ot our Planet, 
it is easy to understand how they have acted in many places, 
and particularly on these fusible substances, leaving after them 
the most convincing proofs of the changes they have produced. 
36. Tuffwacke. Ital. Tufa. 
Generally ash-grey, sometimes yellowish, red-brown, &c.; 
fracture earthy ; consistence various ; light ; generally of vol- 
canic origin. Hence usually found near volcanos. 
The numerous Varieties may be included under the two fol- 
lowing kinds, which, however, occasionally pass one into the 
other : — 
(1.) Spongy Tuffwacke . 
Structure cellular, vesicular, more or less loose or compact, 
and of different degrees of consistence. — Of the looser kind are 
the reddish-brown intermixed with Leucite, of which Pompeii 
■was principally built ; and that containing Hornblende, and in 
the country about Andernach, interposed between the Tarras 
and the Rhenish Mill-stone. Of the more compact kind, on 
the contrary, are the ash-grey Piperno of the Carnpi Phlegrai 
containing much Felspar, and most of that containing Olivine, 
from the Hawk’s Wood, a little distance from Cassel. 
(2.) Earthy Tuffwacke. 
Here belong the two Varieties remarkable for their utility in 
building under water : — 
(a.) Pozzuolana. Pulvis puteolanus. Vitruv. 
Ash-grey 5 sometimes powdery, sometimes in fragments. 
Found particularly near Pozzuoli. Is appears to be the prin- 
cipal ingredient in Faxe’s Stone Paper. 
( b.J Tarras. Terras. Ger. Trass. 
Yellowish-grey ; generally contains fragments of Pumice, and 
occasionally branches or twigs of carbonized wood*. Found 
particularly near Andernach, on the Rhine. 
37. Lava and Scoriae. Scoria Vulcani. 
Including the Fossils, sometimes scorified, sometimes vitrified, 
principally of Basaltic origin, produced by the effects of sub- 
* As is also sometimes found in the Piperno. — See Sir W. Hamilton’s 
Campi P/ilegrwi. Tab. 40. No. 3. 

334 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
terraneous fires ; viz. in Volcanos, Lava, and from other sub- 
terraneous combustions, Scoriae*. 
They are generally black, but sometimes also grey, reddish- 
brown, &c. ; translucent in small splinters only ; very various 
in specific gravity ; composition, according to the nature of 
the primitive Fossils of which they are formed, and also with 
respect to the degree and duration of the temperature to 
which they have been exposed. Lavas, as well as Basalt and 
TufFwacke, often inclose Basaltic Hornblende, Olivine Leu- 
cite, &c. 
They (Lavas) may be arranged under the following heads : — 
(l.) Scoriaceous Lavas. Ger. Schlackenartige Laven. 
The most common generally iron-black, with a dull lustre on 
the fracture 3 heavy ; often fusiform, drop-shaped, branched, 
in various waysf. Among these the Rhenish Millstone, from 
the country about Andernach, deserves notice. 
(2.) Vitreous Lavas. Ge. r. Glas ar tig e Laven. 
Smoke-grey, black, brown, &c. ; generally with vitreous lus- 
tre and conchoidal fracture 5 many resemble Obsidian, others 
Pitchstone. Found particularly on the Lipari Islands, on the 
newly formed Volcanic ones near Santorini, on Ascension, in 
the Atlantic Ocean, and Easter Island, in the South Sea. 
VI. MAGNESIA. 
Magnesia; the distinguishing qualities of which were first as- 
certained by Professor Black, precipitates all other Earths 
from their solutions in Acids ; is easily soluble in, and imparts 
a bitter taste to them. It turns vegetable colours green. It 
nearly resembles Alumina in the effects produced upon it by 
fire. 
It is remarkable that green is the predominant colour in 
most of the minerals included in this Genus. They are gene- 
rally greasy to the touch. Most of them are uncrystallized, 
and they are found only in rocks containing veins, and conse- 
quently do not contain petrifactions. 
1. Chlorite. 
* See R. W. Nose’s Beytr&ge zu den Vorstellungen fiber vulcanische 
Gegenstiinde. Frankf. 1792-4. Th. 3. 8vo. 
f Of those from Vesuvius, the rope-shaped, spirally twisted of the Atria 
di Cavallo, and the oval Bombe, ejected in the great eruption of 1790, 
deserve mention. — See the Campi Plilegrcei. Tab. 13 and 33 ; — and the 
Supplement. Tab. 4. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
335 
Mountain-green, leek-green, &c. ; not transparent ; faint glit- 
tering lustre ; sometimes scaly ; soft ; emits the argillaceous 
odour when breathed on. 
The Species includes three Varieties : — 
(1.) Earthy Chlorite. Ger. Chloriterde. Sammeterde. 
Powdery or loosely aggregated ; glimmering ; not soiling the 
fingers ; meagre to the touch. Contents, Magnesia 8 ; Silex 
26; Alumina 18.5; Oxyde of Iron 43. (Vauquelin.) Found 
in and about Rock Crystal, particularly in Madagascar and on 
St. Gothard. 
(2.) Compact Chlorite. Ger. Verh'drtete Chloriterde. 
With greasy lustre and fine earthy fracture, sometimes lamel- 
lar or curved-slaty. Generally as a coating on a variety of 
crystallized Fossils, as Garnet, Rock-crystal, Magnetic Oxyde 
of Iron, Bitterspar, &c. 
(3.) Chlorite S late. Ger. Chloritschiefer. 
Blackish -green ; lustre greasy; slaty; streak greenish- grey ; 
often incloses Garnets, columnar Schorl, &c. Passes into 
Clay Slate, Mica Slate, &c. Found in the Tyrol, Norway, and 
Corsica. 
Many of the Sectile Stones (so called) belong here, others 
to the following Species ; and others again to Mica Slate. 
2. Potstone, Ger. Topfstein. Weichstein. Fr. Pierre ollaire. 
— Lapis ollaris. 
Generally greenish-grey ; not transparent ; fracture earthy, 
sometimes faintly glimmering ; greasy to the touch ; structure 
almost lamellar ; soft. Specific gravity of a specimen from 
New Caledonia, 2622. L. Contents, Magnesia 38.54 ; Silex 
38.12 ; Alumina 6.66 ; Oxyde of Iron 12.2. (Wiegleb.) 
Found particularly in the Grisons and Greenland. Used for 
kettles, pots, lamps ; in New Caledonia for stones for slings ; 
where also a softer and more friable Variety is eaten in large 
quantities by the natives. 
Ihe Giltstein, from St. Gothard, has a coarser grain, and a 
more splintery fracture ; it is more brittle, and is cut in large 
tabular masses for the purpose of making (indestructible) 
stoves. 
3. Talc. Ger. Talk. 
Commonly silver-white passing into pale apple-green ; slight- 
ly translucent; with shining lustre; greasy to the touch. 
There are three kinds : — 
( 1 .) Earthy Talc. 

336 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
In small scales ; detached or coherent, and in the latter case 
friable ; soiling the fingers. Found, among other places, in 
Greenland. 
(2.) Common Talc . — Talcum Venetum. 
In various shades of green ; generally with nacreous lustre ; 
with curved lamellae ; flexible. Specific gravity 2780. Con- 
tents of that from St. Gothard, Magnesia 30.5 ; Silex 62 ; 
Oxyde of Iron 2.5 ; Potash 2.75 ; Water 0.5. (Klaproth.) 
Passes into Potstone, &c. 
(3.) Talc Slate. Ger. Talkschiefer. 
Generally greenish-grey ; with greasy lustre ; slaty ; often in- 
termixed with Iron Pyrites. Passes into Chlorite-slate. 
4. Magnesite. 
From chalk-white to greyish or yellowish ; not transparent ; 
generally with a flat, conchoidal fracture ; half-hard ; meagre ; 
soils the fingers ; adheres to the tongue ; generally in globu- 
lar aggregated masses. Contents, Magnesia 48; Carbonic 
Acid 49 ; Water 3 ; (Klaproth.) Found, among other places, 
in Styria and the county of Durham. 
5. Meerschaum. (Sea-foam. ) Spuma Marina. Leucaphrum. 
Fr. Ecume de Mer. Turk. Kefekil or Killkessi, ( i.e . Foam 
or Liglit-clay. ) 
Generally pale cream-yellow ; fracture dull, fine-earthy ; 
greasy to the touch; gives a glittering streak ; very soft ; and 
very light. Contents, Magnesia 17-25 ; Silex 50.5 ; Water 
25 ; Carbonic Acid 5. (Klaproth.) Found principally at 
Kiltschik, (i.e. place of clay ,) near Conia in Anatolia*. 
6. Steatite. Ger. Speckstein. Fr. Pierre de Lard. — Steatites. 
In a variety of colours, mostly pale ; sometimes marbled, or 
with dendritical marks ; a little translucent at the angles ; 
lustre dull-greasy ; greasy to the touch ; fracture short-splin- 
tery ; generally amorphous ; that from Bayreuth rarely in 
small crystals, and then in six-sided prisms with similar ter- 
minal pyramids, (Tab. 2. fig. 19.) also rhomboidal, &c. ; soft 
in different degrees, but hardens in the fire so as to give sparks 
with steel f. Specific gravity of a specimen from the princi- 
pality of Bayreuth, 2614. Contents, Magnesia 30.5 ; Silex 
* See Beckmann in Comm. Soc. Reg. Sclent. Gotting., ’i ol. IV. p. 46. 
R, Reinegg’s Letter from Persia to Baron Von Asch, in Voigt s Ma- 
gazine. Vol. IV. pp. 3-13. 
f On the utility of the Steatite in Manufactures, &c. See Der Stein- 
schneider von C. v. Dalberg. Erfurt, 1800. 8vo. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 337 
59.5; Oxyde of Iron 2.5; Water 5.5. (Klaproth.) To the 
softer Varieties belong the Spanish and Brian^on Chalks. 
7- Soapstone. Ger. Seifenstein. — Smectis. 
Sometimes milk-white and translucent at the edges, sometimes 
yellowish, blackish-grey, &e. ; silky to the touch ; sometimes 
lamellar ; easily scratched with the nail, and may be cut like 
soap. Contents, Magnesia 24.75 ; Silex 45 ; Alumina 9.25 ; 
Oxyde of Iron l ; Potash 0.75 ; Water IS. (Klaproth.) Found 
in Cornwall. Used particularly in the manufacture of the 
English Staffordshire ware. 
S. Serpentine. Tt.al. Gabbro. 
In a variety of colours, chiefly black or greenish-grey, some- 
times dark-red, &c. ; veined, marbled, spotted, &c. ; for the 
most part translucent at the angles only ; small splintery ; 
greasy to the touch ; sometimes capable of taking a polish. 
Mean specific gravity 2700. Contents, Magnesia 44 ; Silex 
44 ; Alumina 2; Oxyde of Iron 7-3 ; Oxyde of Manganese 1.5; 
Ox}de of Chrome 2. (Vauquelin.) It occasionally contains 
Pyrope intermixed. Found particularly at Zoblitz, in the Erz- 
gebirge, in Bayreuth and Sormeland. The serpentine rock 
discovered by Al. Humboldt, near Erbendorf, on the Fichtel- 
berg, is particularly worthy of notice, many parts of it, even 
in small fragments, evincing considerable polarity. 
M erxer gave the name of Noble Serpentine to a Variety 
resembling Jade, generally of a dark leek-green colour, trans- 
parent, and somewhat harder than the common, and found in- 
termixed in many kinds of Italian marbles ; for instance, in one 
kind of V erde Antico, and in the Polzevera. 
9. Jade. Nephrite. Ger. Nierenstein. 
Chiefly leek-green in many shades, on the one hand passing 
into light mountain-green, and on the other into black-green, 
(as in the antique Egyptian, known by the name of Pietra 
d Egitto, of which the specific gravity is 2655. L.) ; more or 
less translucent ; with greasy lustre ; fracture splintery ; of 
various degrees of hardness ; generally susceptible of polish. 
A particular and remarkable Variety is the Punammu-stone 
(Axe-stone) ; leek-green in a variety of shades ; giving sparks 
with steel. Specific gravity 3000. L. Found in particular on 
Tavai-Punammu, the most southerly of the Islands of New 
Zealand, where it is manufactured by our Antipodes into 
hooks, chisels, ear-rings, &c. (but not into axes.) 
7 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
338 
To this Species also belongs the celebrated Chinese Stone, 
Yeu ; it is whey-coloured, and consequently but slightly trans- 
lucent ; lustre greasy ; and scratches glass. It is used for 
making seals, &c. 
10. Chrysolite. Peridote. 
Generally pistachio-green ; transparent ; with vitreous lustre ; 
fracture conclioidal ; crystallized in broad quadrangular prisms 
having the lateral edges truncated, and generally terminated 
by six-sided pyramids. Mean specific gravity 3375. Contents, 
Magnesia 43.5 5 Silex 39; Oxyde of Iron 19. (Klaproth.) 
Its locality is not exactly known, but is probably in iurkish 
Asia. 
11. Olivine. Ger. Basaltischer Chrysolith. 
Olive-green in many shades ; when disintegrated it becomes 
ochre-yellow ; translucent ; with vitreous lustre ; fracture con- 
choidal, sometimes lamellar ; fissured 3 intermingled in Trap, 
Basalt and Tuffwacke. Specific gravity 3225. Contents, 
Magnesia 3S.5 5 Silex 50 ; Lime 0.25 ; Oxyde of Iron 12.5. 
(Klaproth.) 
Similar to it, as well in external characters as in composi- 
tion, is the remarkable Fossil, occupying the interstices^ of the 
celebrated mass of iron, re-discovered by Pallas in 1772, on 
the banks of the Jenisei, and composed, according to Howard 
of Magnesia 27 j Silex 54 j Oxyde of Iron 17 j and Oxyde ot 
Nickel 1. ...... 
There is also a coincidence in composition with the Aero- 
lites or Meteoric Stones, which have fallen at various times in 
different parts of the world, but all under the same circum- 
stances, viz. the explosion of a Meteor j and of which those 
that have been accurately examined, agree remarkably both 
in their contents and external characters, whilst they di er 
most decidedly from all known earthy Fossils. 
12. AsbeStus. „ 
Avhitish, yellowish, greenish, &c. j amorphous ; of fibrous or 
lamellar structure. The four following kinds are distinguished : 
(1.) Amianthus. Ger. Bergjlachs. 
Generally greenish ; white j slightly translucent , A\it a consl 
derable glimmering and sometimes silky lustre; in delica e 
fibres often some inches long j elastic and flexible Confer ' s 
of a Swedish specimen. Magnesia 17-2; Silex 64 j Lime 13.. ; 
Alumina 2.7 5 Oxyde of Iron 1.2. (Bergmans.) Found in the 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
339 
Grisons, inCorsica, and in great abundance in China, where it 
is commonly used for lamp-wicks. 
(2.) Common Asbestus. 
Generally inclining to leek-green •, slightly translucent j with 
vitreous lustre ; in long splintery fragments j not flexible. 
Contents, Magnesia 4S.45 j Silex 46.66 ; Oxyde of Iron 4.79. 
(Wiegleb.): often found in and near Serpentine. 
(3.) Mountain Cork. Mountain Leather. Ger. Bergkork. Berg- 
leder. 
Generally passing into cream-vellow ; not transparent ; some- 
times lamellar, sometimes compact $ the fracture sometimes 
with interlaced fibres j very soft ; elastic and flexible. Mean 
specific gravity 0.836. Contents, Magnesia 26.1 ; Silex 56.2 ; 
Lime 12.7 j Alumina 2 ; Oxyde of Iron 3. (Bergmann.) 
Found, among other places, in large masses near Dannemora, 
in Upland, (Sweden), and in the Government of Olonetzk*. 
(4.) Mountain Wood. Ger. Bergholz. Holzasbest. 
Wood-brown, passing into grey, &c. ; not transparent j lustre 
dull glimmering ; structure perfectly ligneous 5 soft j adheres 
to the tongue ; somewhat flexible 5 gives a glittering streak. 
This Fossil, in many respects but imperfectly known, occurs 
at Sterzingen, in the Tyrol. 
13. Actinolite. Actinote. Ger. Strahlstein. 
Generally mountain or olive-green, sometimes passing into 
grey j more or less translucent j fibrous or radiated. There 
are three kinds. 
(1.) Common Actinolite. Swed. Hornblenda. 
In various shades of green ; translucent $ with shining lustre j 
striated longitudinall 5 structure sometimes direct, sometimes 
radiated divergent j generally crystallized in long, flattened, 
sometimes needle-shaped, four or six-sided prisms 5 semi-hard. 
Specific gravity 3250. Contents, Magnesia 20 5 Silex 64 ; 
Lime 9.3 ; Alumina 2.7 j Oxyde of Iron 4. (Be rgmann.) It 
has been already mentioned (p. 807.) that Prase consists of 
Quartz intermixed with this kind of Actinolite. 
(2.) Asbestiform Actinolite. Ger. Asbestartiger Strahlstein. 
Greenish, greyish, &c. $ very slightly translucent j with a dull 
glimmering lustre 5 generally fibrous divergent ; amorphous ; 
* An y>ns the s|jecimens presented to the Gottingen University Museum, 
by the Bakom Von Ascii, is one, in which this substance serves as matrix 
to large grains of dendritic native Copper. 
Z 2 

340 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
soft*, somewhat greasy to the touch. Passes into Asbestus. 
Found, among other places, in the Fichtelberg. 
(3.) Glassy Aclinolite. Ger. Glasartiger Stralilstein. Glasamiant. 
Generally greenish-white ; translucent ; with vitreous lustre ; 
generally of fibrous structure ; very brittle. Contents, Mag- 
nesia 1-2.7 ; Silex 72 ; Alumina 2 ; Lime G ; Oxyde of Iron 7-3 ; 
(Bergmann.) Found, among other places, in the Zillerthal. 
14. Sahlite. Malacolite. 
Greenish-grey passing into light leek-green ; translucent at the 
edges ; lustre almost waxy ; sometimes amorphous, sometimes 
crystallized, and then chiefly in four-sided prisms with the 
angles truncated. Specific gravity 3236. Contents, Magnesia 
19 ; Silex 53 ; Lime 20 ; Alumina 3 ; Oxydes of Iron and Man- 
ganese 4 ; (Vauquelin.) Found at Arendal, (Norway). 
Similar to this is the Baikalite ; olive-green in a variety 
of shades ; slightly translucent ; with vitreous lustre ; the lon- 
gitudinal fracture lamellar with cleavage in one direction j the 
cross fracture conchoidal 5 generally crystallized in four-sided 
prisms with the angles replaced ; the crystals sometimes very 
large. Specific gravity 2200. Contents, Magnesia 30 j Silex 
44, Lime 20 j Oxyde of Iron 6 . (Lowitz.) It occurs between 
Calcareous Spar and Mica in large lamellae, at the sources o 
the Sliudenka, to the S. W. of the Baikal Lake. 
15. Tremolite. Grammatite. 
White in many shades 5 more or less translucent } structure ra- 
diated or fibrous, sometimes lamellar ; generally divergent ; 1 
generally occurs in a matrix of white granular, sometimes 
sandy. Carbonate of Lime. (Dolomite.). There are three kinds. 
(1.) Common Tremolite. 
Generally greyish-white, sometimes snow-white; but little 
translucent 5 generally with silky lustre ; sometimes with cur- 
ved fibres ; generally amorphous, but sometimes crystallized 
in very oblique four or six-sided prisms, generally with trans- 
verse fissures ; rarely star-shaped. Contents, Magnesia , 
Silex 60.5 ; Lime 23.25. (Lowitz.) It gives a Phosphoresce 
streak when scratched with the nail in the dark. Found in 
particular in the Levantinerthal, on StGothard. 
12. 1 Talciform Tremolite. 
Silver- white ; with nacreous lustre; almost untransparent; 
sometimes lamellar ; greasy to the touch ; stowing the lingers 
silver-white ; soft j phosphorescent like the kind above, by tl 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 341 
disintegration of which it may be produced. Also found on 
Mount St. Gothard. 
(3.) Glassy Tremolite. 
Greyish and yellowish-white ; translucent ; with vitreous lus- 
tre ; lamellar ; the longitudinal fracture fibrous or splintery ; 
very brittle ; hard ; very strongly phosphorescent in the man- 
ner above mentioned. Found, among ether places, in Ceylon*. 
16. Boracite. Borate of Magnesia. 
This Fossil, so remarkable in every respect, is rarely found 
colourless and limpid ; it is generally white, sometimes smoke- 
grey, and more or less translucent ; when recent its lustre is 
vitreous, but by exposure to the air becomes rough and dull ; 
fracture conchoidal ; always crystallized, and properly as a 
cube, of which the angles and corners are truncated, so that 
the planes substituted for the latter, are alternately hexagonal 
and triangular, and that the whole crystal is bounded by twen- 
ty-six planes. (Tab. 2. fig. 3.) When recent it is hard. Specific 
gravity 2566. Contents, Magnesia 13.5 ; Boracic Acid 6S ; 
Lime 11 ; Alumina 1 ; Silex 2 ; Oxyde of Iron 0.75. (West- 
rumb.) According to Vauquelin, Lime is found only in the 
opaque, and not in the transparent Boracite. In an elevated 
temperature it displays the electricity of Tourmaline, but with 
four Axes, of which each is directed from one of the hexago- 
nal planes replacing a solid angle of the cube to the opposite 
and corresponding triangular plane, the former extremity of 
the axis being positively, and the latter negatively electric. 
This Fossil, so unique in its kind, is found in the lamellar 
Gypsum of the Kalkberg, near Lunenburg, and often accom- 
panied by small and very perfect crystals of brown Quartz. 
VII. LIME. 
Calcareous Earth (quick, caustic, or unslacked Lime,) has a 
caustic taste, and becomes hot by the addition of water. Alone, 
it is infusible, but is easily fused when mixed with other sub- 
stances, particularly Silex and Alumina. It has a great affinity 
for Carbonic Acid; it combines with Sulphuric Acid and forms 
Gypsum ; with Fluoric Acid, forming Fluor-Spar, &c. ; and 
changes blue vegetable colours to^green. 
* A specimen presented to me by Sir J. Banks, and which had belonged 
to Dr. Konic, was collected by the latter near Gallo, in the Island of 
Ceylon. 

342 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
The Fossils belonging to this Genus are sometimes soft ■, 
and for the most part, only semi-hard ; they become brittle 
when burned ; are for the most part of animal origin ; and 
form one of the most extensive Genera. 
The various Species are arranged in the most natural way, 
according to their combinations with different acids. 
(A.) Carbonates of Lime. 
1. Calcareous Sparf. Ger. Kalkspath. 
Sometimes colourless and limpid, but mostly white ; rarely 
coloured ; more or less transparent ; with considerable lustre; 
it has a rhomboidal texture, and large clear fragments, show a 
considerable degree of double refraction +, whence the name of 
Double Refractive Spar, (Spathum disdiaclasticum,) Iceland 
Spar, as it was formerly, but erroneously called ; it is some- 
times found amorphous, sometimes stalactitic ; sometimes co- 
lumnar and aggregated ; most commonly however, crystallized, 
particularly in six-sided prisms (Tab. 2. fig. 10.) variously ter- 
minated ; sometimes by three-sided obtuse-angled pyramids 
(Tab. 2. fig. 11.); or in six-sided tables which sometimes pass 
into the prisms ; or in single or double three-sided pyramids 
(Tab. 2. fig. 1.), the latter so much flattened as to belentiform; 
sometimes in rhombs ; sometimes in six-sided pyramids. Spe- 
cific gravity 2751. Contents, Lime 56.15; Carbonic Acid 
43.7. (Stromeyer.) Passes into granular Limestone, brown 
Spar, &c. 
To this head also belongs the crystallized Sandstone ( Gres 
crystallisdj , as it is improperly called, from Fontainbleau. It 
is yellowish- grey ; translucent in splinters only; internally with 
a dull glimmering lustre; without any evident sparry struc- 
ture ; with a splintery fracture ; in rhomboidal crystals with 
rough external surfaces. Specific gravity 2611. 
2. Arragonite. 
Generally greyish-white, passing into bluish ; translucent ; 
lustre vitreous ; fracture lamellar ; crystallized in six-sided 
* But as Alumina is combined iu the precious stones so as to give them 
a remarkable degree of hardness, so also, Lime is sometimes sufficiently 
hard to give sparks with steel. See Loouez, in Mem. de l’ Acad, de Turin. 
T. 5. p. 870. The like is also sometimes the case with the phosphate of 
lime in the enamel of the teeth of animals. 
t Trade complet de la Chaux carbonatde et de l' Arragonite, par Ic C ti- 
de Bournon. Lond. 1808. 3 Vols. 4to. , .. 
7 See Newton’s Optice. p. 271, 356, 376 and 394, of Clarke s .( 1 
tion. 1719. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
343 
prisms (Tab. 2. fig. 10.), commonly as Twin Crystals, (Fr. 
Made.) sometimes in several small ones, aggregated in a 
columnar manner ) its structure is concentric to the longitudi- 
nal axis. Specific gravity 2778. Contents, Lime 53.62 $ Stron- 
tian 2.31; Carbonic Acid 42.44; Water 0.3. (Stromeyer.)* 
Its name is derived from its locality, where it is found in hol- 
lows amongst brick- red Gypsum. 
3. Schiefer Spar. Slate Spar. Ger. Schieferspatk. 
Generally snow-white ; translucent at the edges ; lustre dull 
nacreous ; fracture lamellar or slaty ; amorphous ; soft ; effer- 
vesces violently with acids. Specific gravity 2474. Contents, 
Lime 55; Oxyde of Manganese 3 ; Carbonic Acid 41.66. 
(Bucholz.) Found principally at Schwarzenberg, in the Erz- 
gebirge. 
4. Pearl Spar. Ger. Braunspath. Fr. Spath perle. 
W hite, passing into a variety of colours, particularly cream- 
yellow and brown ; translucent at the edges only ; lustre vi- 
treous ; fracture lamellar ; commonly in very oblique rhom- 
boidal fragments ; mostly amorphous ; but sometimes crystal- 
lized in small lenses or rhomboids : somewhat harder than 
calcareous Spar ; and effervesces less violently with acids. 
Specific gravity 2S80. L. 
5. Bitterspar. Ger. Bitterspath. Rautenspath. 
Smoke-grey, honey-yellow, tombac-brown, &c. ; translucent; 
lustre vitreous ; in rhomboidal crystals, with generally a cal- 
careous coating. Specific gravity 2480. Contents, Carbonate 
of L/ime 52 ; Carbonate of Magnesia 45 ; Oxyde of Iron 3. 
(Klaproth.) Found particularly in Saltzburg and Stiria, and 
chiefly in magnesian Sectile Stone. 
Xhe Miemite forms a particular Variety ; asparagus-green ; 
columnar; in drusy crystals, almost rectangular Tetra hedrons, 
with the lateral angles truncated. Specific gravity 28SO. L. 
Contents, Lime 33 ; Magnesia 14.5 ; Oxyde of Iron 2.5 ; 
Carbonic Acid 47-25 ; Water 2.75. (Klaproth.) Found near 
Gliicksbrunn, in the Duchy of Gotha. 
6. Calc Sinter. Stalactitic Carbonate of Lime. Ger. Kalk- 
sinter. — Tofus calcareus. 
Of a variety of colours, but in most instances only whitish ; 
* In Comment. Son. Reg. Sclent. Gutting, recent. Vol. II. 1813.— And 
.L F. L. Hausmann, imMaguzin der Berliner Naturforsch. Gesellsch, J. 3. 

344 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
more or less translucent ; sometimes opaque ; deposited from 
calcareous water the fracture compact, fibrous, or foliated ; 
and hence three kinds ; which are found, as at Carlsbad, in an 
infinite variety of colours, marks, & c. ; the two first are known 
there under the common name of Sprudelstein (Bubble stone), 
the third as Peastone, Pisolite (Erbsenstein). 
(1.) Compact Calc Sinter. 
Of very unequal grain and firmness ; sometimes susceptible 
of a polish, like marble f; but sometimes also earthy, friable *, 
varying also considerably with regard to its contents. Chiefly 
in the form of incrustation, being deposited on the sides of ca- 
vities in Limestone rocks, or of cisterns, &c., containing cal- 
careous water | ; or covering other extraneous substances ; or 
disposed in many accidental forms, (as for instance, among the 
various kinds of Travertino, the Confetto di Tivoli, as it is 
called ;) or completely occupying fissures and other cavities, as 
in the osseous Breccia at Gibraltar, where it cements together 
the Osteolites and fragments of stones § . 
(2.) Fibrous Calc Sinter. 
Commonly honey-yellow passing into brown ; structure fibrous, 
either parallel or divergent ; the recent fracture generally 
glimmering ; most commonly stalactitic ; sometimes in a vaii- 
etv of accidental forms. Found principally in caverns and rock; 
as for instance, in the Grotto of Antiparos, in the YV oodman s 
Cave, in the lower Hartz, &c. 
To this head also belongs the exceedingly beautiful, fine- 
grained Alabastrites of the ancients, susceptible of a high 
polish. ( Ital . Alabastro antico. Fr. Albktre calcaire ou ori- 
ental* ^ 
The Flos Ferri, as it is called, is a remarkable Variety of 
Coral-shaped Calc Sinter ; of a snow-white colour ; silky lus- 
tre on the fracture ; with fibres partly interlaced, partly run- 
* “ Tales sunt aquae qualis est uatura terrae per quam liuunt.’ Plin. 
XIV. 4. 
the fine-grained Sinter (AMtre factice) deposited 
• 1 * « mnh.i morblp-llL’P 
f For which reason 
DaS-reneis ana meuamuuo. vu j 
flrjf'rnp- Roual Society . Vol. I. p. 94. (in German.) 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
345 
ning- in a curved direction; and in form, branchy, angular. It 
is found particularly on the walls of the Treasury, in the Arz- 
berg, at Eisenerz, in Stiria, in Brown Spar. (Spathose Iron.) 
(3.) Foliated Calc Sinter. 
Generally chalk-white; in layers ; sometimes as an incrusta- 
tion either in curved or wave-shaped layers; but more com- 
monly as a covering to grains of sand, as for instance, the 
Dragees de Radicofani. 
Ot this kind is the before-mentioned Carlsbad Peastone, 
■which is often concreted into masses, is sometimes susceptible 
ot polish, and must not be confounded with the Roestone 
afterwards treated of. 
7- Agaric Mineral. Ger. Mondmilch. — Lac Lunte, Moroch- 
thus. 
VI hite ; fine earthy, like starchy chalk ; soiling the fingers ; 
meagre to the touch ; very light. Pound, among other places, 
in the Moon’s Cave, on Mount Pilatus, Canton of Lucerne. 
The powdery Aphite (Foam Earth) from Rubitz, near Gera, 
is a particular Variety distinguished by its talcy appearance 
and a peculiar dull silvery lustre. Lifpert employed it for his 
impressions from engraved stones. 
8. Chalk. Ger. Kreide. Fr. Craie. 
Fine earthy ; soft, but firmer than Agaric Mineral ; soiling the 
fingers ; adhering to the tongue. Mean specific gravity 2525. 
Contains 43 per Cent, of Carbonic Acid. It often contains 
Mint and petrifactions of marine animals of the former world ; 
it sometimes forms entire Flotz mountains, particularly on sea 
coasts ; (whence Albion and Creta or Candia have received 
their names.) 
9. Limestone and Marble, 
In a variety of colours and formations; generally but little or 
not at all translucent; always amorphous; generally suscep- 
ible of polish, for which reason the finer kinds have received 
the name of Marble. 
Divided into three Varieties, according to the fineness of the 
grain : — 
(!’) Granuiar Limestone, saline or Glance Marble. Fr . Mar- 
bre saccaroide. 
Commonly white (sometimes splendid snow-white), or only 
m the paler colours ; of one colour only (1. e. not marbled); 
translucent at the edges at least ; the fracture glimmering, 
sometimes like broken sugar , the grain various sometimes 

346 OF STONES AND EAHTIIY FOSSILS. 
ecaly, &c. Passing, on the one hand, into amorphous Calcare- 
ous Spar ; on the other, into Compact Limestone. It very 
rarely includes petrifactions; but the Cariaia (IV armor u 
nense) occasionally contains limpid Rock Crystals. Used m 
Statuary and Architecture; particularly the superior kinds oi 
Bianco antico, of which the most celebrated is the Parian, 
translucent, like white wax, and of specific gravity 2637- 
(2.) Fibrous Limestone. Satin Spar. Ger. Faseriger Kalkstein. 
Fr. Chaux carbonate'e fibreuse. 
Generally white in a variety of shades ; sometimes with silky 
lustre. Found near Clausthal and Zellerfeld, on the Hartz ; 
and particularly beautiful near Alston-Moor, m Northumber- 
land, where it is made into Ear-rings and similar ornaments. 
(3.) Compact Limestone (and Marble). 
As common Limestone, generally grey in a variety of shades ; 
on the other hand, as fine-grained Marble, susceptible of pol.sh, 
as well in a variety of single colours, as variegated in an 
infinity of ways, marbled, veined, kc., in endless vane y. 
Thus of single-coloured marbles, the admirable antique kinds, 
giallo, rosso, nero, kc, ; in two colours, the pavanazzo white, 
with red streaks ; with three colours, the fionto white, red, 
and yellow; with four, the broccatello, white, red, yellow and 
e-rev • kc Of those with particular marks— Dendritic i Iar- 
ble ’(Algerino); Ruin Marble, ( Cittadino ruderato, paesino 
Rima a gio kc.) passing into Marl-stone. Of those whic i 
contain foreign bodies, the Shell CLumachelliJ Marble, and the 
Coral Marble, to which belongs the Pietrastellana 3V y 
kinds are Breccia-Marbles, composed of the fragments o 
rious sorts of Marble cemented together. Many kinds aie 
intermixed with Magnesian Fossils ; either marbled , as 
Polzevera (containing Serpentine); or in the form of flame, as 
the exceedingly beautiful leek-green CipoUino antico 
Compact Limestone (and Marble) has in general a splmtery 
fracture; sometimes a slaty structure, (as oi ins an , 
Calcareous Slate from Pappenheim, recently employed i - 
thography, and which presents remarkable impressia ai 
rine animals of the former world.) Its ™ eau s P eC ^ ^ 
is 2675. It passes into Marl-stone (as foi ms i\ . , 
Flotz Limestone.) It forms large chains of Mote ^ ‘ on 
dispersed through all parts of the woi , an S 
their external surface (rarely at any considerable depth,) 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 347 
common petrifactions of the marine animals of the former 
world. 
Among the most remarkable Varieties of common Lime- 
stone are : — 
(a.) The Oolite, Roestone. Ger. Rogenstein — -Hammites, which 
must not be confounded with the Pisolite, (Peastone,) and con- 
sists ot considerable masses, (sometimes forming entire Flotz 
Strata,) of compact Limestone in grains, of which the lamellse 
are rarely concentric, and which are bound together into a 
solid stone by a calcareous or marly cement. Of this kind are 
the celebrated English building stones, the Portland, Pur- 
beck, &c. 
(h.) Those kinds which in the grain resemble Sandstone 3 as 
is the case, for instance, with the celebrated rock of Petersberg, 
near Maestricht, famed for its numerous petrifactions of ma- 
rine animals 3 the Marmo arenaceo from Vesuvius 3 the Dolo- 
mite, which sometimes is nearly one half formed of Carbonate 
of Magnesia, found, among other places, in the Levantinerthal, 
on - St. Gothard, where it forms the matrix of Tremolite, and 
occurs in thin flexible tables. 
10. Marl. Ger. Mergel. Fr. Marne. — Marga. 
An intimate mixture of Clay, Lime, Sand, &c. Generally grey, 
passing into many other colours 3 not transparent 5 of various 
degrees of consistence and hardness ; hence divided into three 
principal kinds : — 
( 1 .) Earthy Marl. 
Loose or aggregated in various degrees 3 meagre 3 generally 
rough to the touch 5 divisible by stirring in water 3 attracts 
moisture from the air, and falls in pieces sooner or later. The 
Varieties are named Calcareous Marl, Clay Marl, &c.* from 
their predominant elements, and employed accordingly for 
ameliorating various kinds of soil. 
(2.) Marl-tuff. Ger. Tuchstein. 
Of loose, pervious, sometimes spongy texture 3 fracture gene- 
rally earthy 3 it hardens in the air instead of hilling to pieces. 
Almost always incrusts traces of vegetable remains, particu- 
larly impressions of leaves, roots and reeds, the latter tube- 
shaped 3 also in many places, small fresh- water shells 3 in 
others, calcined sea-shells. It occasionally forms extensive 
4 Of the latter kind is the fertilizing deposit from the Nile, in Lower 
H r/unf 

348 OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
Strata of low alluvial districts, containing the fossil remains 
of Elephants, Rhinoceroses, and other tropical land amnia s, 
which are now dug up in such abundance in our /ones. 
(3.) Marlstone. . 
Compact, and sometimes massive, sometimes slaty ; m the h - 
ter case often dendritical ; also in a variety of forms, as Marl- 
nuts &c. ; fracture earthy; passes into compact Limestone 
The Sand-marlstone, which becomes phosphorescent by fric- 
tion, and occurs near Jena, deserves particular notice ; as also 
the Septaria (Ludus Helmontii) remarkable for their peculiar 
form ; found near Antwerp, and in Franconia and consisting 
of cubes of liver-brown Marl-stone, separated from each other 
bv layers of grey compact Calc Sinter, and forming collectively 
globular compressed masses, sometimes as large as a man s 
head. 
11. Bituminous Marl-slate. _ 
More or less completely impregnated with Bitumen j genera y 
greyish-black j not transparent j glimmering ; sla v } ' ery 
commonly with impressions of fresh-water fashes, as at Rie- 
gelsdorf, Eisleber, &c. j sometimes also with impressions o 
plants, which, however, are totally different from those of the 
Slate-clay • it more rarely contains unknown marine animals, 
as for instance, the colossal Medusa Palm (Helmmtholithus 
^"Li™.) near Boll, in Suabia. It often = 
Copper and is then called Slaty Copper-ore j and sometimes 
forms considerable strata, which is an object of importance in 
mining. . 
12. Stinkstone. Swinestone. Lapis suillus. . 
Generally grey, passing on the one hand into yellowish, on the 
other into black • eonunonly opaque, rarely translucent ; fu- 
ture mostly earthy, sometimes splintery ^ 
marble, and susceptible of a polish -, - ar or iiver- 
massive as slaty ; rarely spai ry, as i , , j t j cs t j ie 
spar from Lisbon. When scraped or scratched .it gwe 
smell of burnt horn. It commonly contains P etnf “ ct ' 0nS ’ 
well of unknown marine animals of the primitive world par 
fcularly Belemnites, as of organized land and fresh-water ob- 
jects of both kingdoms, (as in the Stink-slate of CEnin 0 e .) 
The varioS IptST Vision of the calcareous Genus 
arerin ‘general analogous to those of the former, but cetempn- 
ribus much softer. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
349 
13. Selenite. Ger. Fraueneis. Marienglas. Ital. Scagliola. 
Sometimes colourless and limpid j but generally whitish, pas- 
sing into smoke-grey, honey-yellow, &c., and more or less 
tiansparent 3 sometimes with nacreous lustre ; structure lamel- 
lar 5 slightly flexible, but not elastic ; easily cleaved with the 
nire 3 commonly amorphous 3 but sometimes also crystal- 
lized , principally in the form of a lens, or in rhomboidal 
tables with the edges replaced, (Tab. 2 . fig. 17.) 5 often in twin 
crystals m various ways j rarely in eight- sided prisms termi- 
nated by eight-sided pyramids. Contents, Lime 32 3 Sulphu- 
ric Acid 4 G ; Water 22 . 
14 . Gypsum Sinter. 
Like Calc Sinter, deposited in the form of Stalactite or incrus- 
tation, sometimes inclosing other bodies 3 sometimes fibrous 
sometimes compact. The latter sometimes resembles Ala- 
baster. 
15. Earthy Gypsum. Ger. Gypsmehl. 
Resembles Agaric Mineral 3 sometimes snow-white 3 some- 
times greyish, &C .3 powdery. Found in clefts, &c. 
16 . Gypsum. 
Generally whitish or greyish, but sometimes also in other co- 
lours, commonly faint 3 more or less translucent 3 always 
amorphous, J 
In three kinds. 
( 1 .) Foliated Gypsum. 
Generally smoke-grey, sometimes brick-red, &e. 3 but little 
translucent ; scaly, sometimes lamellar. Specific gravity 2167. 
Contents, Lime 32 3 Sulphuric Acid 30 : Water 38. (Kirwan.) 
Sometimes mixed more or less intimately with other fossils, as 
or instance. Quartz at Wisbaden, and Hornstone at Mont- 
martre. It sometimes also merely includes other fossils; as 
or instance, Boracite at Lunenburg, Arragonite and small 
cinnamon-brown crystals of Quartz, (improperly called Hya- 
cinth of Compostella,) in Arragon. 
( 2 .) Fibrous Gypsum. 
Generally white 3 translucent 3 fibrous on the cross fracture 
sometimes in a straight, sometimes in a curved direction - 
commonly glimmering; sometimes with nacreous lustre J 
der foundiJ'fM - 1 °J G ' 6tt]n ^ n stains * step of a miner's huh 
abandoned at lea Kam, “ eLsber ^ ** Ham, which had been 
dnwv Crystals ™ • u ^ ^ ° n which is d ^osited a collection of 
7 crystal., seven inches in diameter, and of exceeding splendour. 

350 OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
sometimes friable ; found in thin strata ; Specific gravity 2305. 
(3. 'I Compact Gypsum. Alabaster. 
Sometimes glittering white, but passing through a variety ot 
colours, mostly dull, into black ; somet>mes streaked, veined, 
marbled, &c. ; the white kind sometimes considerably translu- 
cent ; dull ; the fracture passing from splintery into earthy. 
17 Anhydrite, Muriacite, Karstenite. 
It includes two kinds of Sulphate of Lime, distinguished in 
addition to their external characters, by the absence o wa cr o 
crystallization. 
(1.) Sparry Anhydrite. Cube Spar. Ger. Wurfelspath. 
Generally milk-white ; considerably translucent ; with na- 
creous lustre 5 cleavage rectangular in three directions ; very 
easily broken, specific gravity 2964. Contents Lme 4 0 
Sulphuric Acid 60. (Vauquelin.) Found in the Rock-salt o 
the Salzburg, and in the Canton of Bern. 
(2.) Compact Anhydrite. Ger. Blauer Gyps. 
Commonly sky-blue, passing into grey, &c^; but slig y 
translucent; brittle; specific gravity 2940. Contents, L i 
42 ; Sulphuric Acid 57 3 with some Silex and Oxyde of 
(Klaproth.) Found particularly at Sulz, on the Keckar. 
18. Bituminous Gypsum. Ger. Gypsleberstein. 
It includes Gypsum and Selenite impregnated like S “ 
stone, with Bitumen, and which, when scraped, emits a smell 
of Sulphuret of Potash. 
(C.) Fluutes of Lime. 
19 Fluor. Fluor Spar. Ger. Flusspath. 
It has its name from the use to which it is applied srrxeltxn 
It is found in most of the colours of precious stones r 7 
colourless; more or less transparent lu^e 
ture sparry; sometimes amorphous, rarely a SS * 
columnar manner, as in the Honey-comb of De byshme 
-ry ^ J. 
in double four-sided pyramids (fab. 2_ hg. ). S 
ceptiblc of polish. Specify Acid lg . Water 
wTKmwlw.) on red-hot coals' it phosphoresces with a 
ffreen fight A ; this is particularly the case, (and even in large 
pieces without crepitating,) in a violet and greems \\ i 
kind from Nertschinsk, called on that account Chlorophane^ 
Compact Fluor is distinguished by wanting ^th 
ture , it is commonly greenish or bluish-white ; family 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
351 
lueeni j fracture glimmering- 5 amorphous. Found particularly 
in Derbyshire, and at Strasberg, in the Hartz. 
(D.) Phosphates of Lime. 
20. Apatite. 
Like Fluor in a variety of colours, but paler 3 generally trans- 
parent 3 lustre vitreous 5 cross fracture lamellar, longitudinal 
conchoidal. Usually crystallized, and commonly in six-sided 
prisms with many Varieties. Specific gravity 3218 . Contents, 
Lime oo 5 Phosphoric Acid with a little Oxyde of Manganese 
4o - Llapkoth.) Phosphoresces on red-hot coals with a 
green light. Found particularly at the tin works near Ehren- 
triedersdorf and Schlackenvvald. 
The Spanish Asparagus Stone and the Norwegian Moroxite 
also belong* to this Species. 
21. Phosphorite. Earthy Apatite. 
Yellowish- white 3 opaque 5 meagre granular 3 fracture earthy 
and splintery, sometimes passing into fibrous 5 semi-hard • 
heavy 3 when scratched with iron in the dark it gives a vivid 
streak, and phosphoresces with a green light like Apatite, 
^hen placed on hot coals. Found near Truxillo, in Estrema- 
dura m layers alternating with common Quartz 3 and loose and 
powdery near Sigeth, in Hungary. 
(E.) Borate of Lime. 
22. Datolite. 
Milk-white 3 translucent ; with greasy lustre j fracture from 
small conchoidal passing into splintery 3 massive and crystal- 
lized, apparently in cubes with the edges replaced. Contents 
Lime 35.5 j Silex 36.5 3 Boracic Acid 24 3 Water 4. (Klap- 
roth.) Found at Arendal. ^ 
VIII. STRONTIAN. 
Mrontian was first distinguished as an elementary Earth by M 
.-OLz En , of Konneburg, and Dr. Crawford. Among its pvin- 
ipa picu mrities are, that it forms acicular crystals with Mu- 
' Acid > and that a solution of this salt in Alcohol burns 
1 a carmine-red flame. Its solution in Nitric Acid gives 
thick, six-sided, tabular crystals. g 
anJtlphurici 3 f0U " d C0 ' nbined Wi ‘ h ‘' V ° AddS - “‘ e C “ rb °" ic 
(A.) Carbonate of Strontian. 
1. Strontianite. 
Cenerally pale asparagus-green j sometimes whitish 3 translu- 

352 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
cent ; glimmering ; sometimes with vitreous lustre ; fibrous j 
occasionally aggregated in a columnar manner ; common y in 
wedge-shaped fragments ; mostly amorphous, an ier) rar, y 
in distinct acicular crystals. Specific gravity 3591. L. Con- 
tents, Strontian 69.5; Carbonic Acid 30 ; Water 0.5. (^ LAP “ 
roth.) Found in a Lead-vein of the Granite-rock near btron- 
tian, in Scotland, mostly inclosed in Ponderous Spar. 
(B.) Sulphate of Strontian. 
2. Celestine. Sehiitzite. 
Not blue merely, as its name denotes, but also white, yellow- 
ish greyish, &c. ; more or less translucent and also opaque ; 
structure compact, fibrous, or lamellar ; sometimes massive, 
sometimes crystallized in oblique four-sided tables. Specific 
gravity of a fibrous specimen from Pennsylvania 37 14. L. 
Contents of the same, Strontian 58 ; Sulphuric Acid 4-. 
(Klaproth.) Found, particularly the foliated variety, at Sun- 
tel near Miinder in Hanover, Bristol, Mazarra in Sicily, and 
the earthy massive kind near Montmartre. 
IX. BARYTES. 
Barytes (terra ponderosa,) was first distinguished as a pecu- 
liar Earth by Bergmann, and derives its name from its consi- 
derable specific gravity, 4000. Like Lime it becomes caustic 
when burnt; at an elevated temperature it melts into glass , 
with Sulphuric Acid it forms Ponderous Spar ; and is precipi- 
tated from its nitric and muriatic solutions by the ley ° 0 ■ 
Like Strontian it is found combined with the Carbonic and 
Sulphuric Acids. 
(A.) Carbonate of Barytes. 
1. Witherite. . 
White, passing into greyish or reddish- yellow ; transluC c e | 
in external character very similar to Alum ; with greasy ' , 
geite rally amorphous, breaking into we ge-s . ape ~ \ 
striated and slightly divergent in the longitudina If acture 
very rarely crystallized and then commonly m 
with six-sided pyramids. (Tab. 2. fig- 19 -1 P » , 
4271. L. Contents, Barytes 78 ; Carbonic C1 .( 
Found principally at the lead works of Anglezark, near . > 
in Lancashire, and at Steinbauer, in Upper Stiria. It w poiso - 
ous to warm-blooded animals, but like other 
properly employed, and in small doses, a serviceable medicine. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
353 
(B.) Sulphates of Barytes. 
2. Heavy Spar. Cawk. Ger. Schwerspath. 
Commonly of sparry texture ; but also, like Selenite, fibrous 3 
or, like Fluor Spar, compact. 
( 1 .) Common Heavy Spar. 
Generally white, but also of other colours 3 rarely colourless 
and limpid 5 commonly more or less translucent ; sometimes 
opaque j usually amorphous ; sometimes in thick lamellar ex- 
foliations 3 but also in a variety of crystalline forms 3 as well 
prisms and tables of four or six sides, and with edges and 
points of various kinds, as double four-sided pyramids. (Tab. 2. 
fig. 5.) The prisms are sometimes acicular, as in the Colum- 
nar Spar of Freyberg. The tables are frequently six-sided with 
the ends bevelled, the latter again being sometimes brought to 
a point by small planes. (Tab. 2 . fig. 8 .) Sometimes in very 
small tabular crystals, (Capillary Druses) as though strung on 
thread, or aggregated in a variety of peculiar forms, as for in- 
stance, like a cock’s comb. Specific gravity 4430. Contents 
of a specimen from Freyberg, Sulphate of Barytes 97-5 3 Sul- 
phate of Strontian 0.35 3 Silex 0.8 3 Oxyde of Iron 0.7 3 Water 
0.7 (Klaproth.) Commonly found in veins forming the ma- 
trix of various ores, but also occasionally in strata. 
The Maple Stone. Ger. Aehrenstein. Strausasbest, is a 
white variety of Heavy Spar, grouped like ears of corn, and 
dispersed through a matrix of ash-grey clay. Found formerly 
at Osterode. 
(2 .) Fibrous Heavy Spar. Bologna Stone. 
Of fibrous structure on the cross fracture 5 smoke-grey 3 
slightly translucent 5 in roundish compressed masses, kidney- 
shaped, and of the form and size of dried figs. Specific gra- 
vity 4440. Contents, Sulphate of Barytes 62 3 Silex 16 3 Alu- 
mina 14.75 3 Sulphate of Lime 6 3 Oxyde of Iron 0.25 3 Water 
2. ( Vrvidsox.) Found only on Mount Paterno, near Bologna. 
It is from this kind of Heavy Spar that Pyrophori were first 
made. 
(3.) Compact Heavy Spar. 
Smoke-grey, yellowish, brick-red, &c. 3 translucent only at 
the edges or in splinters ; fracture dull, generally splintery. 
Contents of that from Rammelsberg, Sulphate of Barytes and 
Strontian 83.5 3 Silex 6.5 3 Alumina 1.5 3 Sulphate of Lime 2 ; 
Water and Bitumen 2. (Westrumb.) Found in the Rammels- 
berg, in Derbyshire, &c. 
A A 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
354 
3. Earthy Barytes. Powdery Heavy Spar. 
Generally yellowish-grey ; earthy ; meagre ; rough. Found 
in and near comtnon Heavy Spar. 
4. Hepatite. Ger. Schwerleberstein. 
Sometimes brownish-black, sometimes greyish-yellow ; trans- 
lucent at the edges only, or opaque ; glittering ; kidney- 
shaped or in rounded pieces. When shaved or scratched gives 
out a sulphureous smell. Found principally at Konigsberg, in 
Norway. Contains Sulphate of Barytes 92.75 ; Coal and Bi- 
tumen 2 j Sulphate of Lime 2 5 Oxyde of Iron 1.5 ; Water 
1.55. (John.) 
View of the most remarkable lands of Aggregated or 
Compound Rocks. 
§ 244. We have hitherto considered Earths and Stones as 
homogeneous and simple Fossils. More commonly however. 
Fossils of various Species, and even of different Genera, are 
found combined in the most varied, but at the same time, de- 
finite ways, into considerable masses and strata ; hence it be- 
comes of the utmost importance to the geognostical part of 
Mineralogy, to reduce into systematic order the aggregated 
Rocks composed of heterogeneous Fossils. 
§ 245. Here, however, we confine ourselves to those only 
which, when combined in their definite proportions, compose 
entire strata ; excluding those in which one Fossil is found in 
another, either rarely or in an isolated manner, as Rock Crys- 
tal, for instance, is sometimes found in Carrara Marble ; and 
also those in which Fossils of recent formation are found in 
holes or drusy cavities of much older Rocks, as for instance, 
Calc Sinter in old Scoria;, Lava, &c. 
§ 246. The aggregated Rocks, properly so called, may be 
arranged in three principal Classes, according to the various 
modes in which their Elements are combined. 
(A.) Where the different component parts, at the time of 
their simultaneous precipitation from the primordial fluid 
(§ 227.) have crystallized, and become combined without any 
extraneous cement or matrix, as is the case in Granite ; hence 
pieces of it, when polished, present the appearance of Mosaic, 
(B.) Where individual fragments of Fossils are, as it were 
kneaded into a matrix or mass of another kind of stone, as in 
Porphyry. . 
(C.) Lastly, where grains and larger pieces are closely ag- 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 355 
gregated and agglutinated together by a Cement, as in Breccia 
and Sandstone. 
In the two first Classes, all the component parts are of si- 
multaneous origin. In the third, on the contrary, at least in 
Breccias, the grains and pebbles must have been formed pre- 
vious to their connexion by a Cement. 
§ 227- I have also endeavoured, a9 far as it is possible, to 
divide the principal Species into the following Sub-species : — 
(a.) The Genuine or True Species, containing only the sub- 
stances properly entering into its composition ; as for instance. 
True Granite containing Felspar, Quartz, and Mica. 
(b.) Spurious Species, those which, in place of one or others 
of the elements properly entering into their composition, con- 
tain one or others usually foreign to it. 
(c.J Species with excess (of Composition ), in which, besides 
their proper components, other bodies, foreign to them and su- 
perfluous, are intermixed. 
(d.) Semi Species (imperfect), in which one or other of their 
proper elements are wanting, but without any corresponding 
addition of foreign substances. 
(A.) Compound Rocks, the Materials of which have 
simultaneously combined together. 
1. Granite. 
Massive in solid Rocks, or stratified in large banks ; but of 
great diversity in the fineness or coarseness of the grain of the 
mixture, in the relative proportions of the elements, in the 
greater or less degree of solidity of grain, & c. 
(a) True Granite. — Syenites *. Plin. 
The Granite, of which those wonderful monuments of Egyptian art, the 
Obelisks, were formed, has received this name from the town of Syene, on 
the Nile, in Upper Egypt. See the Gabinetto del Collegio Nazareno. T. 2- 
p. 238. — “ I graniti delle nostre guglie Egiziane hanno per base unfelspato 
rossigno con r/aarzo fragile semitrasparente, e mica nero.” — The specimens 
of antique Red Granite in my Collection, one from the Obelisk of Rameses, 
the other from the Column of Antoninus, are precisely similar. Prof. Wad* 
aho, w ho examined minutely the recent fragments from the celebrated Ro- 
man Obelisks, in the Collection of Cardinal Bokgia, says expressly, “ Ex 
bis speciminibut clure patet Syeniten Plinii esse grunitem nostrum stride 
Sir dictum (e.v quarto, feldspato, et mica.) See his Fossilia JEgyptiaeu 
Musei Borgiani. Velitris, 1794. 4 to.— Also W. Hamilton’s /Egyptiaca 
London, 1809. p. 68. not. +. and De Rozierf. in the great Descr.de 
I'Egypte. Hist. Nat. T. 2. 1813. p. 45. and T. 3. 1818. p. 461. 
A A 2 

356 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
As already mentioned, composed of Felspar, Quartz, and Mica 
only. Such, for instance, is the antique Granito Rosso. Such 
also is the enormous mass, which, though weighing three 
million pounds, was transported from a morass on the Gulf of 
Finland to St. Petersburg, in order to form the basis to the 
statue of Peter the Great*. 
The celebrated Pe-tun-tse of the Chinese is also a True Gra- 
nite, the Felspar of which is in a state of disintegration, and 
forms a principal ingredient in their Porcelain. 
fb.J Spurious Granite. 
That, for instance, which instead of Mica, contains Horn- 
blende, to which head also many antique kinds belong, though 
not the true Syenite. 
(c.) Superabundant Granite ; ( with Excess J 
Which for instance, in addition to Felspar, Quartz, and Mica, 
contains Hornblende or columnar Schorl, Garnets, Diamond 
Spar, Magnetic Iron Stone, &c. f 
fd.J Se?ni Granite. 
Which, for instance, consists only of Hornblende and Felspar, 
and when they are intimately mixed, passes in an oryctognos- 
tic point of view, into Greenstone 3 or of Felspar and Mica, of 
which kind may be reckoned the Avanturine Felspar from the 
White Sea. 
2. Gneiss. Fr. Granit feuillet£. 
The components the same as in Granite, to which it also com- 
monly approximates, and occasionally passes into it, particu- 
larly in the kind called by Saussure Granit veint j commonly 
however foliated, in thick layers, or sometimes even slaty : it 
is found in mountains containing veins. The Sub-species as 
in Granite. 
3. Mica Slate. Ger. Glimmerschiefer. 
The components of this Rock are Quartz with Mica in consi- 
* The greatest weight that has ever been removed by human means. — 
'Flie great Obelisk of the Vatican, erected by Fontana, weighs scarcely one 
third, only 973,537 pounds.— See Count Carbury, Monument e'levc « la 
gloire cle Pierre le Grand. Paris, 1777. fol. 
■f As is the case, though in small quantity, in a magnetic Granite Rock 
on the Brocken, in the Hartz, which in certain spots, and even in small 
pieces, inverts the direction of the Magnetic Needle, like the Serpentine 
Rock already mentioned as having been discovered by M. Humboldt. — See 
J. F. L. Hausmann, in the Hanoverian Magazine. 1801. p. 84. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 357 
derable quantity, and slaty structure. It very commonly con- 
tains Ores, and sometimes Alum. Of this kind are, 
fa.) True Mica Slate. 
Often called, from being used to make stoves, Saxum forna- 
cum. Ger. Gestellstein. — A very beautiful cinnamon-brown 
kind, gold-glittering like Avanturine, is found near Catharin- 
burg, in Siberia. 
(b.) Superabundant Mica Slate. 
Very commonly containing Garnets. Ger. Murkstein. 
(B.) Compound Rocks, in which individual fragments of 
certain Fossils are as it were inserted or kneaded 
into a homogeneous Mass or Basis, 
4. Porphyry. Ital. Porfido. 
The Basis is of various kinds 3 frequently Hornstone, or indu- 
rated Clay, or Trapp, Pitchstone, &c. ; like the two preceding 
kinds, it belongs chiefly to Rocks containing veins, and mostly 
occurs in solid masses 3 though sometimes also in a globular 
form. 
fa. ) True Porphyry. 
Feldspar and Hornblende intermixed with one of the Bases 
above-mentioned. 
The Antique Porphyry, properly so called on account of its 
beauty, extreme hardness, & c., is, as the name indicates, com- 
posed of a red-brown Basis, consisting of a rock of a peculiar 
kind, like Hornstone, and approaching to Jasper, containing 
small fragments of compact Felspar, and black Hornblende 
tinged with red by the Basis itself. It is found principally in 
Lower Egypt and Arabia Petrosa. 
fb. ) Spurious Porphyry. 
Where for instance, besides Hornblende, Calcareous Spar is 
intermixed instead of Felspar, as in many of the compact 
Lavas (improperly so called) from Vesuvius. 
fc. J Superabundant Porphyry. 
With more than two additions to the Basis 3 of this kind is the 
Hungarian Greystone (Saxum Metalliferum, Born.) consisting 
of a Basis of indurated Clay, with an intermixture of Horn- 
blende, Felspar, Mica, and sometimes Quartz. Found in 
Lower Hungary, where it incloses the principal veins, and 
forms the matrix of most of the rich Ores of Gold and Silver 
existing there*. 
* To this Sub-species also belongs the remarkable Iloek, out of which, 

3,58 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
(d.J Semi Porphyry. 
With only one substance added to the Basis. Of this kind is 
the beautiful Antique Egyptian green Porphyry, (improperly 
called Serpentino verde antico), composed of a leek-green Basis 
resembling Hornstone, or sometimes Greenstone, with an in- 
termixture of moderately large fragments of Felspar, to which 
it communicates a pale green colour. 
5. Porphyry Slate. Horn Slate. 
The Basis of the true Porphyry Slate is commonly the Clink- 
stone already mentioned. In it are imbedded very small grains 
of Felspar, Quartz, &c. The structure, as the name indicates, 
is slaty. 
In the White-stone, or Namiesterstein, as it is called from 
its locality in Moravia, on the contrary, and which also has 
in general a slaty texture, white compact Felspar forms the 
Basis, in which are imbedded, after the manner of lorphyry, 
small Garnets, and sometimes Mica, &c. 
(C.) Compound Rocks, formed by aggregated Grains 
and Pebbles, agglutinated together by a mere 
Cement. 
6. Breccia. Conglomerate. Ger. Triimmerstein. 
Irregularly shaped Pebbles and Fragments, imbedded in a Basis 
often resembling Sandstone. It presents great varieties as 
well with respect to the Cement as the substances imbedded ; 
the former, however, is always massive, and not of slaty struc- 
ture. 
Among the most remarkable kinds are 
The beautiful and costly antique Breccia Verde d'Egitto; the 
Basis resembling Greenstone, with green compact Felspar, 
Hornstone, Serpentine, &c. j from which, among other objects 
of ancient Egyptian art, the celebrated Sarcophagus in the 
British Museum, known by the name of Alexander, is made. 
notwithstanding its extreme hardness, the most prodigious, and, probably, 
the oldest of all known monuments of human art, viz. the enormous 
Pagoda, at Elephanta, near Bombay, together with its colossal idols, ar , 
not built, but hewn collectively in the living rock. The specimen which I 
possess, and which Mr. C. Townley permitted me to ta e i° m 
brated Groupe in his Collection of Antiquities, consists, as do other dois 
from this Temple, which I saw in London, of a basis of very hau 
brown, ferriferous Clay, in which are intermixed much Felspar, a little 
Quartz, and still less Hornblende.— See more on this subject in my Speci- 
men Histories Naturulis ArchcBologicum, p. 28, &c. 

OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
359 
Puddingstone. A Basis of Sandstone generally greyish-yel- 
low, agglutinated by a quartzose Cement, and having firmly 
imbedded in it rolled masses of Flint, Siliceous Slate, &c.* 
Found principally in England, and the finest at St. Alban’s, 
Hertfordshire. 
The Rothe todte liegende of the German Miners. Commonly 
a Basis of Sandstone agglutinated by a Cement of Clay, con- 
taining much Iron, and in which irregularly formed grains of 
Quartz, Siliceous Slate, &c. are more or less loosely imbedded. 
It commonly forms the lowest of the Flotz strata in mines ; 
but sometimes entire and considerable mountains, particularly 
in Switzerland, where the Nagelfluhe is of this kind f. 
Greywacke. Ger. Grauwacke. Fr. Gres gris. 
A Basis of Sandstone commonly grey, agglutinated by a Clay 
Cement, in which are more or less firmly imbedded irregularly 
shaped Pebbles, or grains of Quartz sometimes of very diffe- 
rent sizes. It passes into Sandstone, and particularly into that 
kind which is found near the strata of Stone Coal, and there- 
fore called Coal Sandstone, in order to distinguish it from the 
common and more recent Flotz Sandstone. It forms a prin- 
cipal Rock in the Upper Hartz, where it incloses rich mineral 
veins, and passes into the Flotz Rock. 
7- Breccia Slate. 
The component parts the same as in the last mentioned kinds 
of Breccia, but with slaty structure. 
So for example Greywacke Slate, which in many parts of 
the Upper Hartz, as Burgstetterzug, near Clausthal, contains 
reed-like impressions, which become the more remarkable in 
Geogeny, as they probably present the earliest traces of orga- 
nized creation in our Planet. 
8. Sandstone. 
Quartz in grains commonly of regular shape and closely ag- 
glutinated. The Cement is of various kinds ; calcareous ; or 
clayey ; or ferriferous ; and also sometimes even quartzose ; in 
which case, the Sandstone passes into common granular Quartz. 
ft appears to be of tolerably recent formation ; at least, 1 possess spe- 
cimens in which the imbedded masses of Flint contain petrified Cellularia. 
t The stratification of the Nagelfluhe mountain-chain is more or less ho- 
rizontal or depressed ; and its Basis of very unequal hardness. The gradual 
softening of the Clayin asimilarly inclined Rock on theRossberg Mountain, 
in the Canton of Schwytz, was the cause of its formidable descent on Sep- 
tember 2d, 1806, by which the Valley of Goldauer was ovci whelmed. 

360 
OF STONES AND EARTHY FOSSILS. 
(a.) True Sandstone. 
Sometimes in large strata j sometimes with crystalline grain , 
or with impressions of petrifactions of organized bodies, (of 
both kingdoms) belonging to the primitive World. 
To Sandstone, with a peculiar form, belongs in particular that 
which is found near Clausenburg in globular masses of various 
size. 
The crystallized Sandstone (as it is called) of Fontambleau, 
has been already mentioned in its proper place (Calcareous 
Spar.) The kind which occurs in the kingdom of Wirtemberg 
near Stuttgard, and in Thuringia, is more justly placed here. 
(b.J Superabundant Sandstone. 
Most commonly containing Mica ; but also with many othei 
fossils ; for instance with small cubes of brown Iron Ore in the 
singular matrix of the Red Lead Ore, from Beresofsk, near Ca- 
tharinburg. , „ , _ , , 
Here also may be placed the Topaz Rock of the Schnecken- 
stein, in Voigtland, which appears to consist of Sandstone pass- 
ing into granular Quartz, and traversed by acicular black co- 
lumnar Schorl, common compact Quartz, and sometimes also 
amorphous Topaz, and yellow Litho marge. 
9, Sandstone Ste. 
With regard to structure, it bears the same relation to massive 
Sandstone, that Porphyry Slate does to Porphyry, or Grey- 
wacke Slate to Greywacke, &c. 
The flexible Sandstone from Villa Rica in the Brazilian pro 
vince of Minas Geraes, which has again* become celebrated 
within the last forty years, is particularly remarkable^ No ap- 
parent Cement can be detected between its singular flat-splm- 
tC Thf true Sandstone Slate has commonly intermixed with it 
Mica, by which it is also generally traversed on its slaty frac- 
ture, as in the English Yorkstone, Bremingstone, See. ine 
proportion of Quartz to Mica, however, varies considerab ) 
as well with regard to the quantity as to the distribution. 
* For it was already known in Europe in Se ' U ' 
teeuth Century. — See Gassendi vit. Peiueskm ad A. H-nO. p. loO. 

OF MINERAL SALTS. 
361 
SECT. XIII. 
OF MINERAL SALTS. 
§ 24S. Salts in general are distinguished from all other bo- 
dies, principally by their ready solubility in water ; by their 
specific taste; and by their great affinity or tendency to com- 
bine with other substances. 
§ 249. All Mineral Salts, (i. e. all those which are found 
fossil in nature,) belong to the Class of what are called Neu- 
tral Salts ; that is consisting of an Acid, combined with (A) 
an Alkali ; or (B) an Earth, called on account of this faculty 
of combination, alkaline ; or (C) Metallic Oxydes. 
Remark. In point of fact. Gypsum and other Fossils com- 
posed of an Acid combined with an Alkaline Earth, be- 
long to the Class of Salts ; on account of their want of 
taste and less perfect solubility, they are, however, at 
least iu mineralogy, more conveniently placed among 
Earths and Stones. 
§ 250. The Mineral Salts are most naturally arranged in the 
following five Genera, according to the different Acids con- 
tained in them : — 
I. Muriatic Salts. IV. Boracic Salts : 
II. Sulphuric Salts. and 
III. Nitric Salts. V. Carbonic Salts. 
I. Salts of Muriatic Acid. 
1. Rock Salt. Muriate of Soda. Sal ammoniacum vet. 
Sometimes colourless and limpid; more commonly greyish; 
rarely brick- red, sapphire-blue, &c. ; generally more or less 
translucent ; sometimes only glimmering, at others with glit- 
tering lustre ; the fracture sometimes compact, at others foli- 
ated, fibrous or granular ; generally amorphous ; rarely crys- 
tallized, and then in cubes ; occasionally including drops of 
water, &c. Specific gravity 2143. Contents, Muriatic Acid 
33 ; Soda 50 *, Water 17- Crepitates in the fire. It sometimes 

362 
OF MINERAL SALTS. 
forms considerable strata and masses*, (Salt -pits,) as for in- 
stance at Bochnia, and Wieliczka, near Cracow. Sometimes, 
also, deposited in the form of a firm crust on the shores of salt 
lakes, as for instance, in Egypt, and the Baikal Lake. 
2. Native Sal Ammoniac. Muriate of Ammonia. 
White, greyish, &c.; sometimes yellow from an admixture of 
Sulphur, &c. Commonly dull glimmering ; sometimes mealy ; 
sometimes in small indistinct crystals ; gives some signs of 
ductility and elasticity. Specific gravity 1420. Taste cooling, 
penetrating, alkaline. On hot coals it sublimes in a white 
vapour. Found chiefly in volcanic districts. 
II. Salts of Sulphuric Acid. 
(A.) In combination with Alkalies. 
1. Native Glauber’s Salts. Sulphate of Soda. 
Whitish; sometimes translucent, sometimes earthy. Contents, 
Sulphuric Acid 27 ; Soda 15 ; Water 58. Taste bitter, salt, 
cooling. Found, among other places, near the native Soda of 
Debrezin. 
2. Polyhalite. Sulphate of Potash. 
This Fossil, formerly classed with Gypsum, then with Anhy- 
drite, and first accurately examined by Stromeyer, is brick- 
red ; lustre waxy ; sometimes fibrous ; translucent ; taste 
salt, bitter ; melts very readily. Contents, Sulphate of Potash 
27-48 ; Sulphate of Lime 51.1 ; Sulphate of Magnesia 20.11. 
Found in the Rock-salt at Ischel, in. Upper Austria 1 . 
(B.) In combination with alkaline Earths. 
3. Native Sulphate of Magnesia. 
Generally whitish ; translucent ; commonly in acicular aggre- 
gated crystals. Contents, Sulphuric Acid 33 ; Magnesia 19 ; 
Water 48. Taste very bitter. Found, among other places, 
near Jena. 
The Capillary salt of Idria (Halotrichum), is a particular 
Variety, distinguished by its long capillary crystals, silver- 
white colour, and silky lustre. 
4. Native Alum. Sulphate of Alumina. 
Generally greyish ; sometimes translucent ; commonly only 
glimmering; occasionally with silky lustre; sometimes earthy. 
Specific gravity 2071- Contents, Sulphuric Acid 24 ; Alumina 
* On their origin, consult De Luc’s Geological Letters, in \ oigt's Ma- 
gazine. Vol. XI. P. 4. p. 37. 
f Fr. Stromeyer, de Poll/ halite, nova e salium Classc Fossilium Specie 
in Comm. Soc. Gutting, recentior. Vol. IV. p. 139. 

OF MINERAL SALTS. 
363 
IS 3 Water 58. Taste astringent, acerb, and subsequently sweet. 
Found principally in the Kingdom of Naples 3 occasionally 
upon Alum-stone, & c. Used in dyeing, &c. 
(C.) In combination with Metallic Oxydes. 
5. Native Vitriol. 
Sulphates of Metallic Oxydes, principally Copper, Iron, Zinc, 
and Cobalt ; and commonly of several of these Oxydes com- 
bined together ; in which case they are named a potiori. 
(1.) Cupreous Vitriol. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper. Fr. 
Couperose bleue. 
Blue, passing into verdigris -green 3 translucent; with vitreous 
lustre ; commonly stalactical. Specific gravity 2230. In the 
fire it gives a blue flame 3 Iron rubbed with its solution be- 
comes copper-coloured. Taste acerb, astringent, nauseous, 
cupreous. Found near Herrengrund, in Hungary, &c. 
(2.) Iron Vitriol. Green Vitriol. Sulphate of Iron. Fr. 
Couperose verte. 
Generally verdigris-green, but when disintegrated, ochre-yel- 
low 3 sometimes, also, as a white covering to Iron Pyrites ; 
commonly translucent 3 taste acerb, astringent, inky. Found 
on the Rammelsberg, near Goslar, but also upon Volcanoes, in 
Coal-pits, &c*. 
The Mountain-Butter, Stone-Butter. Russ. Kamenoemaslo, 
deserves notice as a distinct Variety. It is yellow, translucent, 
with waxy lustre, foliated, greasy to the touch, and found 
abundantly in Siberia, on the Altai, Ural Mountains, &c. 
(3.) Zinc Vitriol, White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc. Fr. Cou- 
perose blanche. 
Yellowish-white ; glimmering 3 commonly with fibrous frac- 
ture 3 sometimes in the form of a mealy deposit 3 sometimes 
capillary, as in many kinds of the so called Feather-Alum ; 
sometimes stalactitic, 8cc. Also found in the Rammelsberg. 
(4.) Cobalt Vitriol. Sulphate of Cobalt. 
Pale rose-red 3 with vitreous lustre ; translucent 3 stalacti- 
cal. Found near Herrengrund, in Hungary. 
* The stone, known under the name of Ink-stone, is composed of ex- 
traneous fragments used to fill up holes in mines, which have been pene- 
trated and agglutinated by Vitriolic water, and from which Vitriol is prin- 
cipally procured ; at Goslar, for instance. 
Beckmann has shewn in his Bey t rage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen. 
Th. 2. S. 92. that this Inkstone is probably the Alumen of the Ancients. 

3G4 
OF MINERAL SALTS. 
III. Salts of Nitric Acid. 
1. Native Salt-petre. Nitrate of Potash. 
Whitish; commonly transparent; sometimes glittering; at 
others glimmering ; generally in delicate needles, or cottony; 
sometimes stalactical. Specific gravity 1920. Taste bitter, 
cooling. It melts in the fire and decrepitates on hot coals ; it 
is for the most part mixed with Lime in Salt-petre Earth, as it 
is called. Found principally in Ludama, (in the interior of 
Africa,) in Hindostan, and also in certain parts of Europe, as 
Hungary, Apulia, near Homburg, in the county of Wiirzberg, 
and near Gottingen, on the Sandstone of Reinhause*. Ex- 
tensively employed in making Gun-powder, Nitric Acid, &c. 
IV. Salts of Boracic Acid. 
1. Tincal. Crude Borax. Borate of Soda. Swaga of the 
inhabitants of Thibet. 
Generally greenish-grey ; translucent ; with waxy lustre ; 
fracture foliated in a curved direction ; crystallized in flat six- 
sided prisms, with obliquely bevelled extremities ; Taste first 
sweetish, and afterwards caustic ; readily melts in the fire. 
Found in some Alpine lakes of the snowy mountains of Thibet 
and Nepal. Used in soldering, &c. 
2. Sassolin. Native Boracic Acid. 
In yellowish-white leaves with almost silvery lustre, scaly, or 
resembling Mica. Contents, Boracic Acid S 6 ; Sulphate of 
Manganese 11 ; Sulphate of Lime 3. (Klaproth.) Found 
near the hot springs of Sasso, in the Territory of Florence. 
The Native Boracic Acid found in the cleft of a rock upon the 
Volcano of Lipari, and from which also hot springs issue, on 
the contrary, is combined with from 5 to 20 per Cent, of Sul- 
phur. (Stromeyer. Gottin. gel. Anz. ISIS. S. 2073.) 
V. Salts of Carbonic Acid. 
1. Native Natron. Carbonate of Soda. Native Mineral 
Alkali. — Borech of the Persians. — Trona in Barbary. — 
Nitrum of the Ancients. 
Whitish, yellowish, greyish, &c.; generally earthy, but some- 
times massive ; translucent ; with dull lustre ; sometimes 
aggregated in a columnar manner on the fracture ; very solu- 
ble in water ; taste alkaline. Contains various quantities of 
* See C. F. Becker’s Anleitung zur kiinsllichen Erzeugung dcs Salpetert. 
Braunschw. 1814. 8vo. 

OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
365 
Carbonic Acid ; sometimes 3S per Cent. Found particularly 
in the Natron Lakes of Egypt, &c. The ancient Egyptians 
macerated the bodies of the dead in this salt during a month 
previous to making them into mummies* 5 and it is said that 
merchants shipwrecked on the shores of the Belus discovered 
its power of forming glass. In the East it is still extensively 
employed for the latter purpose, as also for making soap, for 
bleaching, dyeing, and as a condiment. 
The Aphonitum which is deposited on damp walls in the form 
of cottony mucor, and which is sometimes improperly called 
Saltpetre, consists of impure native Soda mixed w’ith Lime. 
SECT. XIV. 
OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
§ 251. All those Fossils are in fact called combustible, which 
combine so rapidly with Oxygen as to disengage heat and 
light. Consequently, Metals strictly speaking, also belong to 
this Class. But as these differ remarkably from all other Mineral 
Bodies by many peculiar characters, they are in consonance, 
with the general division already mentioned, (§ 241.) placed in 
a separate Class, and only the four following Genera ranged 
among combustible bodies, properly so called: — 
T. Native Sulphur. III. Graphite. 
II. Bitumen. Ger. Erdharz. IV. Diamond. 
§ 252. The first of these Genera, and most of the Species 
of the second, agree among themselves and differ from the 
other two in this respect, that when pure, they are soluble in 
oil, that they burn with smoke, flame, and a peculiar odour, or 
at least glow, and that they are capable of supporting combus- 
tion. One Species of Bitumen, Petroleum, is fluid. The re- 
maining solid ones are powerfully idio-electric. 
* I examined this Salt in the mummies which I was permitted to open 
in the British Museum, Feb. 18, 1791. Sec Phil. Trans. 1794. p. 183. 
I ah. 16. fig. 4. — And Iteytrage zur Naturgeschirhte. Th. 2. S. 53. 

366 
OP COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
I. SULPHUR. 
1. Native Sulphur. Brimstone. Ger. Schwefel. Fr. Soufre. 
In a variety of shades of its well known colour ; more or less 
translucent ; lustre greasy ; fracture conchoidal ; brittle ; 
commonly amorphous, and as well of loose as compact struc- 
ture ; sometimes stalactical ; sometimes crystallized in three- 
sided or double four-sided pyramids. Specific gravity 2033. 
Melts at 244° Falir. and at 414° bursts into flame. Often im- 
pure, as Sulphur-earth, &c. Found principally in strata of 
Gypsum, as for instance, near Lauenstein, in the Kingdom of 
Hanover ; also in and near Volcanoes. 
II. BITUMEN. 
1. Mellite. Ger. Honigstein. 
This as yet imperfectly understood Mineral is commonly ho- 
ney-yellow ; translucent ; with vitreous lustre ; very brittle ; 
with small conchoidal fracture 5 always crystallized, commonly 
in double four-sided pyramids; and when rubbed, evinces re- 
sinous electricity. Specific gravity 1666. Contents, Alumina 
16; a peculiar acid (the Mellitic) resembling the vegetable 
acids, 46 ; Water 39 ; (Klaproth.) Found, sometimes with 
native Sulphur, in Bituminous Wood and Wood Earth, near 
Artern, County of Mansfeld. 
2. Amber. Ger. Bernstein. Agtstein. Succinum, lyncurium, 
glessum. Tacit. 
Passing from white into dark orange-red ; and from transpa- 
rent into perfectly opaque ; rarely limpid, but commonly as 
clear as oil ; lustre sometimes vitreous, sometimes waxy ; 
fracture conchoidal ; sometimes in particular shapes, as pear- 
shaped or globular drops. It may be turned, polished, &c. 
Specific gravity of a transparent wine-yellow specimen, 1083. 
Contains a peculiar Acid, the Succinic. It has probably origi- 
nated from Resin in some of the early revolutions of the 
Earth; it not uncommonly includes foreign bodies particu- 
larly wood, insects, &c. Found chiefly at Samland, in East 
* In a very instructive series of Specimens of Amber, presented to me by 
Count Finkenstein SchOnburg, are, among other objects, many very dis- 
tinct Insects, partly unknown, and partly resembling tropical Species, pai- 
ticularly Staphylini, Matter, &c. 

OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 367 
Prussia 3 sometimes in layers of Bituminous Wood * and brown 
Coal 3 sometimes on the sea-coast. 
3. Petroleum. Fossil Tar. Ger. Erdohl. 
More or less fluid 3 sometimes perfectly so, (Naphtha) 3 some- 
times, on the contrary, very tenacious, like thick Tar, (Maltha, 
Mineral Tar)3 equally various in colour and transparency 3 
Naphtha, for instance, in many shades of yellow 3 Mineral Tar 
passing into black-brown 3 (the true Barbadoes Tar greenish- 
brown) 3 the former transparent, the latter, on the contrary, 
barely translucent in slender threads. Mean specific gravity 
0.S50. Its odour is very powerful. Naphtha is found parti- 
cularly in the burning lands near the Caspian Sea 3 the Mine- 
ral Tar chiefly at Barbadoes, but also near Edemissen, in the 
District of Meinersen, (Kingdom of Hanover,) and other 
places. The Naphtha is used for lights, fuel, &c. 3 the Mine- 
ral Tar, as a medicine, &c. That from Barbadoes is also em- 
ployed in the treatment of obstinate affections of the skin, and 
even of cancerous diseases. 
4. Mineral Pitch. Bitumen. Ger. Erdpech. 
(1.) Common Bitumen. Asphalt. 
Generally black, and brown only in translucent splinters 3 
lustre sometimes greasy, sometimes vitreous 5 fracture gene- 
rally conchoidal ; very brittle ; gives a liver-brown streak j has 
a peculiar bitterish smell ; burns with a dense vapour. Spe- 
cific gravity 1104. Found principally on the Dead Sea, to 
which it has communicated its Greek name. It was employed 
by the ancient Egyptians in their compositions for embalming 
mummies. It is still used by the Turks, Arabs, &c., when 
dissolved in oil, to preserve the harness of their horses, to 
drive away flies, &c. Among the Varieties, the odoriferous 
and costly Mountain Balsam, Pers. Muminahif, procured 
from the clefts in rocks in Khorassan, at the foot of Caucasus, 
deserves notice. 
(2.) Elastic Bitumen. Mineral Caoutchouc. 
This singular Fossil is brown, without lustre, and very elastic 3 
it does not, like vegetable Caoutchouc, admit of extension. 
Among this, though very rarely, almond-shaped seed-capsules of the 
primitive Amber Tree, also completely unknown, are sometimes found 5 for 
specimens of which I am indebted to the kindness of M. Hagen, of Kiinigs- 
berg. 
+ This Persian name was first applied in the thirteenth Century, to the 
1 todies embalmed by the ancient Egyptians, which have ever since been uni- 
versally termed mummies. 

OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
368 
but like soft cork, when compressed, it immediately resumes 
its former condition. Found near Castleton, in Derbyshire, 
in the two following Varieties : — 
(a.) Compact. 
Black-brown, sometimes passing into olive-green ; softens 
when heated j and in general resembles the vegetable Caout- 
chouc in its external characters more closely than the next 
Variety ; 
fb.J Spongy. 
Hair-brown ; structure spongy, sometimes passing into 
fibrous tougher than the compact kind. 
5. Bituminous Wood. Oryctodendron. 
Hair-brown, sometimes passing into black-brown, as in the 
Surtar-branclr , or Black Wood of Iceland ; with more or less 
evident ligneous texture. Passes into brown Coal and Jet , 
sometimes found in extensive strata* j sometimes contains 
Alum. The Bituminous Wood-earth, to which also many 
kinds of Umber belong, (that of Cologne for instance,) is pro- 
duced by the disintegration of Bituminous Wood, and is found 
partly in strata near it, and partly also in alluvial land, peat 
moors, &c.+ . 
6. Black Coal. Common Coal. Ger. Steinkohle. Fr. Houille. 
Charbon de Terre. 
Beyond a doubt, of vegetable origin ; sometimes with evident 
ligneous texture ; or with impressions of extraneous plants , 
sometimes intermixed with Wood Coal j burns -with black 
smoke ; consists of Bitumen and Carbon in various propor- 
tions ; according to its colour, lustre, structure, &c., it forms 
* Some have supposed that these strata of Bituminous Wood, so impor- 
tant geologically, as monuments of the catastrophes of the primitive w orld 
have been deposited by currents, &c., in the manner of the dnft-wood cast at 
present on the shores of the Northern World. J ust on the contrary, it appears 
to me that many kinds of drift-wood, that, for instance, which is cast on 
shore near Stad, in this kingdom, the fissures in which I found hlled with 
blue Iron Earth, have been originally detached from strata of fossil Bitumi- 
nous Wood, previous to being thrown on the shore. 
f Peat itself. — Ger. Torf. Fr. Tourbc. — consists of Plants, chiefly Mosses 
and Grasses, in a state of decay or merely closely matted together, and more 
o less impregnated with Bitumen ; in some places it also contains Heaths, 
&c. Peat is for the most part certainly of recent origin, whence many na- 
turalists have been induced to exclude it from the rank of fossils. But as 
we find that certain Peats placed inland, consist of Marine Plants, Fuci, &c. 
and consequently belong to the remote periods of the primitive revolutions 
of the Earth, many kinds evidently passing into brown Coal, this appears to 
be its most suitable place in a System of Natural Histoiv. 

OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
369 
the six following- Varieties, which, in a geognostic point of 
view, may be arranged under two principal heads ; the four 
first approaching more or less closely to Bituminous Wood, 
occurring in extensive strata, resting on common Flotz Sand- 
stone or compact Limestone, and usually covered by Basalt ; 
the two latter, on the contrary, occur in less extensive strata, 
commonly only a few feet thick, several of which however al- 
ternate with each other, and with layers of Slate Clay or Coal 
Sandstone. The latter kinds are also found more in the vici- 
nity of mountains containing veins, and are almost always 
covered by Coal Sandstone, Slate Clay, (Shale) with impres- 
sions of Plants, and Slag. Ger. Brandschiefer. (Bituminous 
Shale.) 
(1.) Brown Coal . Bovey Coal. Ger. Braunkohle. Erdkohle. 
Dark-brown ; with dull lustre ; it pssses into Alum Earth as 
well as into Bituminous Wood, from the latter of which it is 
distinguished by having a less evident ligneous texture. 
(2.) Pitch Coal. Ger. Pechkohle. Fettkohle. 
Coal-black, as are also the following Varieties.; lustre consider- 
able 5 fracture small conchoidal. 
(3.) Columnar Coal. Ger. Stangenkohle. 
In detached columnar pieces ; generally with greasy lustre ; 
soft ; brittle. Found at Meissner, in Hesse. 
(4.) Jet. Black Amber. Ger. Gagatkohle. Schwarzer Bernstein. 
Fr. Jayet. 
Coal-black; with dull lustre ; flat conchoidal fracture ; suffi- 
ciently hard to admit of being turned and polished. Similar to 
this is the Cannel, or Kennel Coal, of Lancashire, of specific 
gravity 1275. 
(5.) Slate Coal. Foliated Coal. Ger. S chief erkohle. Blatter- 
kohle. 
Of slaty texture ; lustre waxy ; soft and very brittle. Passes 
ihto Bituminous Shale. 
(6.) Glance Coal. Ger. Glanzkohle. 
Iron-black ; lustre almost metallic ; fracture large conchoidal ; 
fragments of a cubical form ; it affords the best fuel, and is 
very common in Great Britain. , ( 
Besides the common uses of Coal, the two last kinds are 
employed for procuring Tar and Sal Ammoniac. 

370 
OF COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. 
III. GRAPHITE. 
1. Anthracite. (Slaty Glance Coal.) Ger. Kohlenblende. 
Fr . Plombagine charbonneuse. 
In external appearance it resembles Glance Coal, with which 
it was formerly often confounded ; it soils the fingers con- 
siderably ; very brittle ; structure sometimes slaty, some- 
times columnar in small four-sided prisms. Specific gravity 
146*8. Contents, according to Guyton Morveau, Carbon with 
a little Oxygen, and about 4 per Cent, of Alumina. Generally 
found in or near Quartz ; among other places, at Gera, Schem- 
nitz, &c., and at Kongsberg, with native silver. 
2. Graphite. Black Lead. Wad. Plumbago. Ger. Reissbley. 
Fr. Plombagine. 
Generally lead-grey; sometimes iron-grey; with more or less 
of metallic lustre ; soils the fingers ; greasy to the touch ; 
sometimes compact ; at others, granular, or scaly, or foliated, 
or thin slaty ; soft. Mean specific gravity 2089. Composed, 
according to Vauquelin, of Carbon, with 8 per Cent, of Iron. 
In the open fire it burns, leaving behind a little Iron and Silex. 
It is found of the best quality, and in large quantity, at 
Keswick, in Cumberland*. The finer kind is used for pencils, 
and for the points of Paratonnerres ; the inferior for making 
crucibles, stoves, &c., and as an application to wooden screws 
and wheels. 
IV. DIAMOND. 
1. Diamond. Ger. Demant. Fr. Diamant. 
In every respect one of the most remarkable and wonderful, 
as well as valuable, objects in nature. Properly colourless, 
and limpid as a drop of dew ; but sometimes with a pale 
tinge, and that of almost all colours ; lustre peculiar, and ap- 
proaching to metallic ; originally always crystallized ; and 
properly, as a double four-sided pyramid, (Tab. 2. fig. 5.) the 
surfaces of which are, however, commonly arched, and some- 
times so pointed in the middle as to convert the octahedron 
into a dodecahedron with rhomboidal planes. (Tab. 2. fig. 13.) 
* I am indebted to the late Baron von Ascii for an exotic curiosity, 
consisting of some very' fine graphite, from Tschukotskoinoss, the extreme 
point of Asia, to the North-East, which is employed by the Tschukotski, 
and the Polar Nations on the opposite Coasts of the North-West ot Ame- 
rica, as a cosmetic, and for colouring their clothes and furniture. 

OF METALS. 
37 1 
Its structure is foliated in a direction corresponding to the 
planes of the primary octohedron, in which direction only it 
admits of cleavage *. It is the hardest of all known bodies, 
resisting the action of the tile, and scratching all other 
precious stones ; for which reason it can only be polished by 
means of its own powder. Specific gravity 3521. It is power- 
fully idio-electric and many absorb light with great facility. 
What Newton had suspected, ( Optice . p. 270, 272. Ed. cit.) 
Irom having observed its powerful refraction, that the 
Diamond was a combustible substance, is now fully estab- 
lished j it having been shewn to consist of Carbon in a won- 
derfully condensed state ; so that even Steel may be formed 
from Iron placed in contact with Diamond in a state of com- 
bustion. Diamonds are found in the East Indies (principally 
Hindostan and Borneo) and the Brazils. (See Osiander’s 
Notice in the Gotting. gelehrt. Anzeig. 1805. S. 1777, &c. 
SECT. XV. 
OF METALS. 
§ 253. It has been already mentioned, (§ 251.) that in 
strictness. Metals should be arranged among combustible 
I Fossils. They are distinguished, however, by the following 
j properties, as well from the substances treated of in the pre- 
ceding Section, as from the minerals of the other two Classes. 
They are the heaviest objects in nature, and the most per- 
fectly opaque of all Fossils 3 they all have the lustre, from 
that circumstance called metallic 5 their fracture is generally 
uneven 5 and many of them possess ductility, which may be 
of three kinds : viz., they are, firstly, flexible, as Lead and 
* The identity of the direction of the Lamellae in both its crystalline 
forms, the octohedron and dodecahedron, is clearly demonstrated in a 
‘series of Diamonds in my Collection, which have been cleaved in the various 
directions, and presented to me by the celebrated Polisher of Diamonds, 
•Bbmei.manv, of Amsterdam. 
B B 2 

OF METALS. 
tiTZ 
Tin in particular ; secondly, they are extensible or malleable, 
so as to admit of being beat out into thin leaves, Gold and 
Silver particularly ; and thirdly, they arc tenacious, so as to 
allow of being drawn into the form of Wire, more or less per- 
fectly, according to their different degrees of tenacity ; wires 
of similar size, but of different Metals, supporting more or 
less weight previous to giving way ; the principal ot this kind 
are Platina, Gold, and Iron. 
They are rendered fluid by Caloric, i. e. they melt ; in the 
case of Quicksilver, this takes place at a very low temperature, 
whence it is usually observed liquid, whilst, on the contrary, 
the other Metals require an elevated temperature, and many of 
them, as Platina, Iron, Manganese, Tungsten, &c., an extreme 
heat previous to fusing. All, when melted, are opaque and 
convex on the surface. 
With one or two exceptions among the recently discovered 
Metals, all are soluble in Nitric, or Muriatic, or Nitro-Mu- 
riatic Acids, and are most perfect conductors of Electricity. 
§ 254. However varied the appearances with which Metals 
ordinarily present themselves in the natural state, all the dif- 
ferences may be reduced to two principal heads. 
Either they are found native in their perfect metallic form, 
or they are mineralized in the most extended sense of the 
word, being deprived of more or less of their metallic habit. . 
§ 255. But even in the native state there are various dis- 
tinctions. The Metal, for instance, is either visible or con- 
cealed in minute particles among other Fossils, and in that 
way disguised. Again, a native Metal, Quicksilver for instance, 
is either found pure by itself, or else several are mixed to- 
gether in their native state, in the Natural Amalgam, for 
instance 
§ 256. The mineralization of Metals (§ 254.) also takes 
place in different ways : — - 
First, merely by a combination of a Metal with another 
combustible substance, as Sulphur ; in this instance the Metal 
is said to be sulphuretted. In such combinations they gene- 
rally retain a metallic lustre. 
§ 257. Secondly, by a much more essential change, viz. by 
the combination of Metals with Acids ; in which case they are 
deprived of their metallic lustre, and are said to be acidified or 
ox y dated. 
And again, this oxydation takes place either by the lmrne- 

OF METALS. 
37 3 
diate access of Oxygen, pure, or else combined with a Basis, 
and forming an Acid. 
§ 258. But ten Metals, viz. Silver, Quicksilver, Copper, 
Iron, Bismuth, Antimony, Nickel, Arsenic, Tellurium, and Pal- 
ladium, have as yet been found in both forms, native and mi- 
neralized. Of the remainder the greater number are minera- 
lized only. 
§ 259. It needs scarcely be mentioned that the ancient divi- 
sion of Metals into perfect and imperfect or Semi-metals, was 
founded on relative and indefinite circumstances. 
§ 260. The Metals at present known are, 
I. Platina. V. Copper. 
II. Gold. VI. Iron. 
III. Silver. VII. Lead. 
IV. Quicksilver. VIII. Tin. 
These eight were formerly called perfect Metals the follow- 
ing are those which were termed Semi-metals 
IX. Zinc. 
X. Bismuth. 
XI. Antimony. 
XII. Cobalt. 
XIII. Nickel. 
XIV. Manganese. 
XV. Arsenic. 
XVI. Molybdenum. 
XVII. Tungsten. 
XVIII. Uranium. 
XIX. Titanium. 
XX. Tellurium. 
XXI. Chromium. 
XXII. Tantalum. 
XXIII. Cerium. 
XXIV. Iridium. 
XXV. Palladium. 
XXVI. Cadmium. 
XXVII. Osmium. 
XXVIII. Rhodium. 
The two latter having hitherto been found only in crude Pla- 
tina combined with Iridium and Palladium, they are here only 
incidentally alluded to. 
1. PLATINA. 
Pure Platina, in the metallic state, is silver-white ; of specific 
gravity 20,850, consequently the heaviest of all known bodies 
(when drawn into wire or much hammered, its specific gra- 
vity reaches 23,286) ; it is extremely extensible and tena- 
cious* j it is soluble in Aqua Regia, and amalgamates with 
* Dr. Wollaston presented me with Platina wire of the extraordinary 
finene?.-' of % <- th , -£-7 T 7nrth, and even -g-Arrrth part of an inch. I received 
also from the late Dr. Ingen-house a sheet of Copper covered on one side 
with Silver, and on the other with Platina, the thickness of the three layers 
of the different Metals collectively, not exceeding that of a sheet of paper. 

374 
OF METALS. 
boiling- Mercury ; it is of more difficult fusion than any other 
Metal ; next to Iron it is the hardest, and like it admits of being 
welded. It is employed chiefly in making scales, Micrometer- 
wires, small crucibles, and pendulum knobs, pyrometers, 
Davy’s safety lamp, Clarke’s night-light without flame, the 
wheels of watches, and, combined with Copper and Arsenic, 
Telescope-mirrors. 
1. Native. 
Known since 1736 by the name of Platina, the Spanish diminu- 
tive from Plata, Silver. It commonly occurs in small, and 
almost steel-grey grains, sometimes roundish, sometimes an- 
gular, but usually flattened j besides Platina they contain eight 
other Metals, viz. Copper, Iron, Titanium, Chromium, Iridium, 
Osmium, Rhodium, and Palladium ; and are principally found 
near Santa Fe, in Mexico, in a sand composed of magnetic 
Iron Sand, Granular Gold, globules of Quicksilver, and small 
Hyacinths. 
II. GOLD. 
Gold is exceedingly ductile in all three respects, viz. flexibility, 
malleability, and tenacity ; it is soft, but by continual ham- 
mering may be made hard enough for watch-springs. Speci- 
fic gravity 19,257. It is soluble in Aqua Regia, and is preci- 
pitated from the solution by Sal Ammoniac, in the form of ful- 
minating Gold, and by Tin in the form of the purple Preci- 
pitate of Cassius. It readily amalgamates with Quicksilver. 
Next to Iron and Manganese, it is probably the most general- 
ly diffused Metal. 
1. Native. 
Darker or lighter according to the proportions of other Metals, 
such as Copper, Silver, Iron, and Tellurium, mixed with it ; 
in a variety of particular forms, as foliated, reticulated, &c. 
Sometimes crystallized in cubes, octohedrons, &c. sometimes 
dendritic, &c. Occasionally found in Stream-works, as in 
Wicklow. (Ireland.) Very common as Gold-dust, in the sand 
of many rivers. 
Frequently, however, it is merely disguised or concealed, as 
for instance, in the brown Iron Ore of Beresofsk, in the Brau- 
nerz from the Rammelsberg, containing Galena and Blende, in 
Iron Pyrites, &c. ; also in the auriferous Coal (Brandstein) 
from Verespatak, in Transylvania. 

OF METALS. 
375 
III. SILVER. 
Silver becomes yellowish-black when exposed to the vapour of 
Sulphur. Specific gravity 10,474. Very malleable and tena- 
cious ; the most sonorous Metal, Copper excepted ; soluble in 
Nitric Acid, and precipitated by Muriatic Acid as Horn Silver, 
and by Mercury in the form of the Arbor Dianae. 
1 . Native. 
In many peculiar shapes, foliated, dentiform, capillary, reticu- 
lated, &e. 3 sometimes crystallized, and commonly in double 
four-sided pyramids ; sometimes dendritic 3 sometimes in me- 
tallic petrifactions, as in the Frankenberg ears of corn. It is 
never found altogether pure, but mixed with other Metals, as 
for instance, with Gold near Kongsberg, and on the Schlan- 
genberg. 
2 . Arsenical Silver. 
Colour intermediate between Tin and Silver 3 fracture foliated ; 
sometimes crystallized in six-sided prisms and pyramids 5 soft. 
Composition various 3 a specimen from Andreasberg contained, 
according to Klapkoth, Silver 12,75 3 Arsenic 35 3 Iron 44.25 3 
Antimony 4. 
3. Antimonial Silver. 
Tin-white 3 sometimes massive 5 sometimes crystallized in four 
and six-sided prisms and pyramids, or in six-sided tables. 
Contents, Silver 76 5 Antimony 24. (Klaproth.) Found near 
Andreasberg, and Alt Wolfach, in the principality of Fiirsten- 
berg. 
4. Sulphuret of Silver. Vitreous Silver. Ger. Glaserz. Sil- 
berkies. 
Blackish lead-grey 3 dull glimmering 3 gives a glittering streak 3 
sometimes crystallized, and then usually in double four-sided 
pyramids 3 also in cubes, &c. 3 soft 5 very flexible 3 admits of 
cleavage 3 and sometimes so malleable that it may be stamped. 
Specific gravity 7215. Contents, Silver 75 3 Sulphur 25. 
(Bergmann.) Found in the Erzgebirge. 
5. Brittle Sulphuret of Silver. Ger. Sprodes Glaserz. 
Generally Iron-black ; sometimes fuliginous. Sometimes 
crystallized, and that commonly in very small six-sided prisms 
or tables ; sometimes cellular 3 brittle. Specific gravity 7208. 
Contents, Silver 66.5 3 Sulphur 12 ; Antimony 10 3 Iron 5. 
(Klaproth.) Found principally in Hungary. 

376 
OF METALS. 
6 . Earthy Sulphuret of Silver. Ger. Silbersehwarze. Erdiges 
Glaserz. 
Bluish black ; soils the fingers ; fine earthy ; very soft ; ap- 
pears to be produced by the decomposition of the Black Silver 
and Sulphuret of Silver, in the vicinity of which it is usually 
found. 
7 . Muriate of Silver. Horn Silver. Ger. Ilornerz. 
Pearl-grey, passing sometimes into brown, sometimes into 
pistachio-green 3 translucent at the edges ; lustre almost waxy 5 
sometimes lumpy ; or crystallized in cubes 5 or dendritic, as in 
the Siberian, from the Schlangenberg ; soft ; flexible 5 may be 
scraped. Specific gravity 4840. Contents, Silver 67-75 3 
concentrated Muriatic Acid 21 3 Oxyde of Iron 6 ; Alumina 
175. (Klaproth.) Found at Johanngeorgenstadt, in the Erz- 
gebirge 3 in Cornwall, See. 
S. Red Silver. Ger. Rothgiilden. Silberblende. 
From light blood-red to dark cochineal-red, the latter passing 
into lead-grey and iron-black 5 more or less translucent 5 
sometimes black-red by reflected light, and by transmitted 
light, blood-red (Ruby Silver) 3 lustre almost metallic 3 some- 
times crystallized, mostly in six-sided prisms with obtuse six 
or three-sided points 3 sometimes dendritic ; gives a red streak. 
Mean specific gravity 5563. Contents of a dark specimen 
from Andreasberg, Silver 60 5 Antimony 19 3 Sulphur 17 3 Oxy- 
gen 4. (Klaproth.) Others also contain Arsenic. Found 
particularly at Andreasberg. 
9. Black Silver. Ger. Schwarzgiilden. 
Iron-black, sometimes passing into steel-grey ; lustre metallic 3 
fracture small conchoidal 3 hard 3 brittle 3 sometimes massive, 
particularly near Schemnitz and Kapnick 3 sometimes crystal- 
lized in three-sided pyramids, as near Clausthal. Passes into . 
grev Copper Ore. 
IV. QUICKSILVER. 
Quicksilver (Hydrargyrum) retains its Silver lustle unchanged 
in the air ; is fluid without soaking or moistening 3 and at 39° 
below Zero (Fahr.) becomes solid and malleable. Specific gra- 
vity when fluid 13,568 3 when solid 14,391. (Gehlen’s Journal 
B. 1. s. 434.) Is perfectly soluble in Nitric Acid 3 phospho- 
resces in vacuo 3 amalgamates readily with Gold, Silver, Tin, 
and Lead ; hence its use in reducing Ores, gilding, making 

OF METALS. 
377 
mirrors, &c. Also employed in meteorological instruments, 
destroying insects, and is a powerful medicine. 
1. Native. Virgin Quicksilver. 
Generally in globular drops in the clefts and interstices of 
Quicksilver Ores. Found in Europe, chiefly in Idria and the 
Principality of Deux-ponts. 
2 . Native Amalgam. 
Native Quicksilver amalgamated with Native Silver. Com- 
monly only as an incrustation 3 but sometimes massive, knob- 
by, &c. 3 soft. Contents, Quicksilver 64 5 Silver 36 . (Klap- 
roth.) Found in Deux-ponts. 
3 . Cinnabar. 
From light scarlet to dark cochineal- red 3 sometimes opaque 3 
at others more or less translucent ; sometimes earthy 3 some- 
times massive, and with almost metallic lustre 3 occasionally 
fibrous 3 or crystallized, and then commonly in four-sided py- 
ramids 3 streak scarlet-red. Specific gravity variable. Con- 
tents, Quicksilver 80 j Sulphur 20. (Kirwan.) Found in Idria, 
Deux-ponts, Almaden, (Spain) China, and Mexico. 
Bituminous Cinnabar. Ger. Quecksilber Branderz from Idria, 
is Cinnabar intimately mixed with Bituminous Slate. 
The rare Fetid Cinnabar also found there, is scarlet-red, 
translucent 3 of sparry texture ; and when rubbed gives out a 
smell of Sulphur. 
4 . Hepatic Cinnabar. Ger. Quecksilber Leber Erz. 
From dark cochineal-red to iron-black 3 opaque 3 lustre dull 
glimmering 3 streak cochineal-red 3 soft 3 according to its tex- 
ture, of two kinds : — 
(a.) Compact, and fb.J Lamellar with concentric exfoliating 
layers, like many haematites*. Specific gravity 7937. Con- 
tains 70 per Cent, of Quicksilver. Found in Idria, where it is 
the most common Ore of Quicksilver. 
5 . Horn Quicksilver. Muriate of Mercury. Ger. Quecksilber 
Horn Erz. 
Smoke-grey, yellowish-grey, &c. 3 translucent 3 lustre almost 
metallic 3 commonly in the form of drusy incrustations in the 
interstices of other Quicksilver Ores 3 sometimes in very small 
crystals, cubic or prismatic 3 soft. According to Kirwan, it 
Among the most remarkable errors arising from a neglect of the study 
of petrifactions, is the supposition of many modern and otherwise merito- 
rious mineralogists, that these concentric exfoliations of the Hepatic Cin- 
nabar were actual petrifactions. 

378 
OF METALS. 
contains 70 per Cent of Quicksilver, combined with Muriatic 
and Sulphuric Acids. Found in Deux-ponts. 
V. COPPER. 
Copper is very hard and elastic, and the most sonorous of all 
Metals. Specific gravity 7788. Soluble in all acids ; burns 
with a green and blue flame 3 combines readily with other 
Metals, forming various compositions 3 as for instance, with 
Gold, Similor and the Malay Suasso ; with Zinc, Brass, and 
Tombac (from the Malay name of Copper, Tombago )-, with 
Tin, the ancient Bronze, Bell-metal and Pewter ; with Arsenic, 
the Argent hacks and the composition for the mirrors of teles- 
copes j with Nickel, the Chinese Packsong; &c. In eoinage it 
serves also for the alloy of Gold and Silver. 
1. Native. 
Sometimes auriferous or argentiferous 3 in various shades of 
red j in many peculiar forms 5 sometimes crystallized and 
commonly in double four-sided pyramids. Found in Europe, 
particularly in Cornwall and Hungary 5 in Asia, Siberia, the 
Copper Island (Mednoi-Ostrow) of the Sea of Kamtschatka 5 
and in America, on the Copper-mine River, to the N. W. of 
Hudson’s Bay, Brazil, &c. 
Cement Copper, or native Copper of the second formation, 
is that which is precipitated by Iron from Waters containing 
Sulphate of Copper, as at Neusohl, in Hungary, Goslar, on 
the Rammelsberg, &c. 
2. Sulphuret of Copper. Vitreous Copper. Ger. Kupferglas. 
Kupferglanz. 
Lead-grey passing into iron-black, violet, dark liver-brown, 
&c. 3 lustre sometimes metallic ; fracture foliated 3 commonly 
amorphous, but sometimes crystallized, as in six-sided prisms 
(Tab. 2. fig. 10.) j soft 3 sectile j streak glittering 3 easily 
fused. Mean specific gravity 5074. Contains, according to 
Klaproth, from 50 to 80 per Cent, of Copper, combined, as 
in the following Species, with Iron and Sulphur, hound par- 
ticularly in Cornwall and the Bannat. 
3. Purple Copper. Ger. Bunt-Kupfer-Erz. 
Tombac-brown, passing into Copper-red ; generally with a 
tinge like a dove’s neck 5 lustre metallic j more brittle than 
Vitreous Copper ; streak brown- red ; amorphous. Contains, 
according to Kirwan and Klaproth, 40 to 70 per Cent, of 
Copper, with more Iron than the last Species ; like it also, 

OF METALS. 379 
passes into Copper Pyrites. Found at Lauterberg, in the Hartz, 
and on the Schlangenberg, in Siberia. 
4. Copper Pyrites. Yellow Copper Ore. Ger. Kupferkies. 
Gelf. 
Gold-yellow in a variety of shades ; sometimes greenish ; often 
iridescent ; usually amorphous ; fusiform, kidney-shaped, bo- 
tryoidal, & c. ; sometimes crystallized, as in three-sided py- 
ramids (Tab. 2. fig. 1.) Mean specific gravity 3980. Contains, 
according to Kir wan, 20 per Cent, of Copper, with still more 
Iron than in the preceding Species. It is the most common 
Copper Ore ; is found, as are sometimes also the two pre- 
ceding Species, in bituminous Marl- Slate, which is then called 
Copper-Slate. 
5. White Copper. Arsenical Copper Pyrites. Ger. Weiss 
Kupfererz. 
From tin-white to bronze-yellow ; with dull lustre ; brittle ; 
sometimes gives sparks with steel. Contains, according to 
Henkel, 40 per Cent, of Copper, with Arsenic and Iron. 
Passes into Copper Pyrites and Grey Copper Ore. Very rare ; 
found near Freyberg. 
6. Grey Copper Ore. Ger. Fahlerz. Graugiiltigerz. Weiss- 
giilden. 
Steel-grey passing into iron-black ; streak greyish-red ; com- 
monly amorphous j sometimes crystallized in three-sided py- 
ramids, six-sided prisms, &c. Besides Copper, it contains 
Antimony and Silver in variable quantities, and sometimes 
Lead, Iron, &c. Found in abundance in many countries of 
Europe and Asia. 
7 • Black Copper. Ger. Kupferschwarze. 
Brownish-black ; earthy ; friable ; meagre ; commonly found 
covering Copper Pyrites and Grey Copper Ore, from the disin- 
tegration of which it probably originates. Found near Lau- 
terberg, on the Hartz, &c. 
8. Red Oxyde of Copper. Ger. Roth Kupfererz. 
Passing from liver-brown, through light cochineal-red, into 
lead-grey; the cochineal-red kind sometimes translucent; 
rarely transparent ; lustre sometimes almost metallic; com- 
pact, foliated, or crystallized ; and then commonly in double 
four-sided pyramids. Sometimes capillary, fibrous, Avith silky 
lustre (Flowers of Copper). Composed of Carbonate of Cop- 
per. Found in Cornwall and Catharinburg ; the Flowers of 
Copper, near Rheinbreidbach (Cologne). 

380 
OF METALS. 
9. lied Copper Ochre. Ger. Ziegelerz. 
From hyacinth-red into pitch-brown and yellow ; lustre dull 
or like pitch ; sometimes earthy ; sometimes indurated ; the 
latter with small conchoidal fracture. In fact, belongs to the pre- 
ceding Species, with the addition of Iron-Ochre. Found, among 
other places, in the Bannat, Lauterberg, on the Hartz, &c. 
10. Blue Carbonate of Copper. Ger. Kupferlasur. Kup- 
ferblau. 
Passing from sky-blue to indigo-blue; sometimes dull, earthy, 
coherent, leaving a stain ; at others glittering, translucent, 
radiated, kidney-shaped or botryoidal; sometimes crystallized, 
chiefly in short four-sided prisms. According to Kirwax, it 
contains 69 per Cent, of Copper, combined, as in the three 
following Species, with Carbonic Acid. Found in the Bannat, 
and on the Ural Mountains. 
11. Malachite. Green Carbonate of Copper. 
In two principal forms : — 
First : Fibrous Malachite ; emerald-green ; with silky lustre; 
fibrous ; sometimes in separate capillary crystals, diverging in 
the form of a tuft. Found at Lauterberg, on the Hartz, and 
in the Bannat. 
Secondly, as Compact Malachite ; capable of being polished ; 
generally kidney-shaped or mamellated with concentric layers; 
sometimes botryoidal, stalactitic, cylindrical, &c. Specific 
gravity 3611. Contents of a Siberian specimen, Copper 58 ; 
Carbonic Acid 18 ; Oxygen 12.5; Water 11.5. (Klaproth.) 
Found particularly at Catharinburg, in Sibera. 
12. Copper-Green. Chrysocolla. Ger. Kupfergriin. 
Verdigris-green sometimes passing into blue ; rarely translu- 
cent at the edges ; sometimes earthy, friable; at others com- 
pact, with a conchoidal fracture ; commonly found in small 
quantities in other Copper Ores, and usually contains Alumina 
beside Carbonate of Copper. Found at Saalfeld, Dillenburg 
and Catharinburg. 
13. Ferriferous Copper-green. Ger. Eisenschiissiges Ivup- 
fergriin. 
Commonly olive-green passing into pistachio-green ; some- 
times earthy, friable ; at others firm, with greasy lustre ; con- 
choidal fracture, knobby surface, &c. Composed of the last 
Species intermixed with brown Iron Ochre. Found in small 
quantities near Saalfeld, and in the Island ol Elba. 
14. Phosphate of Copper. Ger. Phosphorsaures Kupfererz. 

OF METALS. 
381 
From verdigris-green passing into emerald-green ; opaque , 
glimmering ; with silky lustre ; fracture fibrous ; soft , com 
monly botryoidal, kidney-shaped ; rarely in very small six- 
sided crystals. Contents, Oxyde of Copper 68.13 ; Phospho- 
ric Acid 30.95. (Klaproth.) Found at Virneberg, near 
Rheinbreidbach. 
15. Arseniate of Copper. Ger. Olivenerz. 
Generally olive-green, passing on the one hand into dark leek- 
green, and on the other, into verdigris-green ; translucent oi 
transparent ; with greasy lustre ; commonly crystallized ; and 
sometimes in six-sided tables (Copper Mica)} sometimes in 
very flat octohedrons (Lenticular Copper Ore)} and sometimes 
in small six-sided prisms, &c. ; the latter sometimes divergent, 
sometimes in small kidney-shaped masses, of which the frac- 
ture is fibrous, and has a silky lustre. (Wood Copper.) They 
all contain Copper combined with Arsenic Acid, and some 
Iron. Found at Carharack, in Cornwall. 
16. Muriate of Copper.' Ger. Salzkupfererz. 
Of a variety of shades of green 5 passing from opaque to 
transparent ; sometimes dull earthy 5 sometimes with various 
decrees of lustre. In the Atacamite it is a green sand, with 
very small irregular grain ; translucent 3 with vitreous lustre} 
and burning with a fine blue and green flame. Contents, Oxyde 
of Copper 70.5; Muriatic Acid 11; Water 18. (Proust.) 
Found in the West of South America, near a small river in the 
desert Atacama, between Peru and Chili. 
VI. IRON. 
Pure Iron varies in colour from steel-grey to silver-white, and 
is extremely tenacious. Specific gravity 7807- It is attracted 
by the Magnet, and itself readily becomes magnetic. It may 
be welded. It is acted on by all Acids, and communicates an 
inky taste to them. These solutions give a black precipitate 
with Gallic Acid, and a blue one with Prussic Acid. It is the 
most common of all Metals, and is even diffused through the 
organic creation. It is also formed by civilized nations into a 
greater variety of objects than any other Metal, whether as 
Cast or Bar-Iron, or after it has been made into Steel*. 
1 . Native. 
* See Dr. Pearson’s Remark s on the properties and composition of the 
different states of Iron. Phil. Trans. 17 ( J5. p. 337. with reference to his 
examination of the Indian Wootz. 

OF METALS. 
382 
Among the largest and the most celebrated of the masses of 
Native Iron is that which was re-discovered by Pallas, in 1772, 
between Krasnojarsk and Abekansk, on a Slate-rock. It has a 
remarkable structure, partly branched, partly cellular, and 
contains in its vesicular interstices a greenish-yellow vitreous 
Fossil, resembling Olivine. The mass weighs 16'OOfos. and 
according to Howard, consists of Iron with 17 per Cent, 
of Nickel. Another, and much larger mass, is near the River 
Parana, in Chaco, South America, where it was examined in 
1782 by Don M. Rubin de Celis, who estimated its weight at 
30,000lbs. It contains 10 per Cent, of Nickel. A specimen 
of this mass, with which I was favoured by the kindness of Sir 
J. Banks, is distinguished from the Siberian by its lighter 
colour, approaching to tin-white. 
A specimen of Native Iron (not Meteoric) from Groscams- 
dorf, in Saxony, contained, according to Klaproth, Iron 92.5 j 
Lead 6 •, Copper 1.5. 
2. Iron Pyrites. Ger. Schwefelkies. Eisenkies. 
Bronze-yellow in a variety of shades, passing on the one hand 
into gold-yellow, on the other into steel-grey ; often iridescent 
or tombac-brown on the surface ; with metallic lustre ; com- 
monly so hard as to give sparks with steel, emitting a sulphu- 
reous odour. Besides Sulphur and Iron, it sometimes contains 
Gold, Silver, Arsenic, &c. Three kinds are distinguished : — 
(1.) Common Iron Pyrites. 
In many peculiar forms, as kidney-shaped, globular, botryoidal, 
&c. ; very frequently crystallized in various ways, as in double 
four-sided pyramids (Tab 2. fig. 5.); or in dodecahedrons with 
pentagonal planes (Tab. 2. fig. 4.); or in icosahedrons, with 
regular triangular planes with twelve corners (Tab. 2. fig. 6.), 
one of the most uncommon crystalline forms of Fossils j very 
commonly in cubes with striated planes, and that in such a 
manner that the striae of any two corresponding plane§ have 
the same direction, and run in different courses in all three of 
the planes meeting at any of the corners of the cube. Mean 
specific gravity 4700. It passes into compact brown Iron 
Ore. It forms one of the most common Ores in all parts of 
the world. 
(2.) Radiated Iron Pyrites. 
The colour usually brighter than in the former ; mostly in 
kidney-shaped masses ; generally crystallized in double four- 

OF METALS. 
383 
sided pyramids, grouped together in the Cockscomb Pyrites *: 
fracture radiated ; in many instances in the form of distinct 
acicular crystals (Capillary Pyrites), as for instance, near St. 
Andreasberg, on the Hartz. 
(3.) Hepatic Pyrites. Ger. Leber kies. Wasserkies. 
Also clearer than Common Pyrites ; often tombac-brown on 
the surface ; in peculiar forms, as kidney-shaped, stalactitic, 
tubular, reticular, cellular, he. ; sometimes crystallized in 
small six-sided prisms, he. Sometimes, also, in the form of 
metallized petrifactions of the primitive world, principally 
Ammonites, Pyrites, particularly the common kind, is em- 
ployed to obtain Sulphur, Alum and Sulphate of Iron ; and 
formerly, instead of Flint in the muskets of the Germans. 
3. Magnetic Iron Pyrites. Ger. Magnetkies. 
From tombac-brown to bronze-yellow ; with metallic lustre, 
but generally tarnished ; usually amorphous ; very rarely crys- 
tallized in six-sided tables and prisms, which are sometimes 
bevelled at the extremities f. Like many other Ores of Iron 
it is magnetic. It passes into common Iron Pyrites. It is 
found in veins ; at Breitenbrunn, in the Erzgebirge, for in- 
stance. 
4. Magnetic Iron Ore. Oxydulated Iron. Load-stone. Ger. 
Magnet-Eisenstein. Fr. Aimant. 
Iron-black ; generally amorphous ; sometimes, however, crys- 
tallized in small double four-sided pyramids ; hard; brittle; dis- 
tinguished by two remarkable qualities, viz., its polarity, and 
its power of attracting Iron ; both of which it imparts to Iron. 
Specific gravity 4243. The quantity of Iron contained in it 
varies, but sometimes amounts to 80 per Cent. Found chiefly 
on the Magnetic Mountain, in Werchoturia, and also, among 
other places, at Spitzenberg, on the Hartz, as mentioned by 
Agricola. De Natura Fossilium. L. 5. p. 604. 
5. Titaniferous Oxydulated Iron. Ger. Titaneisen. 
Sometimes brownish, sometimes Iron-black; the former 
with little lustre ; the latter with iron-lustre ; the fracture 
sometimes conchoidal, sometimes foliated, sometimes granular 
with many angles ; hard ; brittle. Specific gravity 4667'. Con- 
' L L. Hausmann, in Comment, recent. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gutting. 
VoL HI. 
f Ha us mans, rle relatione inter corpor. Natur. inorganic, indol. chcmi- 
cas atque exlernas. p. 34. 
Stromeyer’s Analytig, Gutting . gel. Anzcig. 1814. S. 147. 

384 
OF METALS. 
tents, Oxyde of Iron 78 3 Oxyde of Titanium 22. (Klaproth.) 
Found at Spessart, and near Eggersund, Krageroe, &c., in 
Norway. 
6 . Chromate of Iron. Ger. Chromeisen. 
From steel-grey into blackish-brown ; dull glimmering ; 
streak ash-grey 3 fracture coarse uneven ; hard 3 brittle ; 
commonly amorphous. Infusible by itself, but melts with 
Borax, which it colours green. Specific gravity 4032. Con- 
tents, Oxyde of Iron 34.7 ; Chromic Acid 43 3 Alumina 20 ; 
Silex 2. (Vauquelin.) Found particularly in the Department 
du Var, and near Baltimore (N. A.), in octohedral crystals. 
7- Specular Iron. Oligist. Iron Glance. Ger. Eisenglanz. 
Spiegeleisen. 
Steel-grey ; sometimes with an iridescent tarnish 3 with a vi- 
vid metallic lustre 3 as well amorphous as crystallized 3 the 
latter in double three-sided pyramids, sometimes lentiform 3 
or in six-sided tables, &c. Specific gravity 5158. According 
to Kirwan, it contains from 60 to SOper Cent, of Iron. It is 
usually magnetic. Found in great variety and beauty of crys- 
talline forms, in the Island of Elba. 
Iron- Mica is black 3 of foliated texture 3 as well amorphous 
as crystallized in small six-sided tables, which are sometimes 
aggregated in a cellular form. Found sometimes in the Wood- 
stone, from Kiefhauserberg, and in many Vesuvian Lavas. 
8 . Red Iron Ore. Ger. Roth-Eisenstein. 
Generally brownish-red, passing on the one hand into cherry- 
red, on the other almost into steel-grey. There are three 
kinds 3 — 
( 1 .) Scaly Red Iron Ore. Ger. Roth Eisenrahm. 
Powdery 3 friable 5 greasy to the touch ; soiling the fingers 3 
sometimes massive ; sometimes as an incrustation on other 
Ores of this Species 3 very light. 
(2.) Compact Red Iron Ore. Ger. Dichter Roth-Eisenstein. 
Generally amorphous 3 sometimes crystallized in cubes, as at 
the Cape 3 soils the fingers and gives a blood-red streak. 
When earthy and friable it is called Red Ochre. (Ger. Roth- 
Eisenocher.J 
(3.) Fibrous Red Iron Ore. Haematite. Ger. Rotlier Glaskopf. 
Generally kidney-shaped, with mamillary surfaces and concho- 
idal scales 3 sometimes stalactitic or in wedge-shaped frag- 
ments, with radiated texture. Contains SO per Cent, of Iron. 
Used in the state of powder for polishing Steel. 

OF METALS. 
385 
9 . Brown Iron Ore. Ger. Braun-Eisenstein. 
Generally clove or hair-brown, passing on the one hand into 
yellow, on the other into black-brown. It usually contains 
Oxyde of Manganese. 
( 1 .) Compact Brown Iron Ore. Ger. Dichter Braun -Eisenstein. 
Usually amorphous 3 sometimes stalactic, &c. 3 sometimes 
crystallized in dodecahedrons with pentagonal planes (Tab. 2. 
fig. 4 .), and in cubes with the planes striated, as in Iron Pyrites 
(Tab. 2. fig. 2.) Sometimes also in petrifactions of incognita 
of the primitive world, as in the Screw-stone, near Riibeland, 
in the Hartz 3 the Fungite, &c. When amorphous, it passes 
into Spathose Iron and Iron-Clay-stone. 
As in the preceding Species, there is also Brown Iron Ochre, 
of which kind is the true or Turkish Umber. 
(2.) Fibrous Brown Iron Ore. Ger. Brauner Glaskopf. 
Except in colour, closely resembling the Red Haematite. The 
fracture sometimes fibrous, with silky lustre. 
10. Spathose Iron. Carbonate of Iron. Ger. Spath-Eisen- 
stein. Eisenspath. 
From yellowish-grey to brownish-black 3 sometimes translu- 
cent at the edges 3 frequently crystallized, and chiefly in 
rhombs or lenses 3 brittle 3 the fragments usually rhomboidal. 
Specific gravity 3784. Contents of a specimen from Danke- 
rode, Oxyde of Iron 57.5 3 Oxyde of Manganese 3.5 3 Lime 
1.5 3 Carbonic Acid 36. (Klaproth.) Passes into Brown Iron 
Ore. 
11. Clay Iron-stone. Ger. Thon-Eisenstein. 
Passing from yellowish into red-brown and black-brown 3 
sometimes, also, smoke-grey 3 generally earthy 5 soft 3 mea- 
gre 3 sometimes amorphous 3 but also in a variety of peculiar 
forms 5 sometimes with petrifactions belonging to the primi- 
tive world 5 for instance, with shells and impressions of plants 
(as in the Cat’s Heads from Colebrook-Dale, each of which 
incloses a small Fern). It generally contains a considerable 
quantity of Iron, sometimes 40 per Cent. 
Among the most remarkable Varieties are — 
(a.) Columnar Clay Iron-stone. Ger. Nagelerz. 
Red -brown ; in distinct columnar portions ; sometimes resem- 
bling Prismatic Basalt in miniature. Probably of pseudo-vol- 
canic origin. Found particularly near Floschenitz, in Bohemia. 
(b.) Geodic Clay Iron-stone. Ger. Eisen-niere. 
Generally yellowish-brown 3 reniforin ; sometimes with con- 

386 
OF METALS*. 
choidal exfoliations ; usually hollow, and often including loose 
rattling fragments ; sometimes compact, globular *. 
(c.) Pisiform Clay Iron-stone. Ger. Bohnerz. 
Commonly dark-brown ; with greasy lustre ; in large grains 
with rounded angles ; sometimes compressed, rounded ; such 
for instance, is the Variety in large round beans, from the 
Cape. 
(d.) Lenticular Clay Iron-stone. Ger. Linsenerz. 
In small aggregated grains, sometimes almost like a loose 
Roe-stone. 
1 < 2 . Bog Iron Ore. Ger. Rasen-Eisenstein. 
Yellowish-brown, sometimes passing into blackish ; dull, or 
with greasy lustre 5 usually aggregated in loose fragments ; 
earthy; sometimes in a variety of peculiar forms, tabular, &c.; 
sometimes inclosing vegetables of recent origin, mosses, root- 
fibres, &c. Contains as much as 35 per Cent, of Iron, proba- 
bly combined with Phosphoric Acid. Found under the vege- 
table mould, in alluvial lands and mosses. 
13. Phosphate of Iron. Ger. Eisenblau. 
(1.) Foliated. 
Usually indigo-blue ; translucent ; foliated ; the fracture with 
vitreous lustre ; soft ; sometimes crystallized in small four- 
sided prisms. The latter is found near Bodenmais, in Bavaria f. 
(2.) Earthy. 
At first whitish ; but when exposed to the air, blue in various 
shades ; earthy, powdery, or aggregated ; soiling ; meagre. 
Contents of that from Eckardsberg, Oxyde of Iron 47-5 ; 
Phosphoric Acid 32 ; Water 20. (Klaproth.) Found on the 
banks of the Stecknitz, in Hanover, and also in the Fossil 
drift-wood, near Stade. 
19. Green Iron Ore. Ger. Grun Eisenerde. 
Generally canary-green ; earthy, friable, soiling 3 rarely indu- 
rated. Its composition not yet completely known. Found 
near Schneeberg, in the Erzgebirge. 
15. Arseniate of Iron, Ger. Wiirfelerz. 
Olive-green 3 transparent; with greasy lustre; soft; in small 
* Such are the masses found at Aberlady, in Lothian, as large as a 
man’s head, and traversed by septa of Pearl Spar, which have become 
celebrated by Hutton’s Theory of the Earth. See Faujas Saint-Fond, 
Voyage en Angleterre. T. 1. p. 124. 
•f- See Hausmann, in Denkschr. der K. Ahad. der 1! issensch. ztt 
Milnchen. B. 7. Ahth 2. S. 233. 

OF METALS. 387 
cubic crystals with many variations. Generally from brown 
Iron Ore, at Carharrack, in Cornwall. 
L6. Pitchy Iron Ore. Ger. Eisenpecherz. 
Commonly dark liver-brown, and fire-red at the angles ; trans- 
lucent ; lustre pitchy j fracture conchoidal ; streak citron-yel- 
low. Specific gravity 2407- Contents, Oxyde of Iron 33.46 ; 
Oxyde of Manganese 0.59 ; Arsenic Acid 26.6 ; Sulphuric Acid 
10.75 ; Water 2S.48. (Stromeyer.) Found near Freyberg, 
and in Upper Silesia. 
VII. LEAD. 
Lead when exposed to the air becomes black ; and when rub- 
bed gives a stain and emits a peculiar smell. It is the softest 
of the perfect Metals 5 is flexible, but not very extensible, and 
but slightly tenacious. Specific gravity 11.352. It melts be- 
low a red heat 5 burns readily into an Oxyde ; vitrifies gradu- 
ally at an elevated temperature ; and is soluble in all acids, com- 
municating a sweetish taste to them. It is used in making 
ball and shot, types, covering roofs, for pipes, in mining and 
assaying, and for many dyes. 
1. Galena. Sulphuret of Lead. Ger. Bleyglanz. 
Lead-grey, sometimes with an iridescent tarnish 5 generally 
amorphous, with vivid metallic lustre; sometimes cellular, 
dendritic, reticulated*, &c. ; very commonly crystallized, and 
usually in cubes ; rarely in double four-sided pyramids, or six- 
sided prisms ; all these forms occurring in many Varieties. It 
is found in cubical fragments 3 has usually a foliated structure, 
with a more or less coarse grain. Mean specific gravity 7290. 
Contents variable 5 for instance. Lead 77 ; Sulphur 20 5 with 
always more or less Silver, and also Antimony in the Striated 
Lead Ore. It is one of the most common Ores. 
The Compact Galena. Ger. Bleyschweif, is more steel-grey, 
glimmering, softer, more soiling, and always amorphous. It 
is found, among other places, near Clausthal, and in Derby- 
shire f. 
* A specimen of reticulated Galena, from the Island of Ila, presented to 
me by Dr. Crichton, exceeds in elegance every thing of the fossil kind 
that I have seen in that form. 
t n.c celebrated Slickensides, of the Derbyshire mines, consists of the 
mirror-like surfaces of the Compact Fluor found there, covered with a thin 
lead-coloured layer, consisting of Galena with phosphorctted Hydrogen. In 
breaking it, the access of atmospheric air often gives rise to violent and 
C c 2 

OF METALS. 
388 
2. Black Lead Ore. Ger. Schwarz Bleyerz. 
Greyish-black ; sometimes translucent ; streak greyish-white ; 
lustre peculiar, almost metallic ; usually crystallized in small 
six-sided prisms. Found, among other places, near Freyberg, 
containing 60 per Cent, of Lead. 
3. Carbonate of Lead. Ger. Weiss Bleyerz. 
From snow-white to yellowish- grey ; more or less translucent ; 
usually with adamantine lustre ; as well amorphous as crystal- 
lized in acicular or four and six-sided prisms. Contents, Lead 
80.25; CarbonicAcid 10; Iron 0.18 ; Alumina 0.75; Lime 0.5, 
(Westrumb.) Found chiefly near Zellerfeld, on the Hartz. 
4. Earthy Carbonate of Lead. Ger. Bleyerde. 
Sometimes powdery ; sometimes aggregated, but friable ; in 
three colours, viz. sulphur-yellow, as at Lead Hills, in Scot- 
land ; whitish-grey, as at Zellerfeld, on the Hartz ; and brown- 
ish-red, as in the district of Julich. 
5. Phosphate of Lead. Ger. Grim Bleyerz. 
Generally canary-green in a variety of shades and transitions ; 
sometimes clove-brown, &c. ; translucent ; with greasy lustre ; 
usually crystallized, particularly in six-sided prisms. Specific 
gravity 6270. Contents of a specimen from Tschopau, Oxyde 
of Lead 78.4; Phosphoric Acid 18.37; Muriatic Acid 1.7; 
Oxyde of Iron 0.1 . (Klaproth.) Found also near Clausthal, 
near Whnlock. Head, in Scotland, and near Beresofsk in the 
district of Catharinburg ; the latter, according to Vauquelin, 
also containing Oxyde of Chromium. 
6. Chromate of Lead. Ger. Roth Bleyerz. 
Aurora-red, passing into Hyacinth-red : translucent ; shining ; 
usually crystallized, particularly in four-sided prisms, with 
many varieties ; streak yellow r . Specific gravity 6026. Con- 
tents, Oxyde of Lead 63.96 ; Chromic Acid 36.40. (Vauquelin.) 
Found in Sandstone at Beresofsk, near Catharinburg. 
7. Molybdate of Lead. Ger. Gelb Bleyerz. 
Usually wax- yellow ; slightly translucent ; with greasy lustre ; 
generally crystallized, particularly in four-sided tables. Con- 
tents, Oxyde of Lead 64.42 ; Oxyde of Molybdenum 34.25. 
(Klaproth.) Found chiefly at Blevberg, in Carinthia. 
8. Sulphate of Lead. Ger. Vitriol Bleyerz. 
Rarely limpid and transparent ; commonly translucent and 
even fatal explosions.— See W. Jones’s Physiological Disquisitions. Lou- 
don, 1781. 

OF METALS. 
389 
yellowish, apple-green, &c. Lustre vitreous, sometimes ada- 
mantine 3 fracture conchoidal 3 ordinarily crystallized in double 
four-sided pyramids 3 sometimes in rhomboids, &c. Specific 
gravity 6300. Contents, Oxyde of Lead 73 3 Sulphuric Acid 
with some Oxyde of Iron and Manganese 26. (Stromeyer.) 
Found at Zellerfeld, and in the Isle of Anglesea. 
VIII. TIN. 
Tin is very flexible and extensible, but not tenacious. It grates 
between the teeth, and makes a peculiar noise when bent 3 
when rubbed or heated it emits a peculiar smell. Specific gra- 
vity 7S57- It readily becomes oxydated (Flowers of Tin) 3 is 
soluble in Aqua Regia 3 is found only in a few parts of the 
World, but there in large quantity. It is used, among other 
purposes, for silvering paper, making Bell-metal, gun-metal, 
for dyeing scarlet, &c. 
1. Tin Pyrites. Ger. Zinnkies. 
From Steel-grey to bronze-yellow 3 with metallic lustre 5 
brittle ; amorphous. Specific gravity 4350. Contents, Tin 
26.5 ; Copper 30 5 Iron 12 j Sulphur 30.5. (Klaproth.) 
Found only at St. Agnes, in Cornwall. 
2. Oxyde of Tin. Ger. Zinnstein. 
Brown, passing on one hand into black, on the other into hya- 
cinth-yellow and yellowish-grev 3 sometimes translucent or 
almost transparent, as in the Rosin Tin from Cornwall ; some- 
times amorphous or in rolled masses, ( Stream Tin) from 
Stream- works* 5 but very commonly crystallized in short 
four-sided prisms terminated by four-sided pyramids, and often 
in twin-crystals. Mean specific gravity 6900. It contains as 
much as 80 per Cent, of Tin. Found in the Saxon and Bohe- 
mian Erzgebirge, Cornwall, Malacca, Banca, &c. 
3. Wood Tin. Ger. Holz-Zinn. Cornisches Zinnerz. . 
Wood-brown, hair-brown, &.c. 3 opaque 3 fibrous divergent on 
the fracture 3 in small reniform masses with concentric exfo- 
liating layers 3 or in wedge-shaped fragments 3 hard enough to 
* Stream-works form a particular mode of mining in valleys placed be- 
tween mountains containing veins, often filled to the depth of several fa- 
thoms with fragments and rounded masses, torn from these mountains and 
their veins. Those at Eibenstock, in the Erzgebirge, and near St. Austel, 
&c. in Cornwall, are very rich in Tin Ores. For an accouut of the former 
see Cmarpen'tikr’s Mineral. Geogr. der Churssilchs. Lande. s. 270. and of 
the latter Das liergmUnn. Journal. J. 3. 13. 2. S. 143. 

390 
OF METALS. 
strike sparks with steel. Specific gravity 6450. According 
to Klaproth, contains 63.3 per Cent, of Tin. Found at Ga- 
vrigan in Cornwall. 
IX. ZINC. 
The colour of Zinc is intermediate between Lead and Tin 3 its 
fracture is angular and with broad fibres ; its extensibility 
considerable. Specific gravity 7190. It melts below its red- 
heat, and burns in the open fire with a bluish-green flame. 
It is soluble in all Acids, without communicating any colour to 
them. Its most important use is to make Brass. 
1 . Blende. Sulphuret of Zinc. Ger. Blende. 
Brown, passing on the one hand into black-brown, on the 
other into yellow ; sometimes also into red and green j hence 
the names of Pitch Blende, Ruby Blende, &c. j more or less 
translucent 3 with various degrees of lustre 3 commonly amor- 
phous, but also crystallized in three-sided or double four-sided 
pyramids, & c. 3 fracture spathose 3 many varieties, when rub- 
bed, emit a sulphureous smell 5 others are phosphorescent 
when scratched with iron in the dark. Mean specific gravity 
4000. It contains from 44 to 64 per Cent, of Zinc combined 
with Sulphur 3 also more or less Iron 3 sometimes also Gold 
and Silver, and Galena, as in the Brown Ore from the Ram- 
melsberg. It is a very generally diffused Ore. 
2. Carbonate of Zinc. Calamine. Ger. Calmey. 
Commonly lead-grey, passing by many gradations into yel- 
lowish-brown 5 sometimes opaque ; at others more or less 
translucent 3 usually amorphous, and as well earthy as mas- 
sive 3 sometimes as though melted, botryoidal, reniform, or 
perforated, corroded, & c. 3 sometimes crystallized, chiefly in 
four-sided tables, as in Carinthia and the Altai Mountains 5 
sometimes pseudo-morphous, as in Flintshire 5 when amor- 
phous, sometimes in entire strata, as at Olkutschk, in Poland. 
X. BISMUTH. 
The colour of Bismuth passes from silver-white to reddish ; 
its structure foliated ; brittle. Specific gravity 9S22 3 melts 
below its red-heat *3 is precipitated by water from its solu- 
* Bismuth, with half its quantity of Tin and of Lead, forms the fusible 
metal, which melts iu hoiling water. 

OF METALS. 
391 
tion in Nitric Acid in the form of white Oxyde. It is not very 
abundant in general. Used, among other things, in soldering. 
1. Native. 
Commonly with an iridescent tarnish 3 usually amorphous ; 
sometimes reticulated 3 rarely crystallized in small cubes, &c. 3 
fracture foliated. Found more commonly than the two fol- 
lowing Species, and with them, chiefly in the Saxon and Bohe- 
mian Erzgebirge. 
2. Sulphuret of Bismuth. Ger. Wismuthglanz. 
Lead-grey 5 generally with a yellowish tarnish 3 fracture fo- 
liated, sometimes fibrous ; commonly amorphous ; rarely in 
acicular crystals attached throughout their length 3 or capil- 
lary 3 very soft 3 sectile 3 burns on coals with a sulphureous 
flame. Contents, according to Sage, 60 per Cent, of Bismuth 
combined with Sulphur ; some Iron, Arsenic, &c. 
3. Plumbo-cupriferous Sulphuret of Bismuth. Ger. Nadelerz. 
Steel-grey with a yellow tarnish 3 lustre metallic 3 fracture fine 
granular. Contents, Bismuth 43.2 ; with Lead, Copper, Sul- 
phur, &c. (John.) Usually in acicular crystals attached to 
Milk Quartz 3 sometimes with native Gold. Found near Ca- 
tharinburg. 
4 . Bismuth Ochre. Oxyde of Bismuth. Ger. Wismuthocher. 
Yellowish, passing into greenish or grey ; generally earthy 3 
superficial or dispersed. 
XI. ANTIMONY. 
The colour of Antimony is intermediate between Tin-white 
and Silver-white 5 its texture foliated, radiated ; brittle. Spe- 
cific gravity 6702. It readily melts 3 volatilizes with conti- 
nued heat 3 is imperfectly soluble in Acids 5 and is precipitated 
by Alkalies from its Nitro-muriatic solution. It is employed 
to impart hardness to the softer Metals, for printing types, & c. 
1 . Native. 
Commonly tin-white 5 the fracture sometimes granular 3 some- 
times foliated or conchoidal. Found near Andreasberg. Con- 
tents, Antimony 98 ; Silver 1 ; Tron 0.25. (Klaproth.) 
2 . Grey Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Ger. Grau 
Spiessglaserz. 
Lead-grey, Steel-grey, 8 cc. ; sometimes amorphous, and as 
well compact as foliated 3 more commonly radiated in acicular 
crystals ; sometimes also in larger four or six-sided prisms. 
It melts and burns with a blue flame. Specific gravity 4200. 

392 
OF METALS. 
It contains from 70 to 80 per Cent, of Antimony, and 20 or 30 
of Sulphur. Found particularly in Hungary and Transylvania. 
The Plumose Sulphuret of Antimony. Ger. Federerz, of greyish 
black or lead-grey colour, consists of delicate or capillary 
fibres of this ore; sometimes containing Silver. It is found at 
St. Andreasberg, and near Naggybanya in Transylvania. 
3. Nickeliferous Antimonial Ore. Ger. Nickelspiessglaserz. 
From lead-grey to tin-white j perfectly lamellar; glittering; 
semi-hard ; fracture uneven. Specific gravity 6546. Con- 
tents, Antimony 47-75 ; Nickel 25.25; Arsenic 11.75 ; Sulphur 
15.25. (Klaproth.) Found in Nassau. 
4. Red Antimony. Ger. Roth Spiessglaserz. 
Cherry-red, with a kind of metallic lustre 5 amorphous, or in 
acicular fibrous crystals, which are sometimes aggregated in a 
radiated manner. Specific gravity 4090. Contents, Anti- 
mony 67-5 ; Oxygen 10.8 ; Sulphur 19. 7. (Klaproth.) Found 
at Braunsdorf, near Freyberg, and in Hungary. 
A peculiar foliated Variety. Ger. Zundererz, is found near 
Clausthal in drusy cavities, incrusting Quartz, Galena, &c. 
5. White Antimony. Oxyde of Antimony. Ger. Weiss Spiess- 
glaserz. 
Passing from white into yellowish or grey ; usually with na- 
creous lustre, and in acicular crystals aggregated in a radiated 
manner. In external characters, and according to Klaproth, 
in composition, it resembles the artificially prepared Oxyde of 
Antimony. It is found near Malaczka in Transylvania, and 
Przibram, in Bohemia. 
6. Antimonial Ochre. Ger. Spiessglasocher. 
Usually citron-yellow ; earthy; friably. Found near Freyberg, 
and in Hungary, usually on radiated Grey Antimony. 
XII. COBALT. 
Cobalt* is almost of an iron-colour, tending to steel-grey and 
a little to red. Its Nitro-muriatic solution forms the sympa- 
thetic ink. Specific gravity 7811. It is very difficult of fu- 
sion, and when pure, is magnetic. When roasted it forms a 
black powder, which combined with vitreous substances, forms 
Smalt, so valuable as a blue dye. 
1. Tin-white Cobalt. Ger. Weisser Speiskobalt. 
* Probably from the Bohemian word Kowalty, containing Mineral Sub- 
stances. 

OF METALS. 
393 
Tin-white ; amorphous, reticulated or dendritic ; not uncom- 
monly crystallized, and mostly in cubes with many varieties ; 
less hard than the following Species. Contents, Cobalt 20.3 ; 
Arsenic 74.2 ; Iron 3.4. (Stromeyer.) Found at Gliicksbrunn, 
in Gotha, Riegelsdorf, in Hesse, &c. 
2. Grey Cobalt. Ger. Grauerspeiskobalt. 
Light steel-grey ; usually amorphous ; sometimes with smooth 
reflecting surfaces, or reticulated ; fracture resembling that of 
English Steel ; very hard ; in addition to Cobalt, contains 
Arsenic and Iron, Found in the Saxon and Bohemian Erzge- 
birge. 
3. Bright White Cobalt. Ger. Glanzkobalt. 
Tin-white passing into pale red ; usually amorphous ; some- 
times reniform or in small indistinct crystals. Contents, Co- 
balt 33.1 5 Arsenic 43.4 ; Iron 3.2 ; Sulphur 20. (Stromeyer.) 
Found in a few places only, as Christiana, in Norway. 
4. Black Earthy Cobalt. Ger. Schwarzer Erdkobalt. 
Black, passing into slate-blue or brownish j sometimes pow- 
dery and friable ; sometimes indurated, botryoidal, reniform, 
conchoidal, &c.$ dull or glimmering; glittering when scratch- 
ed ; light ; probably containing Carbonic Acid. Found in the 
same places with the first Species. 
5. Brown Earthy Cobalt. Ger. Brauner Erdkobalt. 
Passing from liver-brown by many shades into yellowish-grey. 
Amorphous, earthy, soft ; streak with greasy lustre. Found 
particularly in the country of Saalfeld. 
6. Red Cobalt. Ger. Rother Erdkobalt. 
Peach-blossom-red, fading when exposed to the air ; either 
amorphous, earthy, dull ; or in acicular, satin-like, translucent, 
glittering crystals ; sometimes aggregated in a radiated manner. 
Contents of the latter from Riegelsdorf, Oxyde of Cobalt 39 ; 
Arsenic Acid 38 j Water 23. (Bucholz.) Found near Schnee- 
berg, in the Erzgebirge. 
XIII. NICKEL. 
The cokmr of Nickel is greyish-white, passing into pale-red ; 
it is very hard ; very difficult of fusion ; and when pure, mag- 
netic. It is soluble in Nitric Acid, and gives a green colour to 
the solution ; its Oxyde gives a blue colour to liquid Ammo- 
nia. Specific gravity— 7807. It enters into the composition 
of the Chinese Packsong. 

394 
OF METALS. 
1 . Native*. Ger. Haarkies. 
From steel-grey to bronze yellow 3 in distinct capillary crys- 
tals. Besides Nickel, it contains, according to Klaproth, a 
small quantity of Cobalt and Arsenic. Found in drusy cavities 
in Hornstone, at Johanngeorgenstadt. 
2. Copper Nickel. Ger. Kupfernickel. 
Generally pale copper-red 3 amorphous ; fracture obtusely an- 
gular, in facets, rarely radiated as at Riegelsdorf, in Hesse. 
Specific gravity 7560. Contents, Nickel, 44.2 3 Arsenic 54.7 ; 
with some Iron, Lead, and Sulphur. (Stromeyer.) Found 
commonly near White Cobalt. 
3 . Arseniate of Nickel. Ger. Nickelocher. 
Apple-green ; usually friable ; rarely indurated, as at Regels- 
dorf ; meagre 3 soiling 3 usually as an incrustation, and near 
Copper Nickel. Contents, Oxyde of Nickel 37-35 3 Oxyde of 
Iron 1.13 j Arsenic Acid 36.97 5 Water 24.32. (Stromeyer.) 
It has been already mentioned that it communicates its colour 
to Chrysoprase, and also that Oxyde of Nickel is found in 
^Erolites, and in the Olivine-like Fossil contained in Native 
Iron. 
XIV. MANGANESE. 
Manganese is steel-grey, very hard, brittle, and difficult of 
fusion. Specific gravity 6850. It readily combines with Iron. 
It has a stronger affinity for Oxygen than any other Metal, so 
that it speedily becomes oxydated in the open air, forming a 
black powder : it is very generally diffused, and is found 
even in the vegetable creation. It is employed chiefly in the 
manufacture of white glass, and for procuring Oxygen, Oxy- 
muriatic Acid, &c. 
1 . Sulphuret of Manganese. Ger. Braunsteinblende. 
Iron-black, sometimes passing into brown 3 opaque j glitter- 
ing 3 fracture uneven j small granular 3 dull-glimmering 5 semi- 
hard 3 brittle. Specific gravity 3950. Contents, Manganese S2 3 
Sulphur 1 1 ; Carbonic Acid 5. (Klaproth.) Found parti- 
cularly with the red Manganese Ore of Transylvania. 
2. Grey Oxyde of Manganese. Ger. Grau Braunsteinerz. 
Steel-grey, passing into Iron-black 3 lustre metallic, more 01 
less vivid 3 sometimes amorphous, but commonly radiated, 
* Native Nickel is intermixed in small proportion in Native Iron ; ac- 
cording to Howard, 17 per Cent, in the Siberian, and 10 per Cent, in the 
South American. 

OF METALS. 
395 
and with intersecting- fibres ; sometimes in acicular crystals or 
in tour-sided prisms Avith the extremities acuminated or 
pointed. The radiated kind is found near Ilfeld, in the Hartz. 
It contains, Black Oxyde of Manganese 90.5; Oxygen Gas 
2.25 ; Water 7- (Klaproth.) 
3. Black Oxyde of Manganese. Ger. Schwartz Braunstei- 
nerz. 
Brownish-black, iron-black, &c. ; fine earthy; very soft; 
soiling; sometimes powdery, sooty; as in the Black Wadd 
ot Derbyshire, which inflames when rubbed with oil, and is 
commonly used as a black oil-colour ; sometimes indurated, 
reniform, or bush-shaped ; sometimes scoriform, as in that 
torm Caska, in the Banat. Contents of a specimen from 
Clausthal in the Hartz, Oxyde of Manganese 68 ; Oxyde of 
Iron 6.5 ; Silex 8 ; Barytes 1; Carbon 1 ; Water 17.5. (Kla- 
proth.) Most of the black dendritic marks in various stones 
depend upon the presence of this substance. 
4. Siliciferous Oxyde of Manganese. Ger. Roth Braunstei- 
nerz. 
Rose-red in various shades ; fracture sometimes compact, 
sometimes foliated; dull or glittering; more or less hard. 
Composed, according to Klaproth, of Oxyde of Manganese 
with traces of silex. Found enclosing Gold and Tellurium at 
Navgag and Kapnick, in 1 ransylvania, and Catharinburg" in 
Siberia. 
XV. ARSENIC. 
The colour of Arsenic is between Tin-white and Lead-grey ; 
its fracture scaly and foliated. Specific gravity S308. It is 
one of the most volatile metals. It dissipates in the fire with 
a thick white vapour, having a garlic smell, and giving a white 
colour to Copper. Its Oxyde forms a peculiar Acid, and is 
soluble in water. 
1. Native. 
Light lead-grey, in the air becoming first yellowish, then tom- 
bac-brow n, and at last black ; commonly reniform, or with 
conchoidal exfoliations; very rarely reticulated, dendritic, 
&c. ; sonorous in the small lamellse; usually containing Iron. 
Found at St. Andreasberg, in the Hartz. 
2. Arsenical Iron. Mispickel. Ger. Arsenikkies. 
from silver-white to tin-white; often tarnished ; usually 
amorphous, and as well massive as disseminated ; sometimes 

396 
OF METALS. 
crystallized, chiefly in four-sided prisms ; hard j when rubbed 
or struck gives out a strong garlic smell. Contents of the 
crystallized kind from Freyberg, Arsenic 42.88 ; Iron 36.04 ; 
Sulphur 21.08. (Stromeyer.) 
3. Sulphuret of Arsenic. Ger. Rauschgelb. 
Of this there are two principal kinds. 
(1.) Orpiment. Ger. Gelbes Rauschgelb. 
Usually citron-yellow ; translucent ; sometimes almost like 
Talc in appearance, and with nearly metallic lustre ; foliated ; 
soft ; flexible ; usually amorphous ; sometimes crystallized, 
particularly in small four- sided, indistinct, and aggregated 
prisms. Specific gravity 3313. Contents, Arsenic 62 ; Sul- 
phur 38. (Klaproth.) Found particularly in Transylvania 
and the Bannat. 
(2.) Realgar. Ger. Rothes Rauschgelb. 
Aurora- red 5 translucent with vitreous lustre; streak yellow ; 
commonly crystallized in small four or six-sided prisms 5 
sometimes also incrusting other Fossils, as at St. Andreasberg, 
on Calcareous Spar and the drusy cavities of Zeolite. Specific 
gravity 3225. Contents, Arsenic 69 ; Sulphur 31. (Klaproth.) 
Found on Vesuvius and in Transylvania. 
4. Oxyde of Arsenic. Ger. Arsenikbliithe. 
Usually milk-white ; sometimes dusty ; small botryoidal or in 
translucent, capillary crystals with silky lustre, and aggregated 
in a bushy form. Soluble in Water. Composed only of Arsenic 
and Oxygen. On the contrary, the Pharmacolite, closely re- 
sembling it in external characters, and therefore formerly con- 
founded with it ; contains. Arsenic Acid 45.68 ; Water 23.86 ; 
Lime 27-28, (John,) and is soluble in Nitric Acid, but not in 
water. Both kinds are found at St. Andreasberg in the Hartz, 
and the latter particularly at Riegelsdorf, in Hesse, and W lt- 
tiehen, in the principality of Furstenberg. 
XVI. MOLYBDENUM. 
Molybdenum is almost steel-grey, very brittle, and not parti- 
cularly hard. Specific gravity 6963. Its Oxyde forms a pe- 
culiar Acid. 
1. Sulphuret of Molybdenum. Ger. Wasserbley. 
This Ore, which is often confounded with Graphite, is lead- 
grev ; lustre metallic ; texture usually curved lamellar ; 
greasy to the touch ; soft; soiling; in small lamellae flexible. 
Specific gravity 4738. Contents, Oxyde of Molybdenum 60 ; 

OF METALS. 
397 
Sulphur 40. (Klaproth.) Found in a few places only, but 
in distant parts of the world 3 particularly near Altenberg in 
the Erzgebirge, Kolvwan, and in Siberia. 
XVII. TUNGSTEN. 
The colour and Specific gravity of Tungsten have been 
variously stated. It is very difficult of fusion. Its Oxyde con- 
stitutes a distinct Acid, and forms a peculiar neutral salt with 
Ammonia. 
1. Tungsten. Tungstate of Lime. Ger. Schwerstein. 
Commonly milk-white or yellowish-white 3 translucent 3 lus- 
tre greasy 3 fracture almost conchoidal ; amorphous, or crys- 
tallized in double four-sided pyramids. Specific gravity 6066. 
Contents, Tungstic Acid 77.75 ; Lime 17.6 3 Silex 3. (Kla- 
proth.) Found at Schlackenwald, in Bohemia. 
2. Wolfram. Tungstate of Iron. 
Brownish-black 3 streak rusty 3 lustre dull 3 fracture foliated 
amorphous, or crystallized in flat six-sided prisms, and four- 
sided Tables. Specific gravity 7130. Contents, Tungstic 
Acid with Iron and some Manganese. Found in the Erzge- 
birge, and abundant at Dolcoath, in Cornwall. Together with 
Tungsten it usually occurs near Tin-stone, 
XVIII. URANIUM. 
Uranium, discovered in 1789 by Klaproth, is dark-grey, 
with dull, metallic lustre 3 soft 3 brittle. Specific gravity 6440. 
It is very difficult of fusion 3 is soluble in Nitric and Nitro- 
Muriatic Acids, and is precipitated from them by Water, in 
the form of a yellow Oxyde, which communicates a clear- 
brown colour to glass. 
1. Pitch-blende. Ger. Pecherz. Pechblende. 
Brownish-black 3 opaque 3 with greasy lustre 5 brittle. Spe- 
cific gravity 7500. Composed of Uranium and Sulphur. Found 
with the following Species in the Saxon and Bohemian Erz- 
gebirge. 
2. U ran-mica. Uranite Ger. Uranglimmer. 
Irom grass-green to verdigris-green, canary-green, &c. j 
translucent 3 sometimes earthy, friable, dull 5 at others, 
shining, compact, crystallized in four-sided tables. Contents, 
Uranium combined with Carbonic Acid, and some Copper. 
3. Uran-ochre. Ger. Uranocher. 

398 
OF METALS. 
Commonly citron-yellow ; opaque ; earthy ; soft ; meagre ; 
soluble in Nitric Acid. Found upon, and in, Pitch-blende. 
XIX. TITANIUM. 
Titanium was detected in the Menaccanite by W. Gkegor, in 
1791, and the discovery perfected by Klaproth in 1795. Its 
colour is like that of Copper ; it takes a good polish ; is 
brittle ; very difficult of fusion ; has a great affinity for Oxy- 
gen •, is readily soluble in Nitric, Muriatic and Sulphuric 
Acids ; these solutions give a white precipitate with Alkalies, 
and a Kermes-brown one with decoction of Galls : it is not 
affected, however, by Acids, either in the dry or humid 
way. 
1. Anatase. Octahedrite. 
Indigo-blue; translucent ; lustre almost metallic ; crystallized 
in small elongated octahedrons. Specific gravity 3857- Found 
near l’Ossians, in Dauphine. 
2. Titanite. Ger. Titan- Schorl. 
Brown-red; sometimes with almost metallic lustre; usually aci- 
cular ; chiefly in Rock-crystal and common Quartz ; sometimes 
in larger four-sided, columnar crystals striated longitudinally ; 
particularly near Roinik in Hungary, in a compound of Mica- 
Slate and milk-white Quartz. Nigrine, which is nearly related 
to it, found in obtuse-angled grains and small layers in the 
Gold Stream-works near Olalipian, in Transylvania, and con- 
tains Oxyde of Titanium 84 ; Oxyde of Iron 14 ; Oxyde of 
Manganese 2. (Klaproth.) 
3. Sphene. Ger. Titan-Spath. 
Clove-brown ; somewhat translucent ; with greasy lustre ; 
crystallized in short four-sided lentiform prisms, compressed 
and wedge-shaped at each extremity. Sometimes in complete 
cross-crystals, from St. Gothard. Contents, Oxyde of Tita- 
nium 58; Silex 22; Lime 20. (Abildgaare.) Found at 
Passau, in a rock composed of Felspar, Quartz, Hornblende, 
&c. ; and near Arendal (Norway) in Quartz. 
4. Menaccanite. Ger. Titan-sand. 
Black j opaque ; with dull lustre ; in small irregularly angular 
grains; at first sight resembling coarse gunpowder; sometimes 
magnetic. Specific gravity 4427- Contents, Oxyde of Tita- 
nium 45.25 ; Oxyde of Iron 51 ; Oxyde of Manganese 0.25 ; 
Silex 3.5. (Klaproth.) Found in the river-sand near Menac- 
can in Cornwall, and on Providence Island, near Botany Bay. 

OF METALS. 
399 
Iserine , a similar Titan-sand from Isergrund in Bohemia, con- 
tains, according to Klaproth, Oxyde of Titanium 28 ; Oxyde 
of Iron 72. 
XX. TELLURIUM. 
Tellurium, the peculiar metallic nature of which was dis- 
covered by Muller, of Reichenstein, and confirmed by 
Klaproth, is, in colour, between lead-grey and tin-white ; its 
lustre metallic ; fracture foliated ; it is very brittle, and easily 
fusible. Its Specific gravity is only G115 ; consequently it is 
one of the lightest Metals. 
1. Native. Aurum problematicum. 
Colour, lustre and fracture as above. Contents, Tellurium 92 5 
Iron and a little Gold 7 . (Klaproth.) Usually interspersed 
in the grey hornstone-like Quartz of Fatzebay, in Transylvania. 
2. Graphic Tellurium. Graphic Gold. Ger. Schrifterz. 
Tin-'white; soiling; in small prismatic or tabular crystals, 
which are usually attached by one of their planes. Contents, 
Tellurium 60; Gold 30; Silver 10. (Klaproth.) Found in 
Quartz and Porphyry at OfFenbanya, in Transylvania. 
3. Black Tellurium. Ger. Blattererz. Naygagererz. 
Lead-grey ; commonly with foliated texture ; soft ; somewhat 
soiling and flexible. Contents, Tellurium 32.2 ; Lead 54 ; 
Gold 9; Silver and Copper 1 . 8 ; Sulphur 3 . (Klaproth.) 
Found near Naygag, in Transylvania, in Quartz and red Man- 
ganese. 
XXI. CHROMIUM. 
Chromium, discovered at the same time (1797) by Klaproth 
and Vauquelin, is almost lead-grey, brittle, very hard, and 
difficult of fusion. Its Oxyde composes a peculiar Acid. 
1. Oxyde of Chrome. Ger, Chromocher. 
Apple-green ; earthy ; streak greenish-grey ; intermixed with 
Quartz. Found in the Department of Same et Loire, usually 
in a kind of Breccia. 1 
XXII. TANTALUM. 
fins Metal was discovered by Ekeberg, in 1802, and is of 
a blackish-grey colour : it is soluble in Alkalies, but not in 
Acids. 
1. Tantalite. 
Iron-black; with almost metallic lustre; fracture compact; 
an ’ In CT > stal3 33 * ar £ e as a hazel-nut, apparently octahe- 

OF METALS. 
400 
(Irons. Specific gravity 7953. It contains, according to 
Ekeberg and Wollaston, Oxydes of Tantalum, Iron and 
Manganese. Found in Bavaria, in Finland, in a granitic rock, 
and at Massachusetts Bay, North America. ( Columbite .) 
2. Yttro-Tantalite. 
Resembling the preceding in its external characters, but con- 
taining Oxyde of Tantalum 45 ; Yttria and Oxyde of Iron 55. 
(Vauquelin.) Found at Ytterby. 
XXIII. CERIUM. 
Discovered by Hisinger and Berzelius, in 1804. Greyish- 
white ; with foliated texture ; soluble in Aqua Regia, and vo- 
latilized by a strong heat. 
1. Cerite, Ochroite. 
Red-brown, sometimes passing into yellow ; dull-glimmering 
fracture splintery; semi-hard; brittle. Specific gravity 4733. 
Contents, Oxyde of Cerium 67 ; Silex 17-5 ; Lime 2 j Oxyde 
of Iron 2 ; Water and Carbonic Acid 2. (Vauquelin.) hound 
near Ritterhiitte, in Westmannland. 
2. Allanite. . , 
Black-brown ; opaque ; lustre pitchy ; sometimes crystallized 
in four-sided prisms ; semi-hard. Specific gravity 3500. Con- 
tents, Oxyde of Cerium 33-9 ; Silex 35.4 ; Lime 9.2 j Alu- 
mina 4,1 ; Oxyde of Iron 25.4. (Thomson.) Found m Green- 
land, in a compound of Granite and Gneiss : one of the many re- 
markable Fossils with which Science has been enriched by the 
estimable Sir C. L. Giesecke, during his residence ot nearly 
eight years in that country. 
XXIV. IRIDIUM. 
Discovered by Ttwar. to 1803. Silver-white ; very hard; 
brittle and difficult of fusion ; it is not attacked by pure Acid, 
and but slightly by Aqua Regia, it > is soluble in toe , itad 
Alkalies, and communicates a blue and red colour to them. 
Viz., combined with Osmium only in separate 
crude Platina, and also in the same manner with the seven 
other Metals. (See Platina.) 
XXV. PALLADIUM. 
Also discovered in 1803, by Chevenix and Wollastou. Inght 
steel-grey, passing into silver-white ; texture fibrous. spe 
jfic gravity 1 1300. Its solution in Nitric Acid is red. 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
401 
1 . Native. 
Combined with Iridium ; and also in single grains with it in 
Native Platina. 
XXVI. CADMIUM. 
First discovered in ISIS, by Stromeyer, among Sulphuret of 
Zinc : it is almost tin-white ; very soft 3 flexible, but tena- 
cious 3 it soils the fingers considerably 3 is very fusible ; volati- 
lizes with heat as readily as Quicksilver. Specific gravity 8604. 
( Gotting . Gelehrt. Anzeig. 1818. S. 1521.) 
SECT. XVII. 
OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
§ 261. Oryctology, or the Doctrine of Petrifactions, in a 
strict sense, and when properly considered and applied, forms 
a very important part of Mineralogy, inasmuch as it casts great 
light upon Geogeny, upon the various succeeding and more or 
less general catastrophes * which have taken place in our 
Globe 3 consequently, also, upon the relative ages of rocks, on 
the mode of origin of many stratified rocks, &c. 3 without 
which it is impossible to imagine a philosophical investigation 
of the mineralogical part of Natural History. 
§ 262. The term Petrifaction, in its most extended sense, is 
applied to those animals and plants which have perished in 
such catastrophes, or which, subsequent to them, have been 
placed in such a favourable position, that their bodies, or parts 
of them, instead of putrifying, have, more or less, perfectly re- 
tained their original forms, and which are, farther, for the most 
part, impregnated with extraneous substances, stony, metallic, 
or bituminous. 
I have treated more fully on this matter in my Specimen Archaeologies 
tellurix. Gotting. 1803. 4to. — And in Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Guttin- 
gena. Vol. XV. 
r> d 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
Remark. Hence in strictness many objects formerly ranked 
among Petrifactions, have no claim to the title. Such 
are, in particular, the Lusus Naturae, which in other times 
afforded scope to imagination, ignorance, and credulity. 
For instance, the likeness of Lutiiek in the Copper slate 
of Mansfeld, described in 1G75 by Val Alberti ; the 
lapicidina sacra of Dr. N. Lange at Lucerne, & c. Such, 
also, are objects evidently the product of art ; as the 
cubes of baths : or, lastly, evident deceptions, as in the 
instance of the Petrifactions of Wurzburg, by which the 
worthy Beringer was misled. — See his Lithographia JVir- 
ceburgensis. 17 26. Fol. p, 5. 
§ 263. From the various ways in which they are preserved, 
Petrifactions are divided into four kinds : viz. they are found, 
(1.) Merely calcined, when Bones, Shells, &c., have lost a 
part of their animal cement, and of their original solidity *5 
being in its stead impregnated with Calc Sinter, Tufa, &c., and 
at the same time, brittle and light. They are found, for the 
most part, in alluvial land, and among the Calc Sinter of the 
cavities and clefts of rocks. 
(2.) Actually petrified, inclosed in the solid stone of strati- 
fied rocks, and usually as hard as stone itself. To this head 
belong most of the unknown marine animals of the primitive 
world, so abundant in the stratified calcareous rocks, which 
formed the bed of the sea in the primitive world ; such also, is 
the petrified wood, &o., included in Hornstone and Wax-Opal. 
Among the infinite variety of shells which are petrified in 
this way, it is rare to find the shell itself entire, as is the case 
in the opalescent Shell or Fire-marble of Carinthia 5 in most 
there is merely the solid mould formed within the Shell, which 
has itself subsequently perished. Such are most Ammonites, 
Hysterolites, &c. Such Petrifactions are called nuclei, and 
those in which merely the impression of the external surface 
remains, typolithi, as in most of the Plants contained in Schist. 
* Sometimes even the soft parts of animals are found unchanged, which 
however, on account of the position into which they have been thrown by 
catastrophe of the Globe, must be classed with Petrifactions in the most ex- 
tended sense of the term. Such for instance, is the Mammoth (Elephas 
primigenim), discovered in 1806, at the entrance of the Lena into the Icy 
Sea, with its hide and hair perfect, and of which the skeleton and stuffed 
skin are preserved in the Museum of the Academy of Sciences, at St. 
Petersburg. 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
403 
(3.) Metallized, when the Petrifactions are impregnated with 
metallic substances, particularly Iron and Copper Pyrites, Ar- 
gillaceous Iron-stone, &c. 
(4.) Bituminous, impregnated with Bitumen, as in Bitu- 
minous Wood, &c. To this head also belong the Insects 
inclosed in Amber, in so far as they are organized bodies pre- 
served after death, and which, during some partial catastrophe 
of the globe, must hhve found a grave in this valuable sub- 
stance. 
§ 264. It is still more instructive and important to Geogeny, 
to consider Petrifactions in a double point of view ; viz., first, 
as regards the beds in which they are now found ; and se- 
condly, as regards their identity, or mere similarity, or total 
difference from the organized bodies of the existing Creation. 
§ 265. In the first respect the height above, and the depth 
below the present level of the Oceah, at which Petrifactions 
are found, is truly wonderful, and of the utmost importance as 
a proof of the extent of the revolutions which must have 
taken place in our planet. To give only a few examples in 
Europe, De Lac found petrified marine animals (Ammonites) 
on the Savoy Alps, at an elevation of 7844 feet above the sur- 
face of the Sea*; and, on the contrary, at Whitehaven, in 
Cumberland, the impressions of Plants, (Ferns) are dug at 
upwards of 2000 feet below it. Among the most remarkable 
differences of the beds in which Petrifactions are found are 
the following : they occur in 
(1.) Alluvial land, commonly lying loose (unattached). 
This is the case with most specimens of the fossil Elephant, 
Rhinoceros, &c. and also the North American Mammoth. 
(2.) In stalactitic rock-masses, usually in fragments ce- 
mented together by Calc-Tuff, in the manner of Breccia. Such 
are the prodigious Osseous Rocks, on some of the Coasts of 
the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas, at Cerigo, Dalmatia, and 
Gibraltar. 
(3.) In caves, as for instance, in the Hartz, the Forest of 
Thuringia, the Fichtelbergf, and also in the Carpathian 
Mountains. 
* 1 am indebted to M. Stromeyer for bluish-black Ostracites, contained 
in brownish-grey splintery Liine-stone at Taillon, among the Pyrenees at a 
still more considerable height, viz., 8400 feet above the level of the Sea. • 
t See Die Umgebungen von Muggendorf ; ein Taschenbuch von C. Aug. 
Goedtuss. Erlang. 1810. 12mo. 
D D 2 

404 
OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
(4.) Or lastly, in Flotz Strata of Lime-stone, Bituminous 
Slate, Marl Slate, Gypsum, Slate Clay, Greyvvacke Slate, 
Coal Sandstone, &c. 
§ 266. As regards their comparison, however, with the or- 
ganized bodies of the present Creation, it is most convenient 
to divide the single Class, which Petrifactions constitute, under 
the following three principal heads : — 
(A.) Petrificata superstitum. 
Those Petrifactions which can be positively determined, i. e. 
which exactly resemble beings of the present Creation. Of 
this kind are the Fresh-water Shells, and the remains of Vege- 
tables in the Marl-Tuff, near Gottingen*, and apparently 
also, most of the petrified Animals and Plants in the remark- 
able Strata of fetid Slate, at Oeningen, on the Lake of Con- 
stance. 
(B.) Petrificata dubiorum. 
Doubtful Petrifactions, i. e. merely resembling creatures at 
present existing, but differing from them sometimes by their 
remarkable size, sometimes by various slight but uniform de- 
viations in the form of particular parts, and sometimes, in this 
respect, that the now existing prototypes with which they 
more or less perfectly coincide, are wholly confined to distant 
tropical climates. In the interim, at least many Osteolites, 
many marine animals (those, for instance, in the calcareous 
Slate, at Pappenheim), and many of the insects contained in 
Amber, may be included in this category. 
(C.) Petrificata incognitorum. 
Petrifactions of perfectly unknown creatures of the primitive 
world, i. e. those not even resembling, much less identical 
with, any being at present known. Of this kind are the Pha- 
cites, Belemnites, and many others. 
§ 267. Consequently, I have arranged Petrifactions in the 
first place, according to the two kingdoms of organized bodies, 
and the Zoolites according to the six Classes of the animal 
kingdom, retaining, as far as is possible, the double point of 
view already alluded to, in the distribution of the subdivisions. 
* See Dr. Westfeld, liber die letzte Ausbildung. der obersten Erdrinde 
der Gegend um Gottingen in den Gutting. Gel. A nz eigen. 1806 . 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
405 
Sources of Reference on the Doctrine of Petrifactions. 
Bourguet, Traite des Petrifactions. Paris, 174*2. 4to. 
J. Gesneri, Tractatus de Petrificatis. Ed. 2. Lugd. Bat. 1758. 
Svo. 
J. E. I. Walchs, Steinreich. Halle, 1762. B. 2. 8 vo. 
Dess, und G. W. Knorrs Naturgeschichte , der Versteinerun- 
gen. Niirnberg, 1755. u. f. B. 4. fol. 
J. Beckmann, de reductione rerum fossilium ad genera natura- 
lia protyporum : — in Nov. Comment. Soc. Reg. Sclent. Gotting. 
T. 2 , et 3. 
G. G. Leibnitii, protogcea. Gotting., 1749. 4to. 
S. C. Hollmann, Commentationum in Reg. Scient. Soc. recen- 
sitarum Sylloge. Gotting. I. 1762. II. Ed. 2. 1784. 4to. 
F. X. Bortin sur les Revolutions generates qua subies la sur- 
face de la Terre ; im 8 ten St. der Verhandelingen uitgegeeven 
door Tey lev's tweede Genootschap. Haarl.. 1790. 4to. 
Faujas St. Fond, Essai de Geologie. Paris, 1803, &c. T. 3. 
Svo. 
Andrea, Briefe aus der Schweiz nach Hannover Geschrieben. 
Zurich, 1776. 4to. 
G. Brander, Fossilia Hantoniensia. London, 1766. 4to. 
C. C. Schmiedel, Vorstellung merkivurdiger Ver steiner ungen. 
Niirnberg, 1780. 4to. 
J. Parkinson’s Organic Remains of a former World. London 
1804-11. 3 Vols. 4 to. 
G. Cuvier, Recherches sur les Ossemens fossiles de Quadru- 
p'edes, fyc. Paris, 1812. 4 Vols. 4to. 
Petrifactions from the Animal Kingdom. 
I. OF MAMMALIA. 
(A.) Determinable. 
Such for instance, as the almost perfect human skeletons on 
the Coasts of Guadaloupe, in solid Calc Sinter with Shell Sand, 
and which also contain Madrepores and Shells belonging to 
the existing Creation *5 also the bones of Foxes, Swine, &c. 
in the Marl Tuff of this neighbourhood. 
* Ch. Kosig on a Fossil Human Skeleton from Guadaloupe in the Phil. 
Trans, for 1814. Tab. 3. Also my Specimen Archceologice telluris alterum. 
1816. p. 22. On the other hand, Scheuciizer’s supposed Homo diluvii 
testis, and the paws of Palmata, which the late M. Ries mistook for cliil- 

406 
OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
(B.) Dubious. 
As for instance of a Species of Bear (Ursus spelceus ) found 
in vast numbers in the caves already alluded to*. 
(2.) Of a peculiar Species of the Deer Genus, the Giant Elk 
as it is called (Cervus gigadteus), dug up in Ireland particularly, 
and distinguished by its enormous size. In many of them, the 
skull is almost three feet long, and the extremities of the 
Antlers (weighing some hundred-weights), 14 feet from each 
other f . 
(3.) Of the Mammoth of the Old World, a Species of Ele- 
phant (Elephas primigenius) , the suppositious Giant’s bones % 
of our ancestors ; and found in great abundance in Germany §. 
The Ivory from the Siberian, which are dug up particularly on 
the coast of the Icy Sea (the Mammon tovaiakost) , resembles 
that now procured from the two existing Species of Elephant, 
and is employed for the same purposes at Archangel, Canton, 
and other places. 
(4.) Of a Species of Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis.) 
It is found very commonly in company with the Elephant 
above mentioned, in Siberia for instance ; also in Germany, 
as near Herzberg in the Hartz ||, where five were dug up in 
1750, within the compass of a mile j near Thiede in Brunswick : 
Burg-Tonna^[ in Gotha, &c. 
dren’s hands, need no notice at this period ; but Spallanzani’s confident 
assertion (in the 3d Vol. of Memorie della Societcl Italiana), that the 
osseous Breccia at Cerigo abounded with Anthropolites, has misled many 
modern mineralogists. Through the friendship of Mr. Hawkins, cele- 
brated for his Travels in the East, I have however obtained specimens of 
this Breccia, and after a most precise examination find that it exhibits as 
little of the traces of human bones, as other specimens from Gibraltar and 
the coasts of Dalmatia, with which it coincides perfectly in its oryctological 
and geological characters. 
* J. C. IIosen muller, Beytriige zur Geschichte fossiler knochen. 1. St. 
Leipzig, 1795. 8vo. 
t L. C. F. H. F. Von Wildungen Taschenbuch fur Forst und Jagd- 
freunde, fur 1800. s. 159. — And J. W. Neergaard BeytrSge zur vergleich. 
Anatomie. Gottingen, 1807. 8vo. s. 127. 
X Voigt’s Magazin. B. 5. St. 1. s. 16. 
§ K. Merk, Lettres sur les os fossiles d’Elephans et de Rhinoceros qui 
se trouvent en Allemagne. T. 3. Darmstadt. 1783. 4 to. — And Cuvier Op. 
cit. 
|| Hollmann in Comment. Soc. Scient. Gottingen. T. 2. p. 215. — Cu- 
vier. Op. cit, and Voigt’s Neues Magazin. B. 12. S. 97. 
H See Voigt in his Magazine. B. 3. St. 4. s. 2. 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
407 
(C.) Whollxj unknown. 
To quote a few out of many : — 
(I.) The colossal land monster of the primitive World, the 
North American Mammoth (Mammut ohioticum. Mastodonte. 
Cuv* * * § .) the bones of which are dug on the Ohio, &c. j and dis- 
tinguished from the rest of the animal Creation of the primi- 
tive World, by the very peculiar form of its grinding teeth. 
(Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 19.) 
(2.) The Megatherium Americanum 1, remarkable for the 
enormous deformity of the Head, Pelvis, Legs, and Claws ; 
the bones of which are dug up in various parts of South Ame- 
rica. 
(3.) The entire Genus of Palseotheria, of which Baron Cu- 
vier has discovered several Species in the Gypsum of Mont- 
martre ; unknown animals intermediate between the Rhinoce- 
ros, Tapir, and Swine Genera. 
(4.) The two extraordinary Ornithocephali found in the 
Calcareous Schist of Pappenheim, and referred to the Order 
Chiroptera by Professor Sommering, who has accurately des- 
cribed them X- 
II. OF BIRDS §. 
In general rare j the bones of Marsh Birds, however, are found 
in the foetid Slate of Oeningen, and of various other kinds in the 
Gypsum of Montmartre. 
III. OF AMPHIBIA. 
(A.) Determinable. 
For instance, Frogs and Toads in the foetid Slate oi Oeningen ||. 
(B.) Dubious. 
For instance, Tortoise-shells, of which I possess specimens 
from Burg-Tonna at the same spot where the bones of the du- 
* Rembr. Peale’s Account of the Skeleton of the Mammoth. London, 
1802. 4 to. Cuvier Op. cit. — And A. C. Bonn, in the Natuurlyke Verhandel 
der Maatsch. der IVetensch. te Haarlem. B. 4. St. 2. 
f D. Jos. Garkiga Descripcion del Esqueleto de un quadrupedo muy cor- 
pulent o y raro. Madrid, 1796. 4to. — And Cuvier. Op. cit. 
f On the Ornithocephalus priscus and brevirostris in the recent .Vols. of 
the Deuktchr. der Kdnigl. Acad, der IFissench. zu M tine hen. 
§ See M. Von Hoff in his Magaz. uber die gesammte Mineralogie. B. 1. 
s. 283. — And Baron Cuvier. Op. cit. 
i| Andrea. Op. Cit. Tab. 15. fig. 6. 

108 
OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
bious Species of Elephant and Rhinoceros above mentioned, 
are found 
(C.) Unknown. 
Such as the enormous creature (Lacertn gigantea f) resembling 
a Crocodile, and found particularly in the Petersberg, near 
Maestricht f. 
IV. OF FISHES. 
Although the Petrifactions belonging to this Class, Ichthyo- 
lites, are found in the greatest abundance and variety, as well 
of the Species of Fish they represent, as of the materials in 
which they occur, most of them require a rigorous compari- 
son and revision without prejudice before they can with cer- 
tainty be referred to their proper situations in our arrangement, 
viz. as determinable, dubious, or unknown. It is of a very 
few only that such a disposition can at present be made with 
certainty j such for instance, as those in the fetid Slate of Oe- 
ningen, and the Salmo arcticus which is found at Zuckertop, 
on the West Coast of Greenland, inclosed in a mummy-like 
state in oblong masses of Clay^. 
The skeletons of Fishes which are found generally very well 
preserved in the foetid Schist of Mount Volca, near Verona §, can 
in general be very positively referred to known Species. But 
in that case it appears remarkable, that this mountain should 
form a common receptacle not only for fresh water, but also 
for sea-fish, and that the latter should comprise creatures from 
the most remote parts of the Ocean 3 from Otaheite as well as 
from the Mediterranean, from the coasts of Japan, Brazil, the 
North-East of America, from Africa, &c. Those found in the 
tabular Slate from Blattenberg, in the Canton of Glaris, and in 
the Bituminous Clay Slate of Mansfeld and Hesse, rarely pre- 
sent the parts essential to their specific characters, in a manner 
/ 
* See M. Voigt, Loc. cit. Tab. 1. fig. 1. 
t M. Von Sommering fiber die Lac. gigantea der Vorwelt ; und fiber 
den Crocodilus prisons: in Dmkschr. der Kfinigl. Acad. der IVissensch. zu 
Milne hen. 
J Faujas St. Fond, Histoire Naturellede la Montague de St. Pierre de 
Maestricht. Paris. An. 7. 4to. 
§ Nehem. Grew Museum Reg. Soc. Land. Tab. 19. 
|| See Count Gazzola’s splendid Ittiolit ologia Veronese. 1794. Gr. fol. 
— G. Graydon in the Trans, of the Royal Irish Academy. Vol. V. 1794. 
p. 281. 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 409 
sufficiently distinct to admit of the determination of their 
Species. 
Ihe remains of Fishes found in compact Fldtz Limestone, 
are generally only single vertebrae, bones and teeth. Of the 
latter sort are in particular the Glossopetrce belonging to the 
Shark Genus, and the Bufonites, many of which bear a resem- 
blance to the obtuse teeth of the Anarrhichas lupus. 
V. OF INSECTS. 
(A.) Determinable. 
For instance, in the Schist at Oeningen, Larvae of Libellulae, 
Noctonectae, &c. 
(B.) Dubious. 
To this head belong most of those inclosed in Amber, as also 
most of the petrified Crabs (Cammarolites.) 
(C.) Unknown. 
Such are the celebrated Trilobites. (Entomolithus paradoxus. 
Linx.) Dudley-fossil, which are found in various places, but 
no where finer than at Dudley, in Worcestershire, and frequent- 
ly retaining their Crab-like shell. (Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gesenst 
Tab. 50.) 
VI. OF WORMS. 
All, almost without exception, from the Orders Testacea, Crus- 
tacea, and Corallia, The fossil beaks, however, found at Hein- 
berg near Gottingen, on the Petersberg, near Maestricht, and 
at Bath, appear to have belonged to a Genus of Mollusca, viz. 
Sepia*. 
I. TESTACEA. 
In countless Species ; and what is particularly remarkable, in- 
cluding Strata of fresh-water shells alternating with those, 
which, according to all analogy, must have existed in the Seaf. 
(A.) Determinable. 
Apparently of Bivalves the common petrified Species of Tere- 
bratulites, found in stratified Lime-stone, which resembles the 
Anomia vitrea, affording an instance of regeneration in the 
present Creation, according to a type of the primitive world. 
* Specimen Archceologice tellur is. I. 1803. Tab. 2. fig. 5. 
^ If ^ L V,ER ct A. Brognjakt Essai sur la Geographic Mineralogioue 
des Environs de Paris, 1811. 4to. 

410 OF petrifactions. 
Among Univalves, the calcined Trochus lithophorut, found 
in Piedmont, in alluvial soil. 
(B.) Dubious. 
For instance, among Multivalves the elegant Balanites, jfbrosus, 
from Osnabriick* j and which presents an appearance of some 
importance in the Archaeology of our planet, viz. that it not 
uncommonly projects in a perfect state from single, smoothly 
rounded Pebbles 1'. . 
Among Bivalves, the very large Terebratulites also found at 
Osnabriick X • And of Univalves, the calcined Strombues, 
almost a foot long, found in alluvial soil, in Champagne. 
(C.) Unknown. 
Found in great abundance in stratified Lime-stone ; to men- 
tion only a few among the most remarkable, among i 
(1./ The opalescent Ostracite, in the Carinthian Shell- 
Marble * 
(2.) The thick shelled Ostracites pinnigenus, found, together 
with the next Species, by M. De Luc, on Mount Sal^ve, near 
Geneva §; . .. 
(3.) The large and almost heart-shaped Anomite ||; 
(4.) The Gryphites ; 
(5.) The Hysterolites ; 
(6.) The Langue fourrde , as it is called, from St. Onges^j ; 
(7) The Slipper-Shell of M. Von Hupsch^*; 
(8 ) The petrified Goat’s Hoofs, as they are called, from the 
Blatten Lake, in Hungary t+j with many others. 
Of the Univalves, some are called polythalamuv the 
being divided internally by septa into chambers. Of this kind 
are (l0" The Phacites or Lenticulites, which are covered exter- 
; TST' mineralogist, Go^.ao 
doubted as far as regards Fossil Shells. See Mem. * VAcai. dm S', me. 
de Paris. 1759. p. 204. , . 
X Specimen Archaolog. tellur. I. Tab. 1. g- • 9 fi(r 5 fi _ 
§ De Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes. \ol. . . . , 
11 De Saussure, loc. cit. . vol. I. 
^ De Luc’s Letters on the History of the Em f 
P ‘ If in his Neue in der N. G. des Nieder-Deutschlands gemachten Entdec- 
liungen. Franlif, 1768. 8vo. lab. 1. 
+t C. D. Bartsch, in the Ungrtschen Mag a- . 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
411 
nally by slightly arched lamellated Shells, and consist inter- 
nally of a very delicate spiral tube of considerable length, 
divided into several chambers. ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. 
1 ab. 40.) Ihey are commonly as large as a Lentil, but some- 
times larger. They are found in many parts of the world, and 
sometimes in enormous strata ; in Lower Egypt, for instance, 
the Pyramids being chiefly composed of them. 
( l 2.) The innumerable crowds of Ammonites. 
(3.) The Orthoceratites, equally remarkable and uncommon, 
sometimes a toot long, and found particularly in the Duchy of 
Mecklenberg. 
(4.) The Belemnites, (Dactyli idaei) among which, however, 
there are some Species without septa or alveoli. They form 
one of the most common Petrifactions of Lime-stone rocks, 
in which they are commonly found, filled with black Swine- 
stone : they occur also in other Flotz strata, for instance, in 
the Kentish Chalk. 
(5.) The Cornucopise of Dr. W. Thomson, from Cape 
Passaro, in Sicily*. 
Of Univalves without any internal septa are : — 
(1.) The remarkable Muricites with their convolutions 
turning to the left, found on the coast near Harwich. ( Abbild . 
Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 20.) 
(2.) The extremely singular small Muricites deformis of So- 
lander, the point of which always terminates in an irregular 
vermiform tubef. 
(3.) The large and singular Dentalites found in vast num- 
bers in compact Lime-stone, in the Canton of LucernL 
(4.) The small Serpulites coaeervatus which is found at 
Deister, in Hanover, aggregated in entire strata of Swine- 
stone §. 
II. CRUSTACEA. 
(.!•) . Amon & the various kinds of Echini, those in particular 
which instead of prickles are beset with the Jews-stones, for- 
merly so mysterious || . 
* See Wiedemann’s Archiv.fiir Zoologic, &c. B. 4. S. 1. Tab 1 -And 
| Kars-ten, in Magaz. der Berlin. Naturforsch. Gesellsch. 3ter. J. l cs . Q. 
t Brander. /. c. Tab. 2. fig. 37-8. 
t See Voigt’s Magazin. B.5. St. I. s. 14. &c. Tab. 2. 
'< ^penmen Archceolog. telluric. I. Tab. 2. fig 8 
II See Andrea loc. cit. Tab. 14. fig. d. p. 265. 

Ol-' PETRIFACTIONS. 
412 
(2.) The Ericrinites and (3.) The Pentacrinites, two no- 
table kinds of Petrifactions, resembling, though not identical 
with, the Encrinus asteria of the existing Creation ; consisting 
of a body with many arms, and attached to an articulated 
stalk. 
In the Encrinites or Sea-lilies*, ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Gegenst. 
Tab. GO.) which are found chiefly in compact Lime-stone, the 
arms of the body are usually folded together, giving the whole 
the appearance of a head of Maize or an unblown Lily, whence 
their name. The stem without any branches must have been 
attached by its lower extremity to the bottom of the sea of the 
primitive world. Its vertebra-like joints, which have the shape 
of little mill-stones with sun-shaped marks, are generally 
known under the name of Entrochites, St. Cuthbert s Beads, 
&c., and are found in vast numbers in the Flotz Lime-stone of 
many places. 
The Pentacrinite or Medusa-palm f ( Abbild . Nat. Hist. Ge- 
genst. Tab. 70 .) consists of a large, many-armed, tuft-shaped 
body, attached to a single articulated stem without branches, 
and upwards of eight feet long. This remarkable Petrifaction 
was formerly found principally in bituminous marly Schist, 
near Boll, in the Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
The well known Astroites are the pentagonal joints of the 
articulated and branched stem of a similar Petrifaction, not yet 
perfectly known. 
III. CORALLIA. 
(1.) Madreporites in great abundance and variety, and form- 
ing in some places genuine coral-reefs belonging to the pri- 
mitive world. For instance, in compact Lime-stone and Mar- 
ble, on Mount Sal6ve, near Geneva, and on the Hartz, near 
Blankenburg, and Grand, &c. The very beautifully formed 
Madreporites cristatus X from the latter place deserves notice, 
as also the remarkable small Madreporites lenticularis from the 
* M. R. Rosini, Tentaminis de Lithozois ac Lithophytis prodromus. 
Hamb. 1719. 4to. 
S. C. Hollmann, Descriptio Pentacrinorum. Giitt. 1784. 4to. 
Voigt’s Magazin. B. 4. St. 4. s. 1. Tab. 1. 
f Act. Acad. Palatincc. T. 3. P. phys. The Specimen containing Penta- 
crinites depicted in Walch’s work. T. 1. Tab. 11. is nowin my collection. 
X Specimen Archccologicc telluris 1. Tab. 3. fig. 12. 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 413 
celebrated Perte du Rhone, (Abbild. Nat. Hist. Gegenst. Tab. 
SO.) which has given origin to many mineralogical errors. 
Very fine and large Madreporites are found at Antigua, in 
shelly Hornstone, sometimes traversed by milk-blue Chalce- 
dony. 
Others in sandy Lime-stone, in the Petersberg, near Maes- 
tricht : in the Chalk of Kent ( Fungites ): in brown Iron Ore, 
and ferriferous Quartz, as Fungites and Screw-stones (a kind 
of Cubiporite ?) near Riibeland, on the Hartz : the latter also 
near Catharinburg, in Siberia. 
(2.) Millepo rites and other delicate kinds of Coral, chiefly 
in the sandy Lime-stone, near Maestrieht ; in Flint; near Celle, 
in Hanover*; and in the Hertfordshire Pudding-stone. 
PETRIFACTIONS FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
In general it rarely happens that these are so perfectly pre- 
served as to render it possible to distinguish their specific cha- 
racters ; which in fact is scarcely possible as regards single 
parts of plants, as for instance, in the case of fossil wood. 
The triple distinction, however, applied to animal Petrifactions, 
is also generally applicable here. 
I. Impressions of Plants and Leaves f. 
(A.) Determinable. 
As fof instance, in the fetid Slate of OEningen. 
(B.) Dubious. 
To this head appear to belong most of the Ferns, &c., found 
in Shale and Argillaceous Iron-stone. 
(C.) Unknown. 
To give one instance for all ; the very remarkable, enigma- 
tical scaly impressions, sometimes branched, and often of im- 
mense size, which are found in various places, particularly in 
the Shale of Coal-pits, but also in Coal-Sandstone, near Edin- 
mrgh, and at Clausthal, in Greywacke and Clay-Slate. 
II. Fossil Seeds, Fruits, &c. 
(A.) Determinable. 
* Specimen ullerum. 
f J. J. SCHEUCHZER, 
E. F. Von Schlotheim, 
P flanzenversteinerungen. 
fig. 7. 
Herbarium Diluvianum. Lugd. Bat. 1723. fol. 
Beschreibung merltwUrdiger KrUuterabdruche und 
lste Abth. Gotha. 1804. 4to. 

414 
OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
As for instance, in the fetid Slate of Oeningen, so often alluded 
to, in which undoubted impressions of the blossoms of a Ra- 
nunculus have been found. 
(B.) Dubious. 
Of this kind the Ears of Corn, &c., (as they are called,)- em 
tallized parts of fructification found at Frankenberg, in Silver 
and Copper Ores. 
Also one of the most beautiful, and at the same time un- 
common Petrifactions, the Maggot-stone, as it is vulgarly 
called, found in yellowish and reddish Ilornstone, at Plau, 
near Dresden, and resembling the Seed-capsules of a tropical 
Onoklea *. 
(C.) Unknown. 
For instance, the almond-shaped Fruit-capsules, found among 
the Fossil Wood of the Prussian Amber Mines t; the small 
Palm-nuts from the Umber-pits of Cologne, &c. 
III. Fossil Wood. (Lithoxyla.) 
Most of these specimens it is very difficult, as already men- 
tioned, to refer with certainty to any of the three divisions 
adopted in this arrangement. 
Many, it is true, are easily determinable, as for instance, 
(though it hardly admits of being placed here,) the Birch-wood 
converted into Bog Iron Ore, at Kontschosero, in Olonezk. 
Others, on the contrary, are certainly quite unknown, as in 
the Wood-stone of Hilbersdorf, near Chemnitz, distinguished 
by its uniform compact texture, without any trace of concen- 
tric layers, and also apparently having been perforated by tubes 
about the size of a goose-quill, and running in a parallel 
direction. . ... 
The remaining and more dubious kinds are, in general, either 
actually petrified, as for instance, in Lime-stone, Sand-stone, 
but more particularly in Wood-stone and Wood-Opal ; or else 
still combustible, of which nature above all, is the Bituminous 
Wood found in enormous strata in so many parts ot e 
Northern World. But even this is in many places impregnated 
with Quartz, so that it is capable of striking sparks with Steel. 
* Specimen alterum fig. 3, 4. in fig. 1 , 2, of which 1 have also repre- 
sented an undoubted prickly Pericarp (in form resembling that of the 13 
nias orientalis) in oriental Chalcedony. 
f The same Specimen &c. p. 15- , . 
+ Faums St. Fond, in the Journal des Mines. 1/ J/. An. . . 

OF PETRIFACTIONS. 
415 
but besides these, many kinds of Fossil Wood are interme- 
diate between the Bituminous and the Petrified, in so far as 
this, that they are impregnated with Carbonate of Lime, and 
therefore effervesce with Acids, whilst at the same time they 
diftuse a resinous smell in burning as for instance, in the 
Diluvial Wood, as it is called, (Sundjluthholz) found in Trapp, 
at Joaehimsthal, at the depth of 150 fathoms. 
Lastly, the Mineral Wood-coal deserves notice, which is 
found in many kinds of Stone-coal, as well as in Terras and 
Piperno, and sometimes (as the so called Gold -coal) with native 
Gold, at Y erespatak, in Transylvania. 
FINIS. 
c. Smith, Printer, Angel Court, Strand. 

* 
i 
. 
■ 

INDEX 
A. 
Aasgeyer, 89 
Aal, 156 
Aalbock, 167 
Aalmutter, 160 
Abendvogel, 206 
Abeille, 218 
Ablette, 117 
Acarus, 223 
Accipenser, 153 
Ackermanncben, 108 
Acor, 89 
Acorn Shell, 251 
Actinia, 246 
Actinolite, 339 
Adamantine Spar, 322 
Adarce, 271 
Adder, 143 
Adularia, 326 
Aelster, 99 
Aesche, 167 
AflFe, 39 
African Hog, 71 
Afterholzbock, 190 
Agalmatolite, 329 
Agami, 124 
Agaphite, 322 
Agate, 309 
Agaric Mineral, 345 
Agouti, 47 
Ai, 60 
Aigrette, 121 
Aigne marine, 319 
Aimant, 383 
Alabaster, 350 
Alauda, 102 
Albatross, 126 
Alca, 129 
Alcedo, 95 
Alces, 68 
Alcyonium, 271 
Alexandrine Parrakeet, 
93 
Almandine, 317 
Allanite, 400 
Alligator, 139 
Alopex, 58 
Aloes, 170 
Alouate, 41 
Alouette, 102 
Alse, 170 
Alum Clay, 330 
Aluminite, 327 
Amber, 366 
Amehdabad Finch, 107 
Ameise, 220 
Ameisen Bar, 61 
American Otter, 75 
Amethyst, 
Amianthus, 339 
Ammodytes, 157 
Ampelis, 103 
Amphibole, 324 
Amphigene, 317 
Amphisbcena, 144 
Amphitrite, 245 
Amsel, 103 
Anatase, 398 
Anarrhichas, 157 
Anas, 128 
Anchois, 170 
Anchovy, 170 
Andalusite, 322 
Ane, 63 
Angora Rabbit, 49 
Anguille, 156 
Anhydrite, 350 
Anomia, 256 
Anon, 159 
Ant, 220 
Ant Bear, 54 
Ant Eater, 61 
Anthracite, 370 
Antilope, 66 
Antimony, 391 
Antimonial Silver, 375 
Apatite, 351 
Ape, 39 
Aphis, 200 
Aphrite, 346 
Aphrodyta, 245 
Apis, 218 
Aphysia, 245 
Apophyllite, 314 
Aptenodytes, 130 
Aquamarine, 319 
Aquillat, 152 
Aras, 93 
Araegnde, 229 
Aranea, 229 
Area, 254 
Arragonite, 342 
Arctic Fox, 58 
Arctomys, 46 
Ardea, 122 
Ardoise, 330 
AreDdalite, 313 
Argali, 65 
Argentina, 168 
Argile, 327 
Argonauta, 258 
Ark, 255 
Armadillo, 62 
Arni, 68 
Arsenic, 395 
Arsenical Silver, 375 
Asbestus, 338 
Ascaris, 240 
Ascidia, 246 
Asilus, 226 
Asinus, 63 
Asphalt, 367 
Ass, 63 
Asterias, 267 
Atherina, 169 
Attelabus, 1 89 
Auerhahn, 115 
Augite, 316 
Auster, 255 
Austerdieb, 123 
Autour, 91 

11 
Autruche, 118 
Avosettc, 123 
Axinite, 314 
Axe Stone, 337 
Azuritc, 316 
B. 
Babiroussa, 7 1 
Baboon, 40 
Babouin, 40 
Badger, 54 
Badiaga, 272 
Baikalite, 340 
Balais, 321 
Balance-fish, 152 
Balbuzard, 90 
Baleine, 77 
Balistes, 153 
Bandfisch, 160 
Bandwurm, 242 
Bar, 54 
Barbary Ape, 39 
Barbeau, 170 
Barbel, 170 
Barbet, 100 
Bardeau, 63 
Barnacle, 252 
Barnacle Goose. 
Barn Owl, 9 1 
Barsch, 163 
BartafFe, 40 
Bartgeyer, 89 
Bartmannchen, 1 10 
Barytes, 352 
Basalt, 332 
Basset, 57 
Bat, 42 
Baudroie, 52 
Baumgans, 128 
Banmhupfer 196 
Baumklette, 96 
Baum-marder, 53 
Bear, 54 
Beautelthier, 51 
Beautv, 262 
Beaver, 73 
Becasse, 122 
Becassine, ib. 
Beccafica, 108 
Bee crois^, 1 04 
Bee, 218 
Beetle, 18 
INDEX. 
Beilstcin, 332 
Belemnite, 41 1 
Belettc, 53 
Beluga, 154 
Belzebub, 4 1 
Berg-alster, 92 
Berg-crystal, 306 
Rerg-fink, 106 
Berg-forelle, 167 
Berg-hase, 48 
Bergseife, 329 
Bernstein, 366 
Beryl, 319 
Biene, 218 
Bilch, 44 
Bildstein, 329 
Bimstein, 311 
Birkhahn, 115 
Bisamschwein, 7 1 
Bisamstier, 68 
Bisamthier, 70 
Biset, 1 1 2 
Bismuth, 390 
Bismuth Ochre, 391 
Bison, 68 
Bitter Spar, 343 
Bittern, 121 
Bitumen, 367 
Black-bird, 103 
Black-cap, 109 
Black Chalk, 331 
Black-cock, 115 
Black Eagle, 90 
Black Lead, 370 
Black Lead Ore, 388 
Black Martin, 112 
Blaireau, 54 
Blasenschnecke, 259 
Blatta, 194 
Blattlaus, 200 
Blaumeise, 110 
Blauspecht, 95 
Bleak, 17 1 
Blende, 390 
Blennius, 160 
Bleyglanz, 387 
Blindfisch, 151 
Blindmaus, 47 
Blind Rat, 47 
Blindschleiche, 144 
Blind worm, 144 
Blistering-fly, 193 
Blossom-polye, 275 
Blumen-polype, 275 
Blutegcl, 244 
Boa, 143 
Boat-bill, 120 
Boeuf, 67, 159 
Bog Iron Ore, 386 
Bohemian Chatterer, 
103 
Bohn Erz,386 
Bohrmuschel, 252 
Bole, 328 
Bologna Stone, 353 
Bombardier, 192 
Rombylius, 226 
Bombyx, 209 
Boneto, 164 
Bonite, 164 
Boracite, 341 
Borax, 364 
Bos, 67 
Borkenkafer, 184 
Bouldogue, 56 
Bouquetin, 66 
Bourdon, 226 
Bouvreuil, 104 
Brachionus, 275 
Brachsen, 172 
Bramble, 106 
Bradypus, 60 
Brand fuchs, 58 
Braun Eisen Stein, 385 
Braunspath, 343 
Bream, 172 
Brebis, 65 
Breccia, 358 
Breme, 172 
Bremse, 223 
Brillenschlange, 144 
Brimstone, 366 
Brochet, 168 
Brotschabe, 194 
Brown Coal, 369 
Brown Iron Ore, 385 
Bruant, 106 
Bruchus, 187 
Buccinium, 260 
Bucco, 100 
Bucero, 95 
Buchfink, 106 
Budel, 56 
Bug, 199 

INDEX 
111 
Buffalo, 67 
Buffel, 67 
Buffle, 67 
Bull-dog, 56 
Bullenbeisser, 56 
Bull -finch, 104 
Bull- frog, 1ST 
Bulla, 259 
Bunting, 105 
Bunt-kupfer Erz, 378 
Buphaga, 97 
Buprestis, 191 
Burbot, 160 
Burgau, 258 
Bustard, 1 18 
Butor, 121 
Butte, 161 
Button-shell, 262 
Buzz-fly, 226 
Byrrhus, 185 
c. 
Cacadu, 93 
Cacatoe, 99 
Cachalot, 77 
Caddice, 214 
Cadmium, 401 
Caille, 114 
Calamine, 390 
Calamites, 138 
Calao, 94 
Calcareous Spar, 342 
Calc Sinter, 343 
Calmar, 249 
Callionymus, 158 
Camel, 64 
Camelopardalis, 68 
Camel us, 63 
Camelziege, 64 
Campagnol, 45 
Canard, 129 
Canarienvogel, 107 
Canary Bird, 107 
Cancer, 231 
Cancrelas, 194 
Cancroma, 120 
Canis, 55 
Cantharide, 226 
Cantharis, 190 
Cape Ant Eater, 61 
Cape Hyrax, 47 
Capra, 65 
Caprimuigus, 1 12 
Carabus, 192 
Carassin, 171 
Carbonate of Iron, 385 
Carbunculus, 317 
Cardinal Bird, 105 
Cardium, 253 
Caret, 1.36 
Carneol, 388 
Carrier, 113 
Carp, 170 
Carpe, ib. 
Carrion Beetle, 186 
Carrion Crow, 98 
Casse noix, 99 
Cassida, 186 
Cassowary, 118 
Castor, 7 3 
Cat, 60 
Cat’s Eye, 310 
Cawk, 352 
Cayman, 139 
Celestine, 352 
Cellularia, 273 
Centipede, 235 
Cepola, 160 
Cerite, 400 
Cerium, 400 
Certhia, 96 
Chabot, 161 
Chacal, 57 
Chastodon, 162 
Chaffinch, 106 
Chalcedon, 307 
Chalcedony, 307 
Chalk, 345 
Chama, 254 
Chameau, 64 
Chamois, 66 
Chaos, 277 
Char, 167 
Charadrius, 122 
Charaucon, 187 
Charbonniere, 1 10 
Chardonnerel, 107 
Chauve-souris, 42 
Chiastolite, 327 
Chermes, 201 
Cheval, 62 
Chevalier, 123 
Cheval marin, 73, 156 
Cheveche, 92 
Chcvre, 65 
Chevrettc, 233 
Chevreuil, 69 
Chevrotain, 70 
Chien, 55 
Cliien de Mer, 152 
Chien Ture, 57 
Chimcera,15S 
Chirapansd, 39 
Chinese Goose, 1 28 
Chinese Pheasant, 117 
Chirurgien, 123 
Chiton, 251 
Chlorite, 334 
Choucas, 98 
Choras, 41 
Chromate of Iron, 384 
Chromate of Lead, 388 
Chromium, 384 
Chrysis, 218 
Chrysoberyl, 320 
Chrysolite, 338 
Chrysomela, 186 
Chrysoprase, 309 
Cicada, 198 
Cicindela, 190 
Cicogne, 120 
Cimex, 199 
Cinnabar, 377 
Citrin, 306 
Civet, 52 
Clam, 254 
Clay, 327 
Clay Iron Stone, 385 
Clinkstone, 331 
Clio, 248 
Clupea, 1 69 
Coaita, 41 
Cobalt, 392 
Cobitis, 165 
Cobra de Capello, 144 
Coccinella, 186 
Coccolite, 316 
Coccus, 201 
Cochenille, 202 
Cochevis, 102 
Cochineal, 202 
Cochon, 7 0 
Cock, 116 
Cockatoo, 93 
Cock-chafer, 183 
Cockle, 253 
Cock of the Wood, 115 
Cockroach, 194 
Cod, 159 

IV 
INDEX. 
Ccecilia, 144 
Coluber, 143 
Columba, 112 
Colymbus, 125 
Combatant, 122 
Condor, 88 
Conops, 225 
Conus, 258 
Coot, 123 
Copper, 378 
Copper-green, 380 
Copper Pyrites, 372 
Coq, 116 
Coq de Bruyere, 115 
Coq de Roche, 110 
Coracias, 99 
Coralline, 273 
Corbeau, 98 
Cormorant, 127 
Cornaline, 308 
Cornelian, 308 
Corneille, 98 
Cornucopia, 251 
Cornweevil, 188 
Corvus, 98 
Corundum, 322 
Cottus, 161 
Coryphaena, 160 
Coucou, 100 
Couguar, 60 
Cousin, 225 
Coutelier, 252 
Cowry, 259 
Crab, 231 
Crab-louse, 227 
Craie, 345 
Crane, 120 
Crane-fly, 223 
Crapaud, 187 
Craw-fish, 232 
Crax, 117 
Creeper, 96 
Crested Lark, 102 
Cricket, 196 
Crocodile, 139 
Cropper, 113 
Cross-bill, 104 
Cross-stone, 314 
Crotopliaga, 98 
Crucian, 171 
Cryolite, 325 
Crystal de Roche, 306 
Cube Spar, 350 
Cuckoo, 100 
Cuculus, 100 
Cudu, 66 
Cuilliere, 120 
Culex, 225 
Cur, 56 
Curasso, 117 
Curculio, 187 
Curlew, 122 
Cuttle-fish, 248 
Cutwater, 124 
Cyanite, 318 
Cyclopterus, 155 
Cygne, 128 
Cyraophane, 320 
Cynips, 215 
Cynocephalus, 40 
Cyprinus, 170 
Cyprasa, 259 
D. 
Dab, 162 
Dachs, 54 
Dachshund, 56 
Dail, 252 
Daim, 69 
Daman, 47 
Damhirsch, 69 
Darter, 126 
Dasypus, 62 
Datolite, 351 
Dauphin, 78 
Daurite, 323 
Day fly, 213 
Death watch, 185 
Delphin, 78 
Demant,370 
Demoiselle, 213 
Dentalite, 4l 1 
Dentalium, 265 
Dermestes, 184 
Devin, 143 
Diable, 125 
Diamond, 370 
Diamond Beetle, 188 
Diaspro, 313 
Dichroite, 324 
Didelphis, 51 
Didus, 119 
Dindon, 117 
Diodon, 154 
Diomedea, 126 
Dipper, 259 
Dipus, 49 
Disthene, 318 
Dodo, 1 19 
Dog, 55 
Dogue, 56 
Doguin, 56 
Dohle, 98 
Dolomite, 340 
Dolphin, 78 
DompfafT, 104 
Donax, 253 
Dorade, 160 
Dorcas, 66 
Dorde, 171 
Doris, 245 
Dormouse, 44 
Dornhay, 152 
Dory, 161 
Douve, 241 
Draco, 139 
Dragon, ib. 
Dragon-fly, 213 
Dracunculus, 240 
Draine, 102 
Drehals, 95 
Dromadaire, 64 
Dromedary, 64 
Dronte, 119 
Duck, 129 
Duck billed animal, 76 
Dudu, 119 
Dung-Beetle, 1 82 
Dwarf-fowl, 116 
Dyticus, 191 
E. 
Earless Marmot, 46 
Earthworm, 241 
Earwig, 194 
Echeneis v 160 
Echinnorrhvnchus, 241 
Echinus, 267 
Economic Rat, 45 
Ecorcheur, 92 
Ecrevisse, 231 
Ecureuil, 44 
Edelfalke, 90 
Edelhirsch, 69 
Edelmarder, 53 
Eel, 156 
Eelpout, 160 
Effraic, 91 
Egelschnccke, 241 

INDEX 
V 
Egret, 121 
Euclase, 320 
Flunder, 162 
Eichornchen, 44 
Euclasite, ib. 
Flounder, 161 
Eidecbse, 1S9 
Eule, 91 
Fly, 224 
Eider-Duck, 129 
Exoeoetus, 169 
Flustra, 272 
Eidervogel, 129 
F. 
Fly-catcher, 108 
Eisbar, 54 
Flying-fish, 165 
Eisenglanz, 384 
Fadenwurm, 240 
Foulquc, 123 
Kisengranat, 318 
Fahlerz, 379 
Fourmillier, 6 1 
Eisenkies, ib. 
Faisan, 117 
Forelle, 167 
Eisenspath, 385 
Falco, 89 
Forficula, 194 
Eisvogel, 95 
Fallow-Deer, 69 
Formica, 220 
Elan, 68 
Fan-tail, 1 13 
Fou, 125 
Elater, 190 
Fasciola, 241 
Fou de Bassan, 127 
Electric Eel, 157 
Faucon, 90 
Fox, 57 
Electric Ray, 151 
Faulthier, 60 
Fossoyeur, 186 
Eleunthier, 68 
Faucheur, 229 
Fraueneis, 349 
Elephant, 71 
Fauvette, 108 
Fregatte, 127 
Elephas, ib. 
Federerz, 392 
Frelon, 211 
Elk, 68 
Felchen, 167 
Frettel, 53 
Elops, 168 
Feldmarden, 53 
Freux, 98 
Elritze, 17 1 
Feldmaus, 45 
Friesland Fowl, 116 
Emberiza, 105 
Felis, 58 
Fringilla, 106 
Emerald, 320 
Emeraud, 320 
l e] ^ r ' [.325 
Felspatn, 3 
Frog, 137 
Frog-fish, 153 
Emeril, 322 
Fennec, 52 
Frosch, 137 
Emery, ib. 
Ferkelkaninchen, 47 
Froth-worm, 198 
Emgallo, 71 
Ferra, 167 
Friihlingsfliege, 214 
Empis, 225 
Ferret, 53 
Fuchs, 57 
Encrinus, 269 
Feuerkrote, 138 
Fulica, 123 
Engoulevent, 112 
Feuervogel, 105 
Fulgora, 197 
Ente, 129 
Field-Cricket, 196 
Fuller’s earth, 328 
Entenmusche), 252 
Field-fare, 103 
Fungite, 413 
Enlenstosser, 90 
Field-Mouse, 45 
Furcularia, 276 
Epagneul, 56 
Field Rat, ib. 
Furet, 53 
Epaulard, 78 
Fiber, 73 
Furo, 53 
Epeiche, 94 
Finnfiscbe, 77 
Fusszehe, 251 
Epervier, 91 
Fischadler, 90 
Ephemera, 213 
Fischaugenstein, 314 
G. 
Epidote, 314 
Fistularia, 168 
Equus, 62 
Fitchet, 53 
Gabelgeyer, 90 
Erbsenkafer, 187 
Flachsfink, 107 
Gad-fly, 223 
Ercrinite, 41 2 
Flamingo, 119 
Gadus, 159 
Erdohl, 367 
Flea, 227 
Galapago, 135 
Erdpech, ib. 
Fledermaus, 42 
Gangfisch, 167 
Erdwolf, 45 
Fliege, 224 
Gannet, 127 
Erdzeiselcben, 46 
Fliegenfanger, 108 
Gans, 128- 
Erioaceus, 49 
Fliegenscbnapper, 108 
Garden-beetle, 183 
Ermine, 53 
Flet, 162 
Garnet, 317 
Escargot, 264 
Fletang, 162 
Garpike, 1 68 
Egel, 16.3 
Flinty Slate, 343 
Garten-kafer, 183 
Esox, 168 
Floh, 227 
Gasterosteus, 164 
Esturgeon, 153 
Fluke, 241 
Gastrobranchue, 151 
Etourneau, 102 
Fluor Spar, 350 
Gavia, 122 

vi 
Gavial, I 39 
Gazelle, 66 
Gazelle de Parade. 66 
Geai, 99 
Gelberde, 329 
Galena, 
Gelinotte, 115 
Gemse, 66 
Gentil-falcon, 90 
Genet Cat, 52 
Genette, 52 
Genette-karze, 52 
Geyer-konig, 89 
Ghlarke, 162 
Gibbon, 39 
Gienmuscliel, 254 
Gilthead, 163 
Giraffa, 68 
Girelle, 163 
Glaserz, 375 
Glattroclie, 151 
Glaucus, 245 
Glimmer, 324 
Glis, 44 
Globe-fisb, 154 
Glouton, 54 
Glow-worm, 190 
Glutton, 54 
Gnat, 225 
Gneiss, 356 
Goaf, 65 
Goat-sucker, 112 
Gobius, 161 
Gobe-mouche, 108 
Gold, 374 
Gold-ammer, 105 
Gold-brachsen, 163 
Gold-drossel, 101 
Golden Eagle, 90 
Golden-fly, 218 
Golden Pheasant, 117 
Gold-finch, 107 
Gold fisch, 171 
Goldhahnchen, 109 
Goldkafes, 183 
Gold-karpfe, 160 
Goldwurm,245 
Gordius, 240 
Gorgonia, 27 1 
Goosander, 129 
Goose, 128 
Gossamer, 229 
Goshawk, 91 
INDEX. 
Gottesanbetherlnn 195 
Gotteslammchen, 186 
Gracula, 99 
Graisset, 138 
Grampus, 78 
Grammatite, 340 
Granat, 317 
Grand due, 91 
Grand-gosier, 113 
Granite, 355 
Graphic Gold, 399 
Graphite, 370 
Gras-mucke, 108 
Grass-hopper, 196 
Graue-Ammer, 105 
Grauwacke, 359 
Grayling, 167 
Great Black Wood- 
pecker, 94 
Great Spotted Wood- 
pecker, ib. 
Green Wood-pecker, ib. 
Great Shrike, 92 
Grebe, 125, 
Green-finch, 105 
Green-Tody, 95 
Green Turtle, 136 
Greisbrachsen, 163 
Gienat, 317 
Grenatile, 318 
Grenouille, 137 
Grey-hound, 57 
Grey Parrot, 93 
Greywacke, 359 
Grille, 196 
Grillon, ib. 
Grimpereau, 96 
Grive, 103 
Gros-bec, 104 
Grosse Buntspecht, 94 
Grossohr, 52 
Grue, 120 
Griinfink, 105 
Griinspecht, 94 
Grunting Bull, 67 
Gryllus, 196 
Gryphite, 410 
Guana, 140 
Guepe, 218 
Guepier, 96 
Guillemot, 125 
Guinea-hen, 115 
Guinea-parrot, 93 
Guinea-pig, 47 
Guinea-worm, 240 
Gull, 125 
Gummistein, 307 
Giirtelthier, 62 
Gymnotus, 156 
Gypsum, 349 
Gyrinus, 185 
H. 
Haarkies, 394 
Habicht, 90 
Haddock, 159 
Haematopus, 123 
Hag-fish, 151 
Hair-worm, 240 
Halb-opal, 310 
Halibut, 162 
Haliotes, 265 
Hammer-fish, 152 
Hamster, 46 
Han fling, 107 
Hanneton, 181 
Hare, 48 
Hareng, 169 
Harfang, 91 
Haring, 169 
Harle, 129 
Harmotome, 314 
Hase, 48 
Hasel-hen, 115 
Haselhuhn, ib. 
Haubenlerche, 102 
Hausen, 154 
Haushahn, 106 
Hausmaus, 45 
Haussehwalbe, 111 
Haus-Unke, 138 
Hauyne, 316 
Haw-finch, 104 
Hawk’s-bill Turtle, 136 
Hag, 152 
Heavy Spar, 353 
Hecht, 168 
Hedge-hog. 56 
Hedge Sparrow, 108 
Heilig-butte, 162 
Heliotrope, 309 
Helix, 264 
Hemerobius, 214 
Ilemmelslerche, 102 
Hepatite, 354 

INDEX 
Yll 
Herisson, 50 
Hermelin, 53 
Hemline, ib. 
Heron, 120 
Herring, 1 69 
Hessian-fly, 224 
Heuschrecke, 196 
Hiarpe, 
Hinnus, 63 
Hippobosca, 226 
Hircus, 65 . 
Hirondelle, 111 
Hirsch-kafer, 184 
Hirudo, 244 
Hirundo, 111 
Hispa, 187 
Histur, 185 
Hobzheber, 99 
Hobzopal, 310 
Hobz-taube, 112 
Hog, 70 
Hohl-schnabel, 120 
Hohlspath, 327 
Holothuria, 247 
Holz Zinn, 389 
Homard, 232 
Homo, 34 
Honey-Bear, 54 
Honey-Bee, 219 
Honig-Dachs, 55 
Honigstein, 366 
Hooded-crow, 98 
Hoopoe, 96 
Hornblende, 324 
Hornet, 218 
Hornet-fly, 226 
Hornet Adder, 143 
Hornisse, 218 
Hornstone, 312 
Hornstein, 312 
Hone, 62 
Horse-shoe Bat, 43 
Horse-shoe fish, 234 
Houille, 368 
House Swallow, 111 
Honitre, 255 
Huitrier, 123 
Humble-Bee, 220 
Hummer, 232 
Humming-bird, 97 
Hund, 55 
Hundskopf, 40 
Hnppe, 96 
Hynena, 58 
Hyacinth, 31 8 
Hyalite, 307 
Hydatis, 243 
Hydra, 274 
Hydrachna, 228 
Hydrocantharus, 191 
Hydrocorax, 94 
Hydrophane, 310 
Hyrax, 47 
Hysterolite, 41 1 
Hystrix, 49 
I. 
Ibex, 66 
Ibis, 121 
Ichneumon, 217 
Idocrase, 316 
Igel, 50 
Ilk, 53 
litis, ib. 
Immenwolf, 96 
Indicolite, 323 
Inseparable, 93 
Iolite, 324 
Iridium, 400 
Iron, 381 
Iron Pyrites, 382 
Isatis, 58 
Isis, 271 
lulus, 235 
Izard, 66 
J. 
Jaco, 93 
Jacobin, 1 13 
Jackal, 57 
Jackdaw, 98 
Jaculus, 49 
Jade, 337 
Jaguar, 59 
Jamhon, 257 
Jargon, 319 
Jaseur de Boheme, 104 
Jasper, 313 
Jaspis, ib. 
Jay, 99 
Jerboa, 49 
Jet, 369 
Johanniswurmchen, 190 
Juwelenkafer, 188 
Jynx, 95 
K. 
Kabeljaw, 159 
Kafer, 181 
Kalksinter, 343 
Kalkspath, 342 
Kammelthier, 66 
Kanguroo, 51 
Kanguruh, ib. 
Kaninchen, 48 
Kaolin, 327 
Karausche, 171 
Katz, 44 
Katze, 60 
Katzenauge, 310 
Kaulbarsch, 164 
Kaulkopf, 161 
Kautzchen, 91 
Kelleresel, 235 
Kermes, 201 
Kernbeisser, 104 
Kiesenhuffel, 68 
Kieselsinter, 307 
King-fisher, 95 
King of the V nltures, 89 
Kircheneule, 91 
Kite, 90 
Klaff-muschel, 252 
Kleb-schiefer, 311 
Klingstein, 331 
Klip-das, 47 
Klipp-fisch, 157 
Klump-fisch, 155 
Klosterwenzel, 109 
Kneifer, 129 
Kntirrhahn, 161 
Kohlmeise, 110 
Kolk-rabe, 98 
Kornfink, 105 
Kornfisch, 168 
Krammetsvogel, 103 
Kranich, 120 
Krebs, 231 
Kreide, 345 
Kreidekiesel, 312 
Kreutz-kafer, 183 
Kreutz-schnabel, 104 
Kreutz-stein, 314 
Kronvogel, 113 
KrOpfer, ib. 
Kugel-fisch, 154 
Kukuk, 100 

Vlll 
Kummelkiifer, 185 
Kybitz, 122 
L. 
Labrus, 163 
Lachs, 166 
Lachs-tanbe, 114 
Lac Insect, 202 
Lady Bird, 186 
Lady Cow, ib. 
Lamantin, 76 
Lammergeyer, 89 
Lamprete, 150 
Lamprey, ib. 
Lamproye, ib. 
Lampyris, 190 
Land Crab, 231 
Lanius, 92 
Lanthorn-fly, 197 
Lapin, 41 
Lapis Lazuli, 316 
Lapwing, 122 
Larus, 125 
Lasurstein, 316 
Latialite, ib. 
Lava, 333 
Lavandiere, 109 
Laus, 227 
Lazulite, 316 
Lead, 387 
Leech, 244 
Lehmen, 328 
Lemming, 47 
Leopard, 59 
Lepas, 251 
Lepidolite, 325 
Lepisma, 226 
Leptocephalus, 158 
Leptura, 189 
Lepus, 48 
Lernasa, 247 
Leucite, 317 
Leucolite, 321 
Libellula, 213 
Lievre, 48 
Lievre de Mer, 155 
Limace, 244 
Limax, ib. 
Limestone, 345 
Limpet, 265 
Linnet, 107 
Linotte, ib. 
Lien, 58 
INDEX. 
Lithomarge, 329 
Litorne, 103 
Little Old Wife, 153 
Llama, 64 
Loach, 165 
Loadstone. 385 
Loam, 328 
Lobster, 232 * 
Loche, 165 
Locust, 196 
LofTel-ente, 129 
Loffelgans, 119 
Lootsraann, 164 
Lophius, 152 
Loricaria, 166 
Lori, 42 
Loriut, 101 
Lote, 160 
Loup, 37 
Loup-cervier, 60 
Louse, 227 
Loutre, 75 
Lowe, 58 
Loxia, 104 
Lucanus, 1S4 
Luchs, 60 
Lumbricus, 241 
Lumer, 125 
Lumpsucker, 155 
Lupus, 57 
Lutra, 75 
Lynx, 60 
Lytta, 193 
M 
Macaco, 40 
Macaque, 40 
Macareux, 129 
Maccaw, 93 
Mackerel 
Mactra, 253 
Madenfresser, 98 
Madrepora, 270 
Maesdieb, 101 
Magnesite, 336 
Magnetic Iron Ore, 383 
Magnetkies, ib. 
Magpie, 99 
Mainate, ib. 
Maki, 42 
Makerle, 164 
Malachite, 380 
Manati, 7 6 
Mandelkrahe, 99 
Mandrill, 41 
Manganese, 394 
Mangouste 52 
Man, 24 
Manakin, 110 
Manis, 61 
Man of War Bird, 127 
Mantis, 195 
Manucodiatta, 99 
Maquereau, 164 
Marble, 345 
Marekanite, 315 
Marienkuh, 186 
Marl, 347 
Marmot, 46 
Marmota, ib. 
Marmotte, ib. 
Marsouin, 
Marte, 53 
Martin, 53, 111 
Martinet 112 
Martin-pecheur 95 
Mauer-schwalbe, 112 
Mauer-specbt, 96 
Maulthier, 63 
Maulwurf, 50 
Mauvis, 103 
May-chafler, 183 
May-kafer, ib. 
May-wurm, 193 
Medusa, 249 
Meergrundel, 161 
Meer-junker, 163 
Meer-katze, 40 
Meer-nadel, 155 
Meerschnepfe, ib. 
Meer-schwein, 78 
Meer-schweinchen, 47 
Meer-zahn, 265 
Meerschaum, 336 
Meise, 110 
Meleagris, 117 
Meles, 54 
Mellite, 366 
Meloe, 193 
Menaccanite, 398 
Menilite, SI 1 
Menura 115 
Mergus, 129 
Merita, 264 
Merlan, 159 
Merle, 103 

INDEX. 
IX 
Meops, 96 
Mesange, 110 
Messager, 89 
Mesotype,315 
Messerscheide, 252 
Mira, 324 
Miemite, 343 
Milan, 90 
Milbe, 228 
Millepora, 270 
Miller’s Thumb, 1G1 
Minnow, 171 
Missel-bird, 102 
Mestkafer, 1S3 
Mite, 228 
Mocking-bird, 103 
Moineau, 108 
Mole, 50 
Mole-cricket, 196 
Molybdenum, 396 
Mongoz, 42 
Monkey, 41 
Monocnlus, 233 
Monodon, 76 
Moon-fish, 154 
Moonstone, 326 
Mountain-cat, 60 
Mouse, 45 
Moustache, 1 10 
Mowe, 125 
Mowehen, 113 
Mordella, 193 
Morpio, 227 
Morse, 76 
Morue, 159 
Moschus, 70 
Moracilla, 108 
Mother Carey’s Chicken, 
126 
Mouche, 224 
Monette, 125 
Mouffette, 52 
Moufflon, 65 
Moule, 252 
Mugil, 169 
Mudfish, 169 
Muflelihier, 65 
Mule, 63 
Molet, ib. 
Mullets, 65 
Mullus, 165 
Mulot, 45 
Muraena, 156 
Murex, 261 
Muriacite, 351 
Murmelthier, 46 
Murmont, 46 
Mus, 44 
Musaraigne, 50 
Muse, 70 
Musca, 224 
Muscardin, 44 
Muscicapa, 108 
Mussel, 252 
Musk, 70 
Mtisk Ox, 68 
Mustela, 52 
Mu til la, 222 
My a, 252 
Myoxus, 44 
Myrmecophaga, 61 
Myrmeleon, 215 
N. 
Nabelschwein, 7 1 
Nachtigal, 108 
Nachtschwalbe, 112 
Nadelerz, 391 
Nagelerz, 385 
Nais, 246 
Nashornvogel, 94 
Nautilus, 258 
Naygagererz, 399 
Nebel-krahe, 98 
Necydela, 190 
Nepa, 199 
Nephrite, 337 
Nereis, 246 
Neunauge, 151 
Neuntodter, 92 
Nickel, 393 
Nightingale, 108 
Nilpferd, 73 
Niverolle, 106 
Noddy, 1 25 
Nordcaper, 78 
Notonecta, 198 
Numenius, 122 
Numida, 115 
Nun, 1 10 
Nussheher, 99 
Nuthatch, 95 
Nut-weevil, 188 
o. 
Obsidian, 312 
Ochse, 67 
Ochroite, 400 
Octahedrite, 397 
CEstrus, 223 
Ohr-wurm, 194 
Oie a Duvet, 1 29 
Oil Beetle, 193 
Oiseau-mouche. 97 
Oligiste, 384 
Olivenerz, 381 
Olivine, 338 
Ombre, 67 
Onagar, 63 
Once, 59 
Oniscus, 234 
Onyx, 308 
Oolite, 347 
Opal, 309 
Ophidium, 157 
Opossum, 51 
Oreillard, 43 
Orf, 171 
Orfraie, 90 
Oriolns, 101 
Ornithorhyncus, 75 
Orphie, 368 
Orpiment, 396 
Ortolan, 105 
Orvet, 144 
Orycteropus, 61 
Osprey, 90 
Ostracion, 154 
Ostrea, 255 
Ostrich, 118 
Otis, 118 
Otter, 75, 143 
Onistiti, 41, 
Ounce, 59 
Ourang-Outang, 39 
Ours, 54 
Oursin, 267 
Outarde, 118 
Owl, 91 
Ox, 67 
Oxydulated Tron, 383 
Oye, 128 
Oyster, 255 
P. 
Paillc en queue, 126 
Palamadea, 120 
Palladium, 400 
Panorpa, 215 

X 
Phoii, 1 1 8 
Panther, 59 
Panthdre, 59 
Panzer-fisch, 154 
Panzer-thier, 62 
Papagey, 92 
Papilio, 203 
Papillon, 203 
Papio, 40 
Paradisea, 99 
Paranthine, 325 
Pardee, 59 
Paresseux, 60 
Parra, 123 
Parroquet, 92 
Parrot, ib. 
Partridge, 115 
Parus, i 10 
Pastenaque, 1 52 
Patella, 265 
Pavian, 40 
Pavo, US 
Peacock, ib. 
Pearls tone, 314 
Peccary, 7 1 
Pechblcnde, 396 
Pediculus, 227 
Pegasus, 156 
Peiutode, 115 
Pelecanus, 126 
Pelican, ib. 
Penguin, 130 
Pennaluta, 27 
Perea, 1 63 
Perce-oreille, 194 
Perch, 163 
Peridote, 324 
Perdrix, 115 
Pearl-huhn, ib. 
Pesez, 58 
Petard, 1 92 ^ 
Petermannchen, 159 
Petrel, 126 
Petroleum, 367 
Petromyzon, 150 
Pfau, 118 
PfefFerfras, 93 
Pferd, 62 
Pferde-laus, 226 
Phalcena, 207 
Phalangium, 228 
PhEenicopterus, 1 19 
Phaethon, 126 
INDEX. 
Pharaonsmaus, 52 
Phasianus, 1 1 6 
Phatagin, 61 
Pheasant, 116 
Phoca, 74 
Pholas, 252 
Phonolite, 331 
Phosphorite, 351 
Phryganea, 214 
Physeter, 77 
Physalite, 321 
Pic, 94 
Picus, ib. 
Pie, 99 
Pie- grieche, 92 
Pierce-stone, 252 
Pierre-garin, 125 
Pike, 168 
Pilote, 164 
Pilot-fish, ib. 
Pincon, 1 06 
Pine-martin, 53 
Pinna, 257 
Pipe-fish, 155 
Piper, 158 
Pipra, 1 1 0 
Pitch-opal, 310 
Pitch-stone, ib. 
Plant-louse, 200 
Platalea, 1 1 9 
Platina, 373 
Pleuronectes, 161 
Plotus, 125 
Plover, 122 
Pluvier, ib. 
Plumbago, 370 
Pogge, 161 
Poison-coffte, 154 
Polatouche, 44 
Pole-cat, 53 
Polir schiefer, 311 
Polish-slate, ib. 
Polyhalite, 362 
Polynemus, 169 
Polyptems, 1 68 
Pongo, 40 
Porcellanerde, 327 
Porphyry, 357 
Pore-epic, 49 
Porcupine, ib. 
Porcupine-fish, 155 
Porpoise, 78 
Potstone, 335 
Pott-fisch, 77 
Pou, 227 
Pousse-pied, 251 
Prase, 126 
Pricke, 151 
Prehnite, 314 
Procellaria, 126 
Produra 227 
Proyer, 105 
Psittacus, 92 
Psnphia, 124 
Ptinus, 185 
Puce, 227 
Puceron, 200 
Puffin, 129 
Pulex, 227 
Puma, 60 
Pumice-stone, 311 
Punaise, 199 
Punger, 232 
Putois, 53 
Pyrope, 217 
Pycnite, 321 
Q. 
Quail, 1 14 
Qualle, 249 
Quappe, 1 60 
Quartz, 305 
R. 
Rabbit, 48 
Rabenkrahe, 98 
Racoon, 55 
Raia, 151 
Raie, ib. 
Rail, 124 
Rainbow-fish, 163 
Rail its, 123 
Rampfhahn, 122 
Ramphastos, 93 
Rana, 137 
Raphidia, 215 
Rasen Eisenstein, 386 
Rat, 46 
Raton, 55 
Ratte, 46 
Rattlesnake, 144 
Raubfliege, 226 
Rauch-krystall, 306 
Rauch-schwalbe, 111 
Rautenspath, 343 
Raven, 98 

INDEX. 
XI 
Ravel, 194 
Ray, 151 
Razor-shell, 252 
Realgar, 396 
Rear-mouse, 43 
Reb-huhD, 1 15 
Recurvirostra, 125 
Red-bird, 105 
Red-mullet, 165 
Red-snake, 144 
Red-start, 109 
Red-wing, 103 
Regen-pfeiffer, 122 
Regen-wurm, 241 
Reh, 69 
Reiher, 120 
Rein-deer, 69 
Rell-maus, 44 
Rell mouse, ib. 
Remitz, 111 
Renard, 57 
Renne, 69 
Rennthier, ib. 
Rhincops, 124 
Rhinoceros, 72 
Rhinoceros,-bird, 94 
Rhomb-shell, 260 
Ribbon fish, 160 
Riesen-schlange, 143 
Ring-dove, 113 
Ringed-snake, 144 
Ringel-natter, 144 
Ring-taube, 113 
River-horse, 73 
Robbe, 74 
Robin-redbreast, 109 
Roche, 151 
Rock-crystal, 306 
Rock-shell, 261 
Rock-salt, 351 
Roe, 69 
Rohr-dommel, 121 
Roestone, 347 
Roitelet, 109 
Roller, 99 
Rollier, ib. 
Rook, 98 
Rose-chafer, 183 
Rossignol, 108 
Roth-barbe, 165 
Roth-bri3tchen, 109 
Rolh-gans, 127 
Rothel, 329 
Rouge gorge, 109 
Rouget, 165 
Round- worm, 241 
Roussette, 43 
Royal-crane, 120 
Royston-crow, 9S 
Rubellite, 323 
Ruby, 321 
Ruff, 122-164 
S. 
Saat-krahe, 98 
Sable, 53 
Sage-fisch, 152 
Sahlite, 340 
Sailor, 258 
Salamander, 141 
Salangane, 1 12 
Salmo, 166 
Salmon, ib. 
Salmon-trout, 1 67 
Salpa, 247 
Sand-crab, 232 
Sand-lance, 157 
Sand-martin, 112 
Sand stone, 359 
Sang-drossel, 103 
Sanglier, 70 
Sang-sue, 244 
Sapphire, 32 1 
Sardelle, 170 
Sardine, ib. 
Sarigue, 51 
Sauge-fisch, 160 
Saug-kiesel, 3 1 1 
Saumon, 166 
Sauterelle, 196 
Sauve-garde, 139 
Saw-fish, 152 
Scapolite, 325 
Scarabmus, 
Schaf, 65 
Scbaf-camel, 64 
Schakal, 57 
Scharbe, 127 
Sharlach-wurm, 202 
Schiff both, 258 
Schild-krote, 135 
Schiller-quartz. 310 
Schiller-spar, 324 
Schist, 330 
Schlciche 1 7 1 
Schlcicr-eule, 91 
Sehleim aal, 151 
Schmerling, 165 
Schnabelthier, 76 
Schnake, 223 
Scbnarre, 102 
Schnee-ammer, 105 
Schnee-eule, 91 
Scholle, 161 
Schorl, 323 
Schuppenthier, 61 
Schwan, 128 
Scwebfliege, 226 
Schwein, 170 
Schwimmstein, 31 1 
Scie de Mer, 152 
Sciena, 163 
Scimrus, 43, 
Scomber, 1 64 
Scolopax, 122 
Scorpsena, 161 
Scorpio, 231 
Scyllaea, 247 
Sea Anemone, 246 
Sea-ape, 153 
Sea-crow, 124 
Sea-devil, 152 
Sea-ear, 265 
Seal, 74 
Sea-lion, ib. 
Sea-otter, 7 5 
Sea-pie, 123 
Sea-swallow, 125 
Seche, 248 
Secretary-bird, 89 
See-adlcr, 90 
See-bar, 74 
See-hase, 155 
See-hund, 74 
See-kalb, ib. 
See-kuh, 76 
See-ohr, 265 
See-teufel, 152 
Seidenschwantz, 104 
Selenite, 349 
Sepia, 248 
Serin, 107 
Serpentine, 337 
Serpnla, 226 
Sertularia, 27 3 
Shad, 170 
Shale, 328 
Shark, 152 
Sheep, 65 

XU 
1NDKX. 
Sheep-tick, 226 
Shepherd, 229 
Shoveler, 129 
Shrew, 50 
Shrike, 92 
Shrimp, 233 
Siberite, 323 
Siebenschlafer, 44 
Silk-worm, 209 
Silver, 375 
Silver-bear, 54 
Silurus, 166 
Silver-fish, 161 
Smirgel, 322 
Sipunculus, 243 
Si rex, 216 
Siskin, 107 
Sitelle, 95 
Sitta, ib. 
Sizerin, 107 
Skate, 151 
Skipper, 190 
Skunk, 52 
Sky-lark, 102 
Sloth, 60 
Slow-worm, 144 
Slug, 244 
Smaragd, 320 
Smelt, 167 
Smirgel, 322 
Snail, 264 
Snipe, 122 
Snipe-fish, 155 
Snow-bunting, 105 
Snow finch, 106 
Snowy-owl, 91 
Soland-goose, 127 
Sole, 161 
Sonnengeyer, 89 
Sorex, 50 
Souchet, 129 
Sourd, 141 
Souris, 45 
Soapstone, 337 
Sparrow, 108 
Sparrow-hawk, 91 
Sparus, 162 
Spathose-iron, 385 
Spatula, 1 1 9 
Specular-iron 
Speckhauer, 78 
Sperber, 91 
Sperling 108, 
Sphe x, 217 
Sphenc, 397 
Spider, 229 
Spinne, ib. 
Spinelle, 321 
Spitzmaus, 50 
Spondylus, 254 
Spongia, 271, 
Spoon-bill, 119 
Sprat, 170 
Springbock, 66 
Springhase, 49 
Springkafer, 190 
Spring-tail, 227 
Sprotte, 170 
Squalus, 152 
Squirrel, 44 
Stachel-roche, 1 52 
Stachel-schwein, '1 9 
Stag, 69 
Stag-beetle, 184 
Stankeratz, 53 
Staphylinus, 193 
Stargazer, 159 
Staurolite, 318 
Steatite, 336 
Steinadler, 90 
Steinbock, 66 
Steinbutte, 162 
Steinmarder, 53 
Steinraark, 329 
Sterlet, 153 
Sternseher, 159 
Stickling, 164 
Stickleback, ib. 
Stieglitz, 107 
Sting-fish, 159 
Sting Ray, 152 
Stinkthier, 52 
Stinkstone, 343 
Stockdove, 1 12 
Stor, 153 
Storch, 120 
Stork, ib. 
Stossmaus, 45 
Strahlstein, 339 
Straus, 118 
Strix, 91 
Stromatens, 158 
Srotnbus, 261 
Strutbio, 11S 
Strontianite, 351 
Sturgeon, 153 
Sturnus, 102 
Styckjunk'are, 192 
Sucking-fish, 160 
Sulphur, 366 
Sun-fish, 155 
Sus, 70 
Swan, 128 
Syngnathus, 155 
T 
Tabanus, 225 
Tabenfalke, 9 1 
Tagvogel, 203 
Talc,) Q» 
Talk, \ 335 
Tailleur, 127 
Tailor-bird, 110 
Talpa, 50 
Tamandua, 61 
Tanagra, 106 
Tanche, 171 
Tannenkafer, 184 
Tantalus, 121 
Tantalum, 399 
Tapir, 71 
Tape-worm, 242 
Tarantula, 230 
Tarin, 107 
Tarrock, 125 
Tatu, 62 
Taupe, 50 
Taupin, 190 
Taxus, 54 
Tellina, 253 
Tellurium, 399 
Telesie, 321 
Tench, 171 
Tenebrio, 192 
Tenthredo, 216 
Terebella,'247 
Teredo, 266 
Termes, 221 
Terras, 333 
Testudo, 135 
Tethys, 247 
Tetraclasite, 325 
Tetrao, 1 1 4 
Tetras, 115 
Tetrodon, 154 
Thalia, 247 
Thon, 164 
Thonerde, 327 
Thrips, 202 
Thrush, 103 
Thumerstein, 314 
Thunnfisch, 1 64 

INDEX. 
xin 
Tick, 228 
Tiger, 59 
TOmmler, 78 
Tunny, 164 
w. 
Tigre, ib. 
Tin, 389 
Turaco, 101 
Turbo, 262 
Wachtel, 114 
Tincal, 364 
Turd us, 102 
Wacke, 330 
Tintenfis~h, 248 
Turkey, 117 
Wad, 570 
Tipula, 223 
Turtel-taube, 114 
Waldfink, 106 
Tique, 228 
Turtle, 135 
Waldmaus, 45 
Titaneisen, S83 
Turtle-dove, 1 1 4 
Waldschnepfe, 122 
Titanium, 398 
Turquoise, 322 
Wallfisch, 77 
Titmouse. 110 
Tute, 258 
Walkererde, 328 
Toad, 137 
u. 
Walross, 76 
Todier, 95 
Walrus, ib. 
Todus, 95 
Uferaas, 213 
Walsche Hahn, 117 
Todtenkafer, 193 
Uferschwalbe, 1 1 2 Walze, 260 
Topaz, 320 
Uistiti, 41 
Wampum. 254 
Topfstein, 335 
Umber, 385 
Wanderow, 40 
Torcol, 95 
Ukley, 171 
Wanze, 199 
Torpedo, 1 51 
Upupa, 96 
Waschbar, 
Torpille, ib. 
Uranoscopus, 158 
Wasserkafer, 190 
Tortoise, 135 
Uranium ? 
Wasserkies, 383 
Tortue, ib. 
Uranocher S' 31 " 
Wassermolch, 141 
Toucan, 93 
Ursine Seal, 74 
Wasser-ratte, 45 
Tourmaline, 323 
Urson, 49 
Wasser-spitzmauss, 50 
Tourterelle, 114 
Ursus, 54 
Water-beetle, 191 
Trachinus, 159 
Trap, 331 
V. 
Water Rat, 45 
Water-moth, 214 
Trampelthier, 64 
Vairon, 171 
Water Scorpion, 199 
Trappe, 1 1 8 
Vampire, 42 
Water Shrew, 50 
Tree-frog, 138 
Vanneau, 122 
Water.wagtail, 108 
Trembleur, 166 
Variolite, 332 
WaveRite, 330 
Tremolile, 340 
Varying Hare, 48 Weasel, 5S 
Trichechus, 76 
Vautour, 89 
Weberknecht, 229 
Trichiurus, 157 
Veau-marin, 74 
Weg-schnecke, 244 
Trichocephalus, 241 
Venus, 253 
Weihe, 90 
Trigla, 165 
Verdier, 105 
Wein-drossel, 103 
Tringa, 122 
Vesperlilio, 42 
Weis, 166 
Tripoli, ib. 
Vesuvian, S16 
Welt-auge, 310 
Tripel, 311 
Vibrio, 276 
Wendehals, 95 
Trochilus, 97 
Vicugna, 64 
Werrc, 196 
Trochu3, 262 
Vielfrass, 54 
Wetter-fisch, 166 
Trogon, 100 
Vigogne, 64 
Whale, 77 
Tropic-bird, 162 
Vipere, 143 
Whet Slate, 331 
Tropik-vogel, ib. 
Vitriol (blue) 
Whinstone, ib. 
Trout, 167 
(cobalt) 
363 White Copper, 379 
Truite, ib. 
Trumpeter, 124 
(green) 
(white) 
Whidah Bird, 106 
White Ant, 221 
Trummerstein, 353 
Trunk-fish, 154 
Viverra, 52 
Whiting, 159 
Voluta, 260 
Wiedehopf, 96 
Tubularia, 270 
Volvox, 277 
Wiesel, 53 
Tnbipora, ib. 
Vorticella, 276 
Wismuthglanz, 391 
Tufa, 333 
Vrillette, 185 
Witling, 1 59 
Tuffwacke, ib. 
Vulture, 89 
Wittwe, 106 

XIV 
INDEX 
Witherite, 352 
Wolf, 57 
AVolverene, 54 
Wombat, 51 
Wood Tin, 389 
Wood-beetle, 190 
Wood-cock, 122 
Wood-louse, 234 
Wood-stone, 313 
Wren, 109 
W ry-neck, 95 
Wurfelerz, 386 
Wurger, 92 
Wurzelmaus, 45 
X. 
Xiphias, 15S 
Y. 
Yellow-hammer, 105 
Yellow Earth, 329 
Ytterite, 319 
Yttro Tantalite, 400 
z. 
Zander, 1 63 
ZannkOnig, 109 
Zaisig. 107 
Zebra, 63 
Zcmni, 149 
Zeolite, 315 
Zeus, 161 
Zibeline, 53 
Zibeth-katze, 52 
Ziege, 65 
Zinc, 390 
Zinnkies, 389 
Zitter-aal, 157 
Zitter-wels, 166 
Zircon, 319 
Zobel, 53 
Zug-heuschrecke, 196 
Zug-taube, 1 14 
PRINTED BY C. SMITH, ANGEL COURT, STRAND. 





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