link
THE
THE
BY
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE FOURTH
AND
Quaeramus optima, nec protinus se offerentibus
gaudeamus:
adhibeatur judicium inventis, dispositio probatis.Quintilian. 
TO
Believe me,
My dear Sir,
Your very faithful friend and servant,
JOHN ELLIOTSON.
LONDON , March 1st, 1828. 
JOHN ELLIOTSON.
Grafton Street, Bond Street,
March 1. 1828. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
May 7. 1821. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
THE
SECT. I.
SECT. II.
SECT. III.
CHAP. IV.
[binding_recto]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[titlePage_recto]
THE
ELEMENTS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY.
[titlePage_verso]
LONDON:
printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New-Street-Square.
printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New-Street-Square.
[titlePage_recto]
THE
ELEMENTS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY,
BY
J. FRED. BLUMENBACH , M. D.
F. R. S.
professor of medicine in the university of
göttingen.
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE FOURTH
AND
LAST EDITION,
AND SUPPLIED
WITH COPIOUS NOTES,
BY
JOHN
ELLIOTSON, M. D. Cantab.
fellow of the royal college
of physicians;
physician to, and lecturer on the practice of medicine
in,
st. thomas’s hospital.
FOURTH EDITION.
adhibeatur judicium inventis, dispositio probatis.
LONDON:
printed for
LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
paternoster-row.
1828 .
printed for
LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
paternoster-row.
[titlePage_verso]
[v]
TO
PROFESSOR BLUMENBACH.
My dear Sir,
Some few persons I do envy, and you are of
the
number. In a green old age, still enjoying great
mental activity and a most cheerful disposition, living,
like so many of your scientific countrymen, in a little
village, with the utmost simplicity, a stranger to the
desire of wealth and the absurd ambition of worldly im-
portance, but holding highly responsible offices in an
illustrious though humble university, – you are cele-
brated in every country for an extensive and profound
knowledge of natural history, for the number of facts
which you have yourself contributed, for a perfect
acquaintance with all the writings of others, for the
production of numerous works, translated into various
languages, and distinguished by copiousness and
number. In a green old age, still enjoying great
mental activity and a most cheerful disposition, living,
like so many of your scientific countrymen, in a little
village, with the utmost simplicity, a stranger to the
desire of wealth and the absurd ambition of worldly im-
portance, but holding highly responsible offices in an
illustrious though humble university, – you are cele-
brated in every country for an extensive and profound
knowledge of natural history, for the number of facts
which you have yourself contributed, for a perfect
acquaintance with all the writings of others, for the
production of numerous works, translated into various
languages, and distinguished by copiousness and
[vi]
accuracy of information,
sound opinions, and a con-
ciseness, perspicuity, and elegance that are seldom
seen; and no less for the powerful impulse which
you gave to the study of natural history, and espe-
cially of the Natural History of Man, almost before
the present generation existed.
ciseness, perspicuity, and elegance that are seldom
seen; and no less for the powerful impulse which
you gave to the study of natural history, and espe-
cially of the Natural History of Man, almost before
the present generation existed.
To you I take the liberty of dedicating this work,
and with the more delight, as I know from the hap-
piness of personal acquaintance your liberal and
amiable disposition, your attachment to England,
and admiration of whatever is English.
and with the more delight, as I know from the hap-
piness of personal acquaintance your liberal and
amiable disposition, your attachment to England,
and admiration of whatever is English.
My dear Sir,
Your very faithful friend and servant,
[[vii]]
TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.
Since the last publication of
this work, a new
edition of the original has appeared. The text con-
tains no additions, and very few alterations, but
the references are augmented. According to this,
the present edition is re-modelled, and the whole
translation has been carefully revised.
edition of the original has appeared. The text con-
tains no additions, and very few alterations, but
the references are augmented. According to this,
the present edition is re-modelled, and the whole
translation has been carefully revised.
The notes are doubled in amount, and indeed may
be almost considered perfectly new. Many points
are for the first time examined, former notes are
modified and enlarged, and the numerous and im-
portant discoveries lately made in physiology are
introduced.
be almost considered perfectly new. Many points
are for the first time examined, former notes are
modified and enlarged, and the numerous and im-
portant discoveries lately made in physiology are
introduced.
Every opinion defended is that which seems to
me the fairest conclusion from our facts relative
to the subject. I can never bow to authority in
matters of investigation, but feel myself compelled
sentire quae velim; and, when a necessity for ex-
pressing an opinion exists, I hope always to have
courage sufficient dicere quae sentiam.
me the fairest conclusion from our facts relative
to the subject. I can never bow to authority in
matters of investigation, but feel myself compelled
sentire quae velim; and, when a necessity for ex-
pressing an opinion exists, I hope always to have
courage sufficient dicere quae sentiam.
[viii]
I have taken great pains to make myself master of
all important physiological facts, and to reason cor-
rectly from them; to give every author the credit of
originality which he deserves; and to be accurate in
my references. But after all I may frequently have
failed. If my inaccuracies cannot be excused on
the ground of the number and diversity of the points
examined, or my almost constant occupation with
another branch of medicine, both as a lecturer and a
public and private practitioner, I can only assure my
readers that the detection of any failure in reasoning
or inaccuracy of statement will be gratefully received,
and that my highest object and happiness are the ac-
quisition and dissemination of truth.
all important physiological facts, and to reason cor-
rectly from them; to give every author the credit of
originality which he deserves; and to be accurate in
my references. But after all I may frequently have
failed. If my inaccuracies cannot be excused on
the ground of the number and diversity of the points
examined, or my almost constant occupation with
another branch of medicine, both as a lecturer and a
public and private practitioner, I can only assure my
readers that the detection of any failure in reasoning
or inaccuracy of statement will be gratefully received,
and that my highest object and happiness are the ac-
quisition and dissemination of truth.
[[ix]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO
THE LAST EDITION.
Whenever my booksellers have
informed me that
a new edition of any of my works was required, my
greatest pleasure has been at having an opportunity
of correcting inaccuracies arising either from care-
lessness or the imperfection of human nature, and of
adding in some places and altering in others; in
short, of sending forth the production of my abilities
in as improved a state as possible.
a new edition of any of my works was required, my
greatest pleasure has been at having an opportunity
of correcting inaccuracies arising either from care-
lessness or the imperfection of human nature, and of
adding in some places and altering in others; in
short, of sending forth the production of my abilities
in as improved a state as possible.
In preparing this new edition of my Institutions
of Physiology for the press, the same anxious wish
has been considerably heightened by the importance
of the subject, and by the approbation evidently
bestowed upon the last edition from its translation
of Physiology for the press, the same anxious wish
has been considerably heightened by the importance
of the subject, and by the approbation evidently
bestowed upon the last edition from its translation
[x]
into various languages,
of its favourable reception. I have endeavoured,
therefore, to enrich it not so much with an addition
of pages, as of various matter, and to render the
whole as useful to students as possible.
Into German, by Jos.
Eyerel. Vienna, 1789.
Ed. 2. Ib. 1795.
Into Dutch, by two writers. First, by P. J.
Wolff, with a pre-
face by Rud. Forsten. Harderwick, 1791. Afterwards, by
James Vosmaer. Ib. 1807.
face by Rud. Forsten. Harderwick, 1791. Afterwards, by
James Vosmaer. Ib. 1807.
Into English, by two writers likewise. First, by
C. Caldwell,
Philadelphia, 1795.
Philadelphia, 1795.
Afterwards, by J. Elliotson. London, 1815.
Ed. 2. Ib. 1817. This second edition is a curiosity in typo-
graphy, being the first book printed by steam. The printers were
Bensley and Son.
graphy, being the first book printed by steam. The printers were
Bensley and Son.
Ed. 3. Ib. 1820.
Into French, by J. Fr. Pugnet. Lyons, 1797.
Into Spanish, by Jos. Coll. Madrid, 1801.
Into Russian, by Borsuk Moiseew. Moscow,
1796.
of its favourable reception. I have endeavoured,
therefore, to enrich it not so much with an addition
of pages, as of various matter, and to render the
whole as useful to students as possible.
The little figure which I have thought a very
appropriate ornament for the title-page of the work,
viz. a representation of the human body, made by
Prometheus, but animated by Pallas, I borrowed
from the relievo of a sarcophagus in the Capitoline
Museum.
appropriate ornament for the title-page of the work,
viz. a representation of the human body, made by
Prometheus, but animated by Pallas, I borrowed
from the relievo of a sarcophagus in the Capitoline
Museum.
This the translator has thought it superfluous to insert. – J.
E.
[[xi]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO
THE FIRST EDITION.
The same considerations which
led Boerhaave, and
after him Haller, to write their Compendiums of
Physiology, induced the Author to compose these
Institutions.
after him Haller, to write their Compendiums of
Physiology, induced the Author to compose these
Institutions.
The former says,
&c.
“that a teacher succeeds better
in explaining his own thoughts than in commenting
upon a work written by another, – that his instruction
will be clearer, and his language generally animated,”
&c.
Pref. to the Institut. Medic. Leyden.
Fourth edition.
The latter,
“That, although he formerly used
Boerhaave’swork as a text-book, he afterwards
lectured upon one written by himself because anatomy
[xii]
had been so improved since the time ofBoerhaave,
as to have become almost a new science.”
Pref. to the Prim. lin. Physiol. Göttingen.
First edition.
What Haller said at that period respecting ana-
tomy, will be allowed to apply much more forcibly
at present to Physiology, by any one who considers
the most important parts of the science, – the princi-
pal purpose of respiration, animal heat, digestion,
the true nature and use of the bile, the function of
generation, &c.
tomy, will be allowed to apply much more forcibly
at present to Physiology, by any one who considers
the most important parts of the science, – the princi-
pal purpose of respiration, animal heat, digestion,
the true nature and use of the bile, the function of
generation, &c.
More, therefore, must be ascribed to the age than
to the Author, if in these Institutions, after so many
modern physiological discoveries, he has delivered
doctrines more sound and natural than it was in the
power of his most meritorious predecessors to
deliver.
to the Author, if in these Institutions, after so many
modern physiological discoveries, he has delivered
doctrines more sound and natural than it was in the
power of his most meritorious predecessors to
deliver.
Whatever he can claim as his own, whether really
new or only presented in a new view, will easily be
discovered by the learned and impartial reader:
especially from the notes, in which he has treated
some of these subjects rather more minutely than
was compatible in the text with the conciseness of
his plan.
new or only presented in a new view, will easily be
discovered by the learned and impartial reader:
especially from the notes, in which he has treated
some of these subjects rather more minutely than
was compatible in the text with the conciseness of
his plan.
[xiii]
He has been at great pains in arranging the
subjects, so that the sections might succeed naturally
and easily, and arise, as it were, one out of another.
subjects, so that the sections might succeed naturally
and easily, and arise, as it were, one out of another.
He has not quoted a dry farrago of books, but a
select number, in doing which, he has been desirous
both of pointing out to students some excellent au-
thors not commonly known, especially those who
have professedly treated on particular branches of
the subject, and of opening, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he conceives,
to Physiology, as they deserve.
select number, in doing which, he has been desirous
both of pointing out to students some excellent au-
thors not commonly known, especially those who
have professedly treated on particular branches of
the subject, and of opening, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he conceives,
to Physiology, as they deserve.
He has referred to the best anatomical plates;
most frequently to those of Eustachius, because he
would wish every medical student to possess Albinus’s
edition of them, as the richest and most perfect work
of the kind, or rather, he should say, as a treasure
which can never be praised sufficiently.
most frequently to those of Eustachius, because he
would wish every medical student to possess Albinus’s
edition of them, as the richest and most perfect work
of the kind, or rather, he should say, as a treasure
which can never be praised sufficiently.
He has indeed given some original engravings of
parts either not represented at all by Eustachius, or
not in the same point of view.
parts either not represented at all by Eustachius, or
not in the same point of view.
These are of the heart, eye, testis in its
descent, and the
ovum. The Translator has judged it unnecessary to have them
copied, as English students rarely consult Eustachius, but study
native anatomists, in whose works these parts are given with
the others of the body. – J. E.
ovum. The Translator has judged it unnecessary to have them
copied, as English students rarely consult Eustachius, but study
native anatomists, in whose works these parts are given with
the others of the body. – J. E.
[xiv]
His grand object has been to deliver, in a faithful,
concise, and intelligible manner, the principles of a
science inferior in beauty, importance, and utility, to
no part of medicine, if the words prefixed by the
immortal Galen to his Methodus Medendi, are true,
as they most certainly are: –
concise, and intelligible manner, the principles of a
science inferior in beauty, importance, and utility, to
no part of medicine, if the words prefixed by the
immortal Galen to his Methodus Medendi, are true,
as they most certainly are: –
“The magnitude of a
disease is in proportion to its deviation from the
healthy state; and the extent of this deviation can be
ascertained by him only who is perfectly acquainted
with the healthy state.”
[[xv]]
CONTENTS.
Sect.
page
- Of the Living Human Body in general 1
- Of the Fluids in general, and particularly of
the
Blood 6 - Of the Solids in general, and of the Mucous Web
in particular 23 - Of the Vital Powers in general, and particularly
of Contractility 27 - Of the Mental Faculties 40
- Of Health and Human Nature 50
- Of the Motion of the Blood 81
- Of Respiration and its principal Use 110
- Of the Voice and Speech 139
- Of Animal Heat 154
- Of Perspiration 172
- Of the Functions of the Nervous System in general 188
- Of the external Senses in general, and of
Touch
in particular 227 - Of Taste 232
- Of Smell 235
- Of Hearing 240
- Of Sight 246
- Of the Voluntary Motions 263
- Of Muscular Motion 270
- Of Sleep 281
- Of Food and Hunger 294
- Of Mastication and Deglutition 313
- Of Digestion 319
- Of the Pancreatic Juice 328
- Of the Bile 331
- Of the Function of the Spleen 342
[xvi]
- Of the Function of the Omentum 348
- Of the Function of the Intestines 350
- Of the Function of the Absorbent Vessels 360
- Of Sanguification 377
- Of Nutrition 382
- Of the Secretions in general 389
- Of the Fat 401
- Of the Urine 405
- Of the general Differences of the Sexes 411
- Of the Genital Function in Man 431
- Of the Genital Function of Woman in general 452
- Of the Menstrua 461
- Of Conception and Pregnancy 467
- Of the Nisus Formativus 490
- Of Labour and its Sequelae 499
- Of the Milk 503
- Of the Differences in the System before
and
after Birth 514 - Of the Growth, Stationary Condition, and De-
crease of the Human System 521
The Translator’s Notes follow the section to which the subject
of each respectively belongs.
of each respectively belongs.
The note on the characteristics and varieties of mankind, being
an independent addition, is placed last, and begins at p. 539.
an independent addition, is placed last, and begins at p. 539.
[1]
THE
ELEMENTS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY.
SECT. I.
OF THE LIVING HUMAN BODY IN GENERAL.
1. In the living human body, regarded as a
peculiar
organisation, there are three objects of consideration.
organisation, there are three objects of consideration.
Thus, long ago, the author of the book generally
included among the writ-
ings of Hippocrates, Epidemic. VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said,
celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr. Kaau Boerhaave,
entitled,
1745. 8vo.
ings of Hippocrates, Epidemic. VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said,
“Those things whichThis
contain, are contained, or moved in us with force, are to be considered.”
celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr. Kaau Boerhaave,
entitled,
“Impetum faciens dictum Hippocrati per corpus consentiens.”L. B.
1745. 8vo.
The materials of its subsistence, afforded by the
fluids;
The structure of the solids, containing the fluids;
Lastly, and principally, the vital powers, by which the solids
are enabled to receive the influence of the fluids, to propel
the fluids, and to perform various other motions; and which,
as they, in a certain sense, constitute the essence of the living
machine in general, so, likewise, are of very different orders,
some being common to animals and vegetables, some peculiar
to animals and intimately connected with the mental faculties.
The structure of the solids, containing the fluids;
Lastly, and principally, the vital powers, by which the solids
are enabled to receive the influence of the fluids, to propel
the fluids, and to perform various other motions; and which,
as they, in a certain sense, constitute the essence of the living
machine in general, so, likewise, are of very different orders,
some being common to animals and vegetables, some peculiar
to animals and intimately connected with the mental faculties.
[2]
2. But these three, although really distinct, and, therefore,
distinctly considered by us, are so closely connected in the
living system (the phenomena, conditions, and laws of whose
functions, in the healthy state, are the object of physiology),
that no one can be contemplated but in its relation to the
rest.
distinctly considered by us, are so closely connected in the
living system (the phenomena, conditions, and laws of whose
functions, in the healthy state, are the object of physiology),
that no one can be contemplated but in its relation to the
rest.
For the materials of the body, although originally fluid,
are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on the other
hand, the solids, besides having been formed from the fluids,
abound, however dry they may appear, in various kinds of
fluid constituents, both liquid and permanently elastic, – gasi-
form, as they are termed; lastly, it may probably be affirmed
that no fibril, during life, is destitute of vital power.
are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on the other
hand, the solids, besides having been formed from the fluids,
abound, however dry they may appear, in various kinds of
fluid constituents, both liquid and permanently elastic, – gasi-
form, as they are termed; lastly, it may probably be affirmed
that no fibril, during life, is destitute of vital power.
3. We shall now examine each of these separately; and,
first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which form both
the fundamental and most considerable
bodies.
first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which form both
the fundamental and most considerable
The great preponderance
of the fluids is strikingly exemplified in an entire,
but perfectly dry, mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anthropological collection by the
illustrious Banks, and, with all its viscera and muscles, wonderfully dried, weighs
only 7 1/2 lbs.
but perfectly dry, mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anthropological collection by the
illustrious Banks, and, with all its viscera and muscles, wonderfully dried, weighs
only 7 1/2 lbs.
bodies.
NOTE.
Attempts have been made to specify the elementary
tissues of
which the various organs are composed.
which the various organs are composed.
Dr. Carmichael Smyth, in an admirable paper upon inflammation,
considered the disease according to the structures which it
affects, – the skin, cellular membrane, serous membranes, mucous
membranes, and muscular fibres
considered the disease according to the structures which it
affects, – the skin, cellular membrane, serous membranes, mucous
membranes, and muscular fibres
Medical Communications,
by a Society for the Promotion of Medical
Knowledge,
vol. ii. 1790. Read to the Society, Jan. 1788.
vol. ii. 1790. Read to the Society, Jan. 1788.
[3]
adopted this
arrangement,
all diseases might be considered in this manner, and distributed
the structures, or elementary tissues, into twenty-one kinds: –
Nosographie Philosophique, 1797.
all diseases might be considered in this manner, and distributed
the structures, or elementary tissues, into twenty-one kinds: –
| 1. Cellular, | 12. Fibro-cartilaginous, |
| 2. Nervous, of animal life, | 13. Muscular, of animal life |
| 3. Nervous, of organic life, | 14. Muscular, of organic life, |
| 4. Arterial, | 15. Mucous, |
| 5. Venous, | 16. Serous, |
| 6. Exhalant, | 17. Synovial, |
| 7. Absorbent, with its glands, | 18. Glandular, |
| 8. Osseous, | 19. Dermoid, |
| 9. Medullary, | 20. Epidermoid, |
| 10. Cartilaginous, | 21. Pilous. Anatomie Générale, t. 1. p.
lxxx. |
| 11. Fibrous (tendino-fibrous), |
This arrangement, Dr. Rudolphi remarks, is physiological rather
than anatomical, and he distributes the elementary tissues into
eight classes only: –
than anatomical, and he distributes the elementary tissues into
eight classes only: –
| Cellular, | Tendinous, |
| Horny, | Vascular, |
| Cartilaginous, | Muscular, and |
| Osseous, | Nervous Grundriss der Physiologie,
68. |
The primary solids, of which these tissues are said
to be com-
posed, are, the cellular fibre, the muscular fibre, and the nervous
fibre.
posed, are, the cellular fibre, the muscular fibre, and the nervous
fibre.
See
Appendix, by Dr. Copeland, to his translation of Richerand’s Nouveaux
Elémens de Physiologie, p. 553. sqq. Many writers have asserted the globular
composition of various parts of the animal and vegetable frame. Lately, the cel-
lular, muscular, and nervous structures were described as consisting of globules,
and some novel views presented, by Dr. M. Edwards. (Archives Générales de
Médecine, t. 3. Paris, 1823.) But the whole results have just been denied by
Dr. Hodgkin and Mr. Lister, who repeated the examination with a much superior
microscope. Philos. Magazine, August, 1827.
Elémens de Physiologie, p. 553. sqq. Many writers have asserted the globular
composition of various parts of the animal and vegetable frame. Lately, the cel-
lular, muscular, and nervous structures were described as consisting of globules,
and some novel views presented, by Dr. M. Edwards. (Archives Générales de
Médecine, t. 3. Paris, 1823.) But the whole results have just been denied by
Dr. Hodgkin and Mr. Lister, who repeated the examination with a much superior
microscope. Philos. Magazine, August, 1827.
Another author professes to have made still more minute discoveries
than
Dr. Edwards. Dutrochet, Recherches, Anatomiques et Physiologiques, sur la
Structure Interne des Animaux et Végétaux.
Dr. Edwards. Dutrochet, Recherches, Anatomiques et Physiologiques, sur la
Structure Interne des Animaux et Végétaux.
[4]
The proximate principles, or distinct chemical
compounds of
animal bodies, are: –
animal bodies, are: –
[Abbildung: ]
The elements, or ultimate
principles of animal bodies, into which
the distinct compounds may be resolved, are: –
the distinct compounds may be resolved, are: –
Hydrogen,
Carbon,
Oxygen,
Azote,
Chlorin, iodin, fluorin?
Sulphur,
Phosphorus,
Potassium,
Sodium,
[5]
Calcium,
Magnesium, silicium?
Manganese?
Iron.
The ultimate principles of vegetables may be considered the
same as those of animals.
same as those of animals.
Vegetable proximate principles are very numerous; the follow-
ing may be considered as the chief: –
ing may be considered as the chief: –
| Sugar, Starch, Lignin, Gum, mucus, jelly, Extractive, colouring matters, bitter principles, Gluten, Oils, fixed and volatile, Resins, | } All subject to endless variety as occurring in different plants. |
The following are constant in their character, or are peculiar
to certain vegetables.
to certain vegetables.
Various acids – Oxalic, citric, tartaric, malic,
moroxylic, gallic,
laccic, kinic, boletic, prussic, meconic, benzoic.
laccic, kinic, boletic, prussic, meconic, benzoic.
Various alkaline bodies – Quinina, cinchonina,
morphina, strych-
nina, brucina, delphina, picrotoxina, atropia, veratrina,
hyoscyamina.
nina, brucina, delphina, picrotoxina, atropia, veratrina,
hyoscyamina.
Indigo,
Tan,
Suber,
Caoutchouc,
Wax,
Asparagin, ulmin, inulin, fungin, polychroite,
haematin, nicotin,
pollenin, emetin, sarcocol, olivile, medullin, lupulin,
cathartin, piperin, &c.
pollenin, emetin, sarcocol, olivile, medullin, lupulin,
cathartin, piperin, &c.
[6]
SECT. II.
OF THE FLUIDS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY
OF THE
BLOOD.
4. The fluids of the body
to three classes.
Suffice it, once for all, to recommend, on the chemical
investigation of the
fluids of the human body, J. Jacob Berzelius’s Föreläsningar i Diurkemien.
Stockholm, 1806–1808. two vols. 8vo.
fluids of the human body, J. Jacob Berzelius’s Föreläsningar i Diurkemien.
Stockholm, 1806–1808. two vols. 8vo.
to three classes.
A. The crude; viz. the chyle, contained in the primae
viae
and destined to become blood; and matters absorbed on the
surface and conveyed to the chyle.
and destined to become blood; and matters absorbed on the
surface and conveyed to the chyle.
B. The blood itself.
C. Those secreted from the blood, whether inert and
ex-
crementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain pur-
poses in the economy: the latter may be permanently liquid,
as the bile; or disposed to solidity, as the osseous and other
plastic juices.
crementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain pur-
poses in the economy: the latter may be permanently liquid,
as the bile; or disposed to solidity, as the osseous and other
plastic juices.
5. Of the first and third of these classes we shall hereafter
speak, in treating of chylification, secretion, and the other
functions to which each fluid appertains. At present our
attention shall be devoted to the blood
mary fluid –the vehicle of those successions of oxygenous
and carbonaceous particles, that cease with life only – the
nourisher of the frame – the source of almost every fluid –
that into which the crude fluid is converted, and from which
all the secretions are derived – and which, with the excep-
tion of some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
noid, the amnion, &c., the vitreous substance of the teeth, the
body of the crystalline lens, &c., is universally diffused
through the system; in various proportions, indeed, according
speak, in treating of chylification, secretion, and the other
functions to which each fluid appertains. At present our
attention shall be devoted to the blood
J. Hunter, Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c.
London, 1794. 4to.
mary fluid –the vehicle of those successions of oxygenous
and carbonaceous particles, that cease with life only – the
nourisher of the frame – the source of almost every fluid –
that into which the crude fluid is converted, and from which
all the secretions are derived – and which, with the excep-
tion of some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
noid, the amnion, &c., the vitreous substance of the teeth, the
body of the crystalline lens, &c., is universally diffused
through the system; in various proportions, indeed, according
[7]
to the various natures of
parts, v. c. abundantly in the muscles,
and still more so in certain viscera, as the spleen, placenta,
and uterus at an advanced period of pregnancy; very spar-
ingly, on the other hand, in the tendons and cartilages.
and still more so in certain viscera, as the spleen, placenta,
and uterus at an advanced period of pregnancy; very spar-
ingly, on the other hand, in the tendons and cartilages.
It is
astonishing how variously physiologists have estimated the quantity
of
blood in a well formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Abildgaard, make it scarcely
more than 8 pounds; Harvey, 9; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Riolan, 40; Ham-
berger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The former are evidently nearer the truth. (A)
blood in a well formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Abildgaard, make it scarcely
more than 8 pounds; Harvey, 9; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Riolan, 40; Ham-
berger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The former are evidently nearer the truth. (A)
6. The blood is a fluid sui generis, of a well known
colour
and peculiar odour; its taste is rather saline and nauseous;
its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit; it is glutinous to
the touch; its specific gravity, though different in different
individuals, may be generally estimated as 1050, water being
1000; when fresh drawn and received into a vessel, it ex-
hibits the following appearances:
and peculiar odour; its taste is rather saline and nauseous;
its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit; it is glutinous to
the touch; its specific gravity, though different in different
individuals, may be generally estimated as 1050, water being
1000; when fresh drawn and received into a vessel, it ex-
hibits the following appearances:
J. Martin Butt, De spontanea
sanguinis separatione. Edinb. 1760. 8vo.
reprinted in Sandifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J. H. L. Bader, Experimenta circa
sanguinem. Argent. 1788. 8vo.
reprinted in Sandifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J. H. L. Bader, Experimenta circa
sanguinem. Argent. 1788. 8vo.
7. At first, especially while still warm, it emits a vapour
which has of late been denominated an animal gas, and shown
to consist of hydrogen and carbon, suspended by caloric.
This, if collected in a bell glass, forms drops resembling dew,
of a watery nature, but affording a nidorous smell, which is
most remarkable in the blood of carnivorous animals, is
peculiar, and truly animal. Much of this watery liquor still
remains united with the other parts of the blood, hereafter to
be mentioned. (C)
which has of late been denominated an animal gas, and shown
to consist of hydrogen and carbon, suspended by caloric.
The elements of aëriform fluids of course exist in the blood; that
they are
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed, was
clearly shown in some experiments made by me during the year 1812, upon other
mammalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air, infused into the
jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and, if the quantity
was a little increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these experiments in
the Medicin. Biblioth. vol. i. p. 177.
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed, was
clearly shown in some experiments made by me during the year 1812, upon other
mammalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air, infused into the
jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and, if the quantity
was a little increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these experiments in
the Medicin. Biblioth. vol. i. p. 177.
The illustrious Bichat observed the same effects in his experiments. Journal
de Santé, &c. de Bourdeaux, t. ii. p. 61. (B)
de Santé, &c. de Bourdeaux, t. ii. p. 61. (B)
This, if collected in a bell glass, forms drops resembling dew,
of a watery nature, but affording a nidorous smell, which is
most remarkable in the blood of carnivorous animals, is
peculiar, and truly animal. Much of this watery liquor still
remains united with the other parts of the blood, hereafter to
be mentioned. (C)
8. In the mean time the blood, when its temperature has
fallen to about 78° Fahr., begins to separate into two portions.
A coagulum is first formed, from the surface of which exudes,
fallen to about 78° Fahr., begins to separate into two portions.
A coagulum is first formed, from the surface of which exudes,
[8]
as it were, a fluid of a
yellowish slightly red colour, denomi-
nated serum: the more abundantly this exudes, the greater is
the contraction of the glutinous coagulum, which has received
the appellations of crassamentum; and, from some resemblance
to the liver in colour and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of
placenta; and, from the circumstance of its being surrounded
by the serum, of insula. (D)
nated serum: the more abundantly this exudes, the greater is
the contraction of the glutinous coagulum, which has received
the appellations of crassamentum; and, from some resemblance
to the liver in colour and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of
placenta; and, from the circumstance of its being surrounded
by the serum, of insula. (D)
9. The crassamentum may, by agitation or repeated ablu-
tion, be easily separated into two constituent parts – the
cruor, which gave to the blood its purple colour, – and the
lymph, which on washing is forsaken by the cruor, and called,
from its greater solidity, the basis of the crassamentum. The
stronger affinity of the cruor for the lymph than for the serum,
is proved by the necessity of violence to effect their disunion.
By the removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gradually
paler, till it is at length merely a white tenacious coagulum.
(E)
tion, be easily separated into two constituent parts – the
cruor, which gave to the blood its purple colour, – and the
lymph, which on washing is forsaken by the cruor, and called,
from its greater solidity, the basis of the crassamentum. The
stronger affinity of the cruor for the lymph than for the serum,
is proved by the necessity of violence to effect their disunion.
By the removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gradually
paler, till it is at length merely a white tenacious coagulum.
(E)
10. Besides the watery fluid first mentioned, these are the
three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum, the cruor, and
the lymph, of each of which we shall presently treat more
particularly. These, however, while perfectly recent, and in
possession of their native heat, are intimately mixed, and
form an equable, homogeneous fluid. Their relative propor-
tion is astonishingly diversified, according to age, tempera-
ment, diet, and similar circumstances which constitute the
peculiar health of each individual.
three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum, the cruor, and
the lymph, of each of which we shall presently treat more
particularly. These, however, while perfectly recent, and in
possession of their native heat, are intimately mixed, and
form an equable, homogeneous fluid. Their relative propor-
tion is astonishingly diversified, according to age, tempera-
ment, diet, and similar circumstances which constitute the
peculiar health of each individual.
11. The serum is a peculiar fluid, the chief cause of
the
viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art into dif-
ferent constituent principles. If subjected to a temperature
of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a white scissile sub-
stance, resembling boiled albumen: the rest exhibits, besides
the watery fluid so often mentioned, a turbid fluid of a gela-
tinous, or rather mucous
tremulous coagulum. The serum is remarkable for the
quantity of soda (mineral alkali) which it contains. (F)
viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art into dif-
ferent constituent principles. If subjected to a temperature
of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a white scissile sub-
stance, resembling boiled albumen: the rest exhibits, besides
the watery fluid so often mentioned, a turbid fluid of a gela-
tinous, or rather mucous
J. Bostock, Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,
published by the Medical and
Chirurgical Society of London, vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
Chirurgical Society of London, vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
tremulous coagulum. The serum is remarkable for the
quantity of soda (mineral alkali) which it contains. (F)
[9]
12. The cruor has many peculiarities, in regard to
both
the colour and the figure of its particles.
the colour and the figure of its particles.
It consists of globules, which in recent blood are of a
con-
stant form and size, and said to be 1/3300 of an inch in diame-
ter. Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dispute, but
I am disposed to consider it as much more simple than some
writers of great celebrity have imagined. I have always
found it globular, and could never discover the lenticular
shape which some have asserted that they remarked.
stant form and size, and said to be 1/3300 of an inch in diame-
ter. Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dispute, but
I am disposed to consider it as much more simple than some
writers of great celebrity have imagined. I have always
found it globular, and could never discover the lenticular
shape which some have asserted that they remarked.
It has been likewise advanced, that the globules change
their form while passing through a vessel of very small capa-
city, – that, from being spherical, they become oval; and,
when they have emerged into a vessel of larger area, that
they resume their globular shape.
by no means deny it, I cannot conceive to occur during the
tranquil and healthy motion of the blood, but should refer it
to a spasm of the small vessels.
their form while passing through a vessel of very small capa-
city, – that, from being spherical, they become oval; and,
when they have emerged into a vessel of larger area, that
they resume their globular shape.
G. Chr. Reichel, De sanguine
ejusque motu experimenta. Lips. 1767. 4to.
p. 27. fig. 3. g. g.
p. 27. fig. 3. g. g.
by no means deny it, I cannot conceive to occur during the
tranquil and healthy motion of the blood, but should refer it
to a spasm of the small vessels.
Their globular figure can be seen in a living animal only,
or in blood very recently drawn: for they are soon unobserv-
able, becoming a shapeless mass which resembles serum in
every circumstance excepting colour.
or in blood very recently drawn: for they are soon unobserv-
able, becoming a shapeless mass which resembles serum in
every circumstance excepting colour.
Consult Ever. Home, Phil. Trans. 1818. P. I. p. 172.
13. Their colour is red, and from it is derived the
colour
of the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely; paler in ani-
mals which have been poorly nourished or have suffered
from haemorrhage; more florid, when oxygenised
arterial, to use the common phrase) by exposure either to
of the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely; paler in ani-
mals which have been poorly nourished or have suffered
from haemorrhage; more florid, when oxygenised
Unwilling as I am to follow the example of those who, especially in
mo-
dern times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the words
oxygenised and carbonised may be advantageously substituted for arterial and
venous: because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called veins, v. c. the
pulmonary and umbilical; while, on the other hand, venous blood is contained
in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same manner, the veins of the
chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial; and the arteries, venous blood; –
to use these expressions in their common acceptation. But we shall treat of the
doctrine of the relation of oxygen and carbon to each kind of blood, in the
section on respiration.
dern times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the words
oxygenised and carbonised may be advantageously substituted for arterial and
venous: because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called veins, v. c. the
pulmonary and umbilical; while, on the other hand, venous blood is contained
in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same manner, the veins of the
chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial; and the arteries, venous blood; –
to use these expressions in their common acceptation. But we shall treat of the
doctrine of the relation of oxygen and carbon to each kind of blood, in the
section on respiration.
arterial, to use the common phrase) by exposure either to
[10]
atmospheric air, or, more
especially, to oxygen; darker when
carbonised (in common language, rendered venous) and
placed in carbonic acid gas or hydrogen.
most probably to be ascribed to the oxide of iron,
tity of which, however, is so minute, that it has been most
variously estimated. (G)
carbonised (in common language, rendered venous) and
placed in carbonic acid gas or hydrogen.
Consult, among others, J. Ferd.h. Autenreith, Experimenta et observata de
sanguine, praesertim venoso. Stuttg. 1792. 4to.
sanguine, praesertim venoso. Stuttg. 1792. 4to.
most probably to be ascribed to the oxide of iron,
Berzelius, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. v. Mai,
1817.
tity of which, however, is so minute, that it has been most
variously estimated. (G)
14. The last constituent principle of the blood to be
noticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with the
serum. This has been called the basis of the crassamentum,
the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter of the blood,
and, like the caseous part of milk, and the gluten of veget-
ables, been discovered by late analysis to abound in carbon
and azote. (H)
noticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with the
serum. This has been called the basis of the crassamentum,
the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter of the blood,
and, like the caseous part of milk, and the gluten of veget-
ables, been discovered by late analysis to abound in carbon
and azote. (H)
15. It is properly denominated plastic, because it affords
the chief materials from which the similar parts, especially the
muscles, are immediately produced; nourishes the body
throughout life; repairs wounds and fractures in an extraor-
dinary manner; fills up the areae of large blood vessels when
divided;
inflammations,
found in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
the chief materials from which the similar parts, especially the
muscles, are immediately produced; nourishes the body
throughout life; repairs wounds and fractures in an extraor-
dinary manner; fills up the areae of large blood vessels when
divided;
T. F. D.
Jones, On the process employed by nature in
suppressing the he-
morrhage from divided, &c. arteries. London, 1805. 8vo. Translated into
German, and supplied with notes by G. Spangenberg. Hanov. 1813. 8vo.
morrhage from divided, &c. arteries. London, 1805. 8vo. Translated into
German, and supplied with notes by G. Spangenberg. Hanov. 1813. 8vo.
inflammations,
Such are those spurious membranes found
exuded on the surface of inflamed
viscera, v. c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura after
peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchia after croup; such also
are those artificial ones, called, from their inventor, Ruyschian, and made by
stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
viscera, v. c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura after
peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchia after croup; such also
are those artificial ones, called, from their inventor, Ruyschian, and made by
stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
found in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
16. Thus much have we said respecting the constituent parts
and nature of the blood, the most important fluid of the
animal machine, – a fluid which excites the heart to contrac-
tion; which distributes oxygen to every part, and conveys
away the carbon to the excretory vessels, giving rise, by this
change, to animal heat; which supplies the materials of the
and nature of the blood, the most important fluid of the
animal machine, – a fluid which excites the heart to contrac-
tion; which distributes oxygen to every part, and conveys
away the carbon to the excretory vessels, giving rise, by this
change, to animal heat; which supplies the materials of the
[11]
solids originally, and ever afterwards their nourishment; and
from which all the other fluids, with the exception of the
crude (4), are, secreted and derived. Of the multifarious im-
portance of the blood, we shall speak particularly hereafter.
from which all the other fluids, with the exception of the
crude (4), are, secreted and derived. Of the multifarious im-
portance of the blood, we shall speak particularly hereafter.
NOTES.
(A) Most cold-blooded animals, as fishes and the amphibia,
have a much smaller proportion of blood and fewer blood-vessels
than those with warm blood, though a much greater number of
colourless vessels arising from the arteries. In. an experiment
which Blumenbach made on this subject, he
have a much smaller proportion of blood and fewer blood-vessels
than those with warm blood, though a much greater number of
colourless vessels arising from the arteries. In. an experiment
which Blumenbach made on this subject, he
“obtained from
twenty-four adult water-newts (lacerta palustris), which had been
just caught, and weighed each an ounce and a half, ℈ iiiss. of blood.
The proportion to the weight of the body was as 2 1/2 to 36, while
in healthy adult men it is as 1 to 5.”
Comparative Anatomy,
ch. xii. ed. 1. p. 245. Translated by Mr. Lawrence.
(B) Dr. Magendie stated, in 1809, to the Institute, that this as-
sertion is incorrect. If air is injected rapidly, the animal screams
and dies in a moment: but if slowly, he informs us that no incon-
venience results, and that some animals bear the injection of
enormous quantities without perishing.
five drams into the femoral vein of a very small dog, with only
temporary inconvenience, and subsequently three drams of ex-
pired air even without much temporary disturbance.
established, that many gases soluble in the blood, as oxygen and
carbonic acid, may be thrown into the circulating system in very
large quantity without serious inconvenience; while danger often
ensues upon the introduction of those which are sparingly or not
at all soluble in the blood.
sertion is incorrect. If air is injected rapidly, the animal screams
and dies in a moment: but if slowly, he informs us that no incon-
venience results, and that some animals bear the injection of
enormous quantities without perishing.
Précis Elémentaire de
Physiologie. 2d edition, 1825. t. ii. p. 433.
sqq.
five drams into the femoral vein of a very small dog, with only
temporary inconvenience, and subsequently three drams of ex-
pired air even without much temporary disturbance.
Med. Chir. Trans. 1818, p. 65.
sq.
established, that many gases soluble in the blood, as oxygen and
carbonic acid, may be thrown into the circulating system in very
large quantity without serious inconvenience; while danger often
ensues upon the introduction of those which are sparingly or not
at all soluble in the blood.
Magendie, l. c.
In the same way, if about 15 grains of bile are rapidly introduced
into the crural vein of an animal, instant death occurs; but, if
slowly, no inconvenience results. This quantity may be even
rapidly injected into the vena portae without injury, and so likewise
may atmospheric air, probably because the extreme subdivision
of the vessel acts like slowness of introduction, – causes the com-
plete diffusion and dilution of the bile, and solution of the air,
before it reaches the heart.
into the crural vein of an animal, instant death occurs; but, if
slowly, no inconvenience results. This quantity may be even
rapidly injected into the vena portae without injury, and so likewise
may atmospheric air, probably because the extreme subdivision
of the vessel acts like slowness of introduction, – causes the com-
plete diffusion and dilution of the bile, and solution of the air,
before it reaches the heart.
[12]
If warm water is introduced (an equal quantity of blood being
first removed to prevent over distension) mere debility ensues,
proportionate to the quantity; but if oils, or mucilages, or an inert
impalpable powder, are injected, life is at once destroyed by the
obstruction of the minute ramifications of the pulmonary artery.
Poisons act powerfully if injected into the veins; and, as will
presently be mentioned, medicines thus introduced, exert their
specific powers on the different organs.
first removed to prevent over distension) mere debility ensues,
proportionate to the quantity; but if oils, or mucilages, or an inert
impalpable powder, are injected, life is at once destroyed by the
obstruction of the minute ramifications of the pulmonary artery.
Magendie, Journal de
Physiologie, t. i., and l. c. t. ii. p.
260.
Poisons act powerfully if injected into the veins; and, as will
presently be mentioned, medicines thus introduced, exert their
specific powers on the different organs.
(C) When blood, venous or arterial, is placed in the vacuum of
an air pump,
carbonic acid gas. Professor Brande obtained two cubic inches
from every ounce of blood; Dr. Scudamore less than half a cubic
inch from six ounces. The quantity is said to be much greater
after a meal, and much less if the blood is buffy.
an air pump,
Vogel, Annales de Chimie, t. xciii.
Professor Brande, Phil. Trans. 1818. p. 181.
carbonic acid gas. Professor Brande obtained two cubic inches
from every ounce of blood; Dr. Scudamore less than half a cubic
inch from six ounces. The quantity is said to be much greater
after a meal, and much less if the blood is buffy.
Phil. Trans. 1820.
p. 6. An Essay on the Blood, p. 107. By C.
Scudamore,
M. D. F. R. S. 1824.
M. D. F. R. S. 1824.
(D) Blood coagulates when it has escaped from the body,
whether warm or cold, in the air or in vacuo, diluted within cer-
tain limits, or undiluted, at rest or in motion. Within the
vessels, rest, which causes a cessation of intercourse between
the motionless portion and the general mass, always disposes
it to coagulate. Yet its coagulation, after escape from the
body, is said to be accelerated by motion, a high tempera-
ture, and a vessel calculated to preserve its temperature, by
a vacuum, and by the stream from the vessel being slow,
and vice versa: in short, by every circumstance which favours
the escape of carbonic acid gas, and to be proportioned to
the quantity of carbonic acid gas evolved; this being evolved
during the coagulation, and ceasing to escape when the coagu-
lation is complete.
perature and hasten coagulation, while carbonic acid gas, azote,
and hydrogen, have the opposite effects.
whether warm or cold, in the air or in vacuo, diluted within cer-
tain limits, or undiluted, at rest or in motion. Within the
vessels, rest, which causes a cessation of intercourse between
the motionless portion and the general mass, always disposes
it to coagulate. Yet its coagulation, after escape from the
body, is said to be accelerated by motion, a high tempera-
ture, and a vessel calculated to preserve its temperature, by
a vacuum, and by the stream from the vessel being slow,
and vice versa: in short, by every circumstance which favours
the escape of carbonic acid gas, and to be proportioned to
the quantity of carbonic acid gas evolved; this being evolved
during the coagulation, and ceasing to escape when the coagu-
lation is complete.
Scudamore, l. c.
perature and hasten coagulation, while carbonic acid gas, azote,
and hydrogen, have the opposite effects.
The coagulation of the blood is ascribed by J. Hunter to its
life:
paration of a portion from the mass, by escape from a vessel, is
life:
A Treatise on the
Blood, &c.
An Enquiry into the
Nature and Property of the Blood. By C. Turner Thack-
rah. London, 1819.
rah. London, 1819.
paration of a portion from the mass, by escape from a vessel, is
[13]
likely to kill it if
alive; as every change likely to impair life pro-
motes coagulation, for example, debility, fainting; and as blood
frozen, and therefore likely to be killed if alive, and again thawed,
instantly coagulates. But the coagulation appears, in most in-
stances, if Dr. Scudamore’s experiments be accurate, though
others have not found the same results
escape of carbonic acid: and as coagulated blood or fibrine (and
the coagulated part of effused blood is fibrine) becomes vascular,
one can hardly, if the fluid is alive, regard a coagulum as ne-
cessarily dead. See also Sect. VI. Note B.
motes coagulation, for example, debility, fainting; and as blood
frozen, and therefore likely to be killed if alive, and again thawed,
instantly coagulates. But the coagulation appears, in most in-
stances, if Dr. Scudamore’s experiments be accurate, though
others have not found the same results
Dr.
Turner, Elements of Chemistry, 1827. p.
638.
escape of carbonic acid: and as coagulated blood or fibrine (and
the coagulated part of effused blood is fibrine) becomes vascular,
one can hardly, if the fluid is alive, regard a coagulum as ne-
cessarily dead. See also Sect. VI. Note B.
Large quantities of blood are found fluid in every dead body,
showing that simple loss of vitality is not sufficient to cause coa-
gulation. Indeed, the blood of the heart and vessels is found,
most frequently, in opposite states, fluid in one part, coagulated
in another, yet it is all equally dead. From all these contradic-
tory circumstances, I regard the coagulation of the blood as quite
unconnected with its vitality or lifelessness, and as entirely a che-
mical result. That it, however, is influenced by the vital pro-
perties of the containing vessels is possible, but these may ope-
rate upon the blood, in this respect, as a mere chemical compound;
and even if it be alive, and they influence its life, still the in-
fluence, as far as respects coagulation, may in effect be chemical.
showing that simple loss of vitality is not sufficient to cause coa-
gulation. Indeed, the blood of the heart and vessels is found,
most frequently, in opposite states, fluid in one part, coagulated
in another, yet it is all equally dead. From all these contradic-
tory circumstances, I regard the coagulation of the blood as quite
unconnected with its vitality or lifelessness, and as entirely a che-
mical result. That it, however, is influenced by the vital pro-
perties of the containing vessels is possible, but these may ope-
rate upon the blood, in this respect, as a mere chemical compound;
and even if it be alive, and they influence its life, still the in-
fluence, as far as respects coagulation, may in effect be chemical.
The blood generally coagulates in the living body on escaping
from its vessels, and even in its vessels if its motion be prevented
by ligatures; and when it does not, its subsequent escape from
the body almost always produces instant coagulation.
always coagulates also in the vessels running through healthy parts
to others in a state of mortification, and in large vessels adjoining
a pulmonary abscess; in which cases, the final cause – prevention
of haemorrhage, is evident. The efficient cause, however, in all
these examples is unknown. In all, the blood is still in contact
with living parts: in the two last, it is not at rest till it coagulates.
J. Hunter, after mentioning that after a mortification of the foot
and leg he found the crural and iliac arteries completely filled
with strongly coagulated blood, adds, that this could not have
arisen from rest, because the same thing ought then to hap-
pen in amputation, or in any case where the larger vessels are
tied up.
from its vessels, and even in its vessels if its motion be prevented
by ligatures; and when it does not, its subsequent escape from
the body almost always produces instant coagulation.
J. Hunter mentions the coagulation of blood
let out from the tunica va-
ginalis, in which it had lain fluid sixty-five days after a wound. On the Blood,
p. 25.
ginalis, in which it had lain fluid sixty-five days after a wound. On the Blood,
p. 25.
always coagulates also in the vessels running through healthy parts
to others in a state of mortification, and in large vessels adjoining
a pulmonary abscess; in which cases, the final cause – prevention
of haemorrhage, is evident. The efficient cause, however, in all
these examples is unknown. In all, the blood is still in contact
with living parts: in the two last, it is not at rest till it coagulates.
J. Hunter, after mentioning that after a mortification of the foot
and leg he found the crural and iliac arteries completely filled
with strongly coagulated blood, adds, that this could not have
arisen from rest, because the same thing ought then to hap-
pen in amputation, or in any case where the larger vessels are
tied up.
l. c. p.
23.
[14]
quantity is included
in a vessel between two ligatures, is not an
invariable occurrence.
invariable occurrence.
These facts, in addition to those stated above, show that fluidity
or coagulation is not dependent on the simple presence or absence
of vitality. Whatever connection coagulation out of the body
may have with the escape of carbonic acid gas, there is no proof
of it in the case of internal coagulation. Some have thought that
heat is evolved during its coagulation
The latest experimenter supports the opinion.
or coagulation is not dependent on the simple presence or absence
of vitality. Whatever connection coagulation out of the body
may have with the escape of carbonic acid gas, there is no proof
of it in the case of internal coagulation. Some have thought that
heat is evolved during its coagulation
Dr. Gordon, Annals of Philosophy, vol. iv.
Dr. J Davy,
Journal of Science and Arts, No.
iv.
The latest experimenter supports the opinion.
Scudamore, l. c. p. 68. sqq.
(E) To suppose any affinity of the red particles for either the
lymph or the serum is erroneous. Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker
long since proved that serum merely suspends them, for if, when
separated, they are triturated in some serum, part of them is
taken up and the serum assumes a red colour; but, if the fluid is
allowed to settle in a cylindrical glass, they slowly precipitate
themselves to the bottom, and the serum above becomes clear
as before. When blood is drawn, the serum easily separates on
the coagulation of the lymph. But the lymph coagulates before
the colouring particles have time to fall to the bottom, and en-
tangling them acquires a red colour, forming the crassamentum:
if, however, the lymph coagulate slowly, and is thinner
phlogistic diathesis and pregnancy, the greater specific gravity of
the cruor detaches it very considerably from the lymph, which
remains colourless above, constituting what is called the inflam-
matory coat, crust, or buff. Berzelius even believes the lymph
to be in a state of solution in the serum, while the cruor is simply
suspended in this solution. In the phlogistic diathesis both the
fibrin and the serum are more abundant, and the blood lighter.
lymph or the serum is erroneous. Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker
long since proved that serum merely suspends them, for if, when
separated, they are triturated in some serum, part of them is
taken up and the serum assumes a red colour; but, if the fluid is
allowed to settle in a cylindrical glass, they slowly precipitate
themselves to the bottom, and the serum above becomes clear
as before. When blood is drawn, the serum easily separates on
the coagulation of the lymph. But the lymph coagulates before
the colouring particles have time to fall to the bottom, and en-
tangling them acquires a red colour, forming the crassamentum:
if, however, the lymph coagulate slowly, and is thinner
Hewson, Experimental Enquiries into the Blood and the
Lymphatic System,
P. 1. p. 45. sq.
P. 1. p. 45. sq.
phlogistic diathesis and pregnancy, the greater specific gravity of
the cruor detaches it very considerably from the lymph, which
remains colourless above, constituting what is called the inflam-
matory coat, crust, or buff. Berzelius even believes the lymph
to be in a state of solution in the serum, while the cruor is simply
suspended in this solution. In the phlogistic diathesis both the
fibrin and the serum are more abundant, and the blood lighter.
Scudamore, l.
c.
Thinness of the blood and a disposition to slow coagulation gene-
rally co-exist. But the rapidity of the stream greatly affects the
rate of coagulation, so that one portion of the same blood coa-
gulates slowly that is drawn quickly, and another quickly that is
drawn slowly.
rally co-exist. But the rapidity of the stream greatly affects the
rate of coagulation, so that one portion of the same blood coa-
gulates slowly that is drawn quickly, and another quickly that is
drawn slowly.
The appearance of the buffy coat does not arise from the
slow
coagulation, though increased by it; because, of two portions of
the same blood, one has afforded no buffy coat, although it
coagulation, though increased by it; because, of two portions of
the same blood, one has afforded no buffy coat, although it
[15]
remained fluid at
least ten minutes after the buffy coat began
to be formed on the other;
from thinness of the fibrin, as appears from Mr. Hewson’s ex-
periments, the red particles continuing of their usual weight, that
slow coagulation is not altogether dependent on mere thinness
of the blood, though generally connected and proportional with
it. Yet rapid coagulation, by means of a slow stream when the
blood is thin, may prevent the buffy coat, by not allowing time for
the difference in the weight of the fibrin and red particles to
have effect. Stirring such blood has the same consequence, and
the slower the coagulation of thin blood, occasioned, for instance,
by rapid bleeding, the greater will be the buffy coat.
to be formed on the other;
Hewson, l. c. p.
90.
from thinness of the fibrin, as appears from Mr. Hewson’s ex-
periments, the red particles continuing of their usual weight, that
slow coagulation is not altogether dependent on mere thinness
of the blood, though generally connected and proportional with
it. Yet rapid coagulation, by means of a slow stream when the
blood is thin, may prevent the buffy coat, by not allowing time for
the difference in the weight of the fibrin and red particles to
have effect. Stirring such blood has the same consequence, and
the slower the coagulation of thin blood, occasioned, for instance,
by rapid bleeding, the greater will be the buffy coat.
The different cups of blood drawn in an inflammatory disease
may vary as to the buffy coat, according to accidental variations
in the stream, but generally it is the first cup that abounds in
buff, and the last frequently has none. This occurs when there
is no difference in the stream.
thinness of the fibrin, we must conclude with Hewson
qualities may be changed even during bleeding. Dr. Scudamore
finds much more fibrin in buffy blood; and, consequently, that
not merely the thinness, as Hewson found, but the quantity, of
fibrin, may vary during the flow of blood.
may vary as to the buffy coat, according to accidental variations
in the stream, but generally it is the first cup that abounds in
buff, and the last frequently has none. This occurs when there
is no difference in the stream.
l. c. p. 52.
sqq.
thinness of the fibrin, we must conclude with Hewson
l. c. p.
56. sqq.
qualities may be changed even during bleeding. Dr. Scudamore
finds much more fibrin in buffy blood; and, consequently, that
not merely the thinness, as Hewson found, but the quantity, of
fibrin, may vary during the flow of blood.
l. c. p. 96.
The greater the strength of the patient and the intensity of
the
inflammation, the firmer is the coagulum of fibrin and the more
cupped its appearance.
inflammation, the firmer is the coagulum of fibrin and the more
cupped its appearance.
Dr. Scudamore did not find a buffy coat in blood drawn imme-
diately after violent exercise.
diately after violent exercise.
The blood of different brutes coagulates in different times.
Mr. Thackrah imagines the rapidity to be inversely as the
strength and size. Thus, while in health, human blood coagulates
in from 3 or 4 to 7 minutes, that of the
Mr. Thackrah imagines the rapidity to be inversely as the
strength and size. Thus, while in health, human blood coagulates
in from 3 or 4 to 7 minutes, that of the
| Horse, in from | 2 to 15 |
| Ox, | 2 to 10 |
| Dog, | 1/2 to 3 |
| Sheep, hog, rabbit, | 1/2 to 1 1/2 |
| Lamb, | 1/2 to 1 1/2 |
| Fowls, | 1/2 to 1 |
| Mice, in a moment, | |
| Fish, according to Hunter l. c. p. 211. |
[16]
(F) The coagulable part of serum is albumen; that which
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen, and
contains no gelatin as the French chemists asserted, but an ani-
mal matter different from both gelatin and albumen, with a mi-
nute portion of albumen and fibrin, and affords a little free soda,
muriate, lactate
with 905/1000 of water.
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen, and
contains no gelatin as the French chemists asserted, but an ani-
mal matter different from both gelatin and albumen, with a mi-
nute portion of albumen and fibrin, and affords a little free soda,
muriate, lactate
Berzelius discovers
lactic acid, free or combined, in all animal fluids. It
was
first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of acetic acid
with animal matter, and so now even by Berzelius himself.
first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of acetic acid
with animal matter, and so now even by Berzelius himself.
with 905/1000 of water.
See Dr. Bostock’s papers in the first,
second, and fourth volumes of The
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius’s in the third.
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius’s in the third.
If mixed with six parts of cold water, serum does not coagulate
by heat.
by heat.
Under the influence of the galvanic pile, the soda collects
at the negative wire, and the albumen coagulates at the
positive.
at the negative wire, and the albumen coagulates at the
positive.
(G) When venous blood acquires a florid colour by
exposure to
oxygen or atmospheric air (and it does so even when covered
by a bladder, provided this is moistened
is formed, and an equal volume of oxygen gas disappears. If
exposed to nitrous oxide, it becomes of a brighter purple, and
much of the gas is absorbed: carbonic acid gas renders it darker
and is a little absorbed: nitrogen and hydrogen have the same
effect. The dark colour produced in arterial blood by carbonic
acid or azotic gas takes place if blood is placed in vacuo, though
less rapidly and deeply than if exposed to hydrogen gas. Arte-
rial blood left in contact with oxygen gradually acquires the same
dark colour, and no oxygen will afterwards render it scarlet.
Berzelius finds the colouring particles only concerned in these
changes: and, after all, no difference of composition can be de-
tected between scarlet and purple blood. But Prevost and Dumas
found more particles, i. e. fibrin and red particles, in arterial than
in venous blood.
oxygen or atmospheric air (and it does so even when covered
by a bladder, provided this is moistened
A layer of serum or milk does not prevent
this change of colour, while a
layer of water or oil does. Dr. Priestley, Experiments and Observations on different
kinds of Air, vol. iii. p. 78. sqq.
layer of water or oil does. Dr. Priestley, Experiments and Observations on different
kinds of Air, vol. iii. p. 78. sqq.
is formed, and an equal volume of oxygen gas disappears. If
exposed to nitrous oxide, it becomes of a brighter purple, and
much of the gas is absorbed: carbonic acid gas renders it darker
and is a little absorbed: nitrogen and hydrogen have the same
effect. The dark colour produced in arterial blood by carbonic
acid or azotic gas takes place if blood is placed in vacuo, though
less rapidly and deeply than if exposed to hydrogen gas. Arte-
rial blood left in contact with oxygen gradually acquires the same
dark colour, and no oxygen will afterwards render it scarlet.
Berzelius finds the colouring particles only concerned in these
changes: and, after all, no difference of composition can be de-
tected between scarlet and purple blood. But Prevost and Dumas
found more particles, i. e. fibrin and red particles, in arterial than
in venous blood.
It has been generally supposed that iron exists in the red par-
ticles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius informs us that
serum, although able to dissolve a small portion of the oxides,
not indeed of the phosphates, of iron, does not acquire a red
colour by their addition, and that he has never discovered iron
ticles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius informs us that
serum, although able to dissolve a small portion of the oxides,
not indeed of the phosphates, of iron, does not acquire a red
colour by their addition, and that he has never discovered iron
[17]
nor lime in the
entire blood, although both are so abundant in its
ashes. He concludes that the blood contains the elements of
phosphate of iron and of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also
of phosphate of magnesia, united in a manner different from their
combination in the salts. But Dr. Engelhart has lately shown
iron to exist in blood, by the usual liquid tests, after passing a
stream of chlorin through a solution of red particles.
ashes. He concludes that the blood contains the elements of
phosphate of iron and of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also
of phosphate of magnesia, united in a manner different from their
combination in the salts. But Dr. Engelhart has lately shown
iron to exist in blood, by the usual liquid tests, after passing a
stream of chlorin through a solution of red particles.
Edinburgh Medical and
Surgical Journal, Jan. 1827. Engelhart’s Essay
obtained the prize at Gottingen in 1825.
obtained the prize at Gottingen in 1825.
Mr. Hewson asserted that the particles consist of a nucleus
and an enveloping coloured portion.
colourless; perhaps about 1/5000 of an inch in diameter, and the
whole globule nearly one-fourth larger.
Dumas believe,
outer or vesicular, as Hewson noticed
according to these enquirers, rolls in the outer, and, in the frog’s
web and bat’s wing, at least, the whole particle is carried, steadily
balanced, in the current of blood, sometimes flat, sometimes
oblique, sometimes gently turning upon itself; and lengthening
if driven into a vessel of diameter hardly sufficient for its admis-
sion: the assertion of Reichel, (12. note,) being thus corroborated.
Mr. Bauer has discovered a third set of smaller colourless globules
in the blood, 1/2800 of an inch in diameter. They appear to
belong to the fibrin, and are accordingly denominated lymph
globules. It is thought probable that the central globule of the
red particles is the same, and thus really fibrin. Colourless
globules gradually form also in serum.
and an enveloping coloured portion.
Experimental Inquiries, part 3. p. 16.
1777.
colourless; perhaps about 1/5000 of an inch in diameter, and the
whole globule nearly one-fourth larger.
On these measurements
consult Phil. Trans. 1818. Dr. Young’s Medical
Literature, p. 571. sqq. Prevost and Dumas, Annales de Chimie, Nov. 1821.
Literature, p. 571. sqq. Prevost and Dumas, Annales de Chimie, Nov. 1821.
Dumas believe,
l. c.
outer or vesicular, as Hewson noticed
l. c. p. 8. sq. Hewson says, that dilution
with water, or a change towards
putrefaction, makes the vesicles globular, and that farther putrefaction breaks them
down.
putrefaction, makes the vesicles globular, and that farther putrefaction breaks them
down.
according to these enquirers, rolls in the outer, and, in the frog’s
web and bat’s wing, at least, the whole particle is carried, steadily
balanced, in the current of blood, sometimes flat, sometimes
oblique, sometimes gently turning upon itself; and lengthening
if driven into a vessel of diameter hardly sufficient for its admis-
sion: the assertion of Reichel, (12. note,) being thus corroborated.
Mr. Bauer has discovered a third set of smaller colourless globules
in the blood, 1/2800 of an inch in diameter. They appear to
belong to the fibrin, and are accordingly denominated lymph
globules. It is thought probable that the central globule of the
red particles is the same, and thus really fibrin. Colourless
globules gradually form also in serum.
Phil. Trans. 1819.
p. 2. sq. The globules of pus also are maintained to
form
gradually, and it to be originally an homogeneous fluid. The globules of milk,
healthy pus, and chyle, in different animals, are said by Prevost and Dumas to
be of the same form and dimensions; and likewise those of the muscular fibre
and of albumen, when coagulated, for particles are not previously seen in it.
gradually, and it to be originally an homogeneous fluid. The globules of milk,
healthy pus, and chyle, in different animals, are said by Prevost and Dumas to
be of the same form and dimensions; and likewise those of the muscular fibre
and of albumen, when coagulated, for particles are not previously seen in it.
But Dr. Hodgkin finds the particles of pus to be quite irregular in
size and
figure, and those of milk, though globules, to be some twice, some only one
tenth, the size of the particles of the blood. Phil. Mag. Aug. 1827.
figure, and those of milk, though globules, to be some twice, some only one
tenth, the size of the particles of the blood. Phil. Mag. Aug. 1827.
[18]
It was mentioned in the note to Section I. that Dr. Hodgkin
and Mr. Lister had lately employed a microscope superior
to those of former investigators, and disproved the opinion
of the globular composition of living structures. They, at the
same time, examined the blood, and though, like Hewson, they
found its particles flat and circular, and indeed with edges somewhat
raised, so that the middle of each surface was depressed, they
could detect no central particle; and satisfied themselves that the
diameter was pretty exactly 1/5000 of an inch.
and Mr. Lister had lately employed a microscope superior
to those of former investigators, and disproved the opinion
of the globular composition of living structures. They, at the
same time, examined the blood, and though, like Hewson, they
found its particles flat and circular, and indeed with edges somewhat
raised, so that the middle of each surface was depressed, they
could detect no central particle; and satisfied themselves that the
diameter was pretty exactly 1/5000 of an inch.
(H) Oxygen and hydrogen also exist in fibrin. The fibrin,
albumen, and colouring matter, afford, on decomposition, the
same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius views them all
three as modifications of the same substance. Albumen contains
a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrin, and has sulphur for a
constituent part, which, however, cannot be detected while the
albumen is entire, any more than the iron while the cruor is entire.
The chief differences between the colouring matter and fibrin
are, colour; the spontaneous coagulation of fibrin at all temper-
atures, while the colouring matter may be dried without losing its
solubility in water, and becomes insoluble only at a certain tem-
perature; and the peculiarity in the latter of not diminishing in
volume like fibrin during exsiccation. Albumen is intermediate
between the two, and its only character of distinction from fibrin
is, that it does not coagulate spontaneously, but requires a high
temperature or some chemical agent.
albumen, and colouring matter, afford, on decomposition, the
same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius views them all
three as modifications of the same substance. Albumen contains
a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrin, and has sulphur for a
constituent part, which, however, cannot be detected while the
albumen is entire, any more than the iron while the cruor is entire.
The chief differences between the colouring matter and fibrin
are, colour; the spontaneous coagulation of fibrin at all temper-
atures, while the colouring matter may be dried without losing its
solubility in water, and becomes insoluble only at a certain tem-
perature; and the peculiarity in the latter of not diminishing in
volume like fibrin during exsiccation. Albumen is intermediate
between the two, and its only character of distinction from fibrin
is, that it does not coagulate spontaneously, but requires a high
temperature or some chemical agent.
The crystalline lens is a sort of albumen; the epidermis, nails,
hair, horn, cartilage, are nearly composed of it; of bone and
muscle it is an essential part. Fibrin exists in muscles only, be-
sides the blood, and is indeed their chief constituent, giving them
form, and rendering them fibrous. Gelatine, or rather what becomes
so by the agency of boiling water, contains somewhat less carbon
and more hydrogen and oxygen than albumen, and although
not obtained from blood, is an important part of our frame: the
cutis, serous membranes, and tendons, are a species of it; it forms
the chief part of cellular membrane, and is an essential constituent
of bones, muscles, ligaments, hair, &c. The composition of the
substance of the viscera is not well known.
hair, horn, cartilage, are nearly composed of it; of bone and
muscle it is an essential part. Fibrin exists in muscles only, be-
sides the blood, and is indeed their chief constituent, giving them
form, and rendering them fibrous. Gelatine, or rather what becomes
so by the agency of boiling water, contains somewhat less carbon
and more hydrogen and oxygen than albumen, and although
not obtained from blood, is an important part of our frame: the
cutis, serous membranes, and tendons, are a species of it; it forms
the chief part of cellular membrane, and is an essential constituent
of bones, muscles, ligaments, hair, &c. The composition of the
substance of the viscera is not well known.
The following results are given in the Recherches Physico-Chimiques, (t.
ii.)
by Gay Lussac and Thenard:
by Gay Lussac and Thenard:
| Carbon. | Hydrogen. | Oxygen. | Nitrogen. | |
| Gelatin, | 47.881 | 7.914 | 27.207 | 16.998 |
| Albumen, | 52.883 | 7.540 | 23.872 | 15.705 |
| Fibrin, | 53.360 | 7.021 | 19.685 | 19.934 |
Besides these constituents, they, as well as the colouring matter of
the blood,
contain a very minute portion of the earthy phosphates.
contain a very minute portion of the earthy phosphates.
Fibrin is inodorous and tasteless, whitish, insoluble in water,
alcohol, and
acids; and, as already said, coagulates when separated from the body.
acids; and, as already said, coagulates when separated from the body.
Albumen is inodorous, tasteless and colourless, and soluble in water,
and
coagulates by a certain temperature, by the mineral acids, tan, and many metallic
salts, especially by corrosive sublimate, and by prussiate of potass, if a little dilute
acid is previously mixed with it.
coagulates by a certain temperature, by the mineral acids, tan, and many metallic
salts, especially by corrosive sublimate, and by prussiate of potass, if a little dilute
acid is previously mixed with it.
Gelatin is inodorous and tasteless, dries into glue, is soluble in
warm water,
and becomes solid again on cooling, and dissolves in acids and alkalies.
and becomes solid again on cooling, and dissolves in acids and alkalies.
For minute chemical particulars, however, respecting the nature of
the solids
and fluids, I must refer the reader to works professedly chemical.
and fluids, I must refer the reader to works professedly chemical.
[19]
The blood of brutes has the same general character as our
own, and Rouelle obtained the same ingredients, though in dif-
ferent proportions, from the blood of a great variety of them.
Berzelius finds a larger proportion of nitrogen in that of the ox, and
analogy would lead us to suppose there is a peculiarity in the blood
of every species. Muscles look pretty much alike in various ani-
mals, yet when cooked they disclose the greatest diversities.
Transfusion, or pouring the blood of one system into another,
satisfies us, that the blood, whether arterial or venous, of one in-
dividual, agrees well enough with another of the same species;
but some late experiments of Dr. Leacock,
Dr. Blundel,
former experimentalists, that the blood of one species suits the
system of another. Dr. Young found the large outer globules of
the skate to be somewhat almond-shaped, and Hewson found
them of different shapes in different animals, and Rudolphi ob-
served them to be more or less oval in the common fowl and many
amphibia.
croscopic experiments, a great difference in the blood of different
animals as to the globules, and in this way explain the impossi-
bility of transfusing the blood of some animals to others without
danger to life. They assert that the quantity of the particles
is proportionate to the temperature of the animal, and that, con-
own, and Rouelle obtained the same ingredients, though in dif-
ferent proportions, from the blood of a great variety of them.
Berzelius finds a larger proportion of nitrogen in that of the ox, and
analogy would lead us to suppose there is a peculiarity in the blood
of every species. Muscles look pretty much alike in various ani-
mals, yet when cooked they disclose the greatest diversities.
Transfusion, or pouring the blood of one system into another,
satisfies us, that the blood, whether arterial or venous, of one in-
dividual, agrees well enough with another of the same species;
but some late experiments of Dr. Leacock,
Medico-Chirurgical Journal, 1817, p. 276.
Dr. Blundel,
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,
1818.
former experimentalists, that the blood of one species suits the
system of another. Dr. Young found the large outer globules of
the skate to be somewhat almond-shaped, and Hewson found
them of different shapes in different animals, and Rudolphi ob-
served them to be more or less oval in the common fowl and many
amphibia.
Grundriss der Physiologie, 159.
croscopic experiments, a great difference in the blood of different
animals as to the globules, and in this way explain the impossi-
bility of transfusing the blood of some animals to others without
danger to life. They assert that the quantity of the particles
is proportionate to the temperature of the animal, and that, con-
[20]
sequently, most exist
in the blood of birds: that the size and
shape also vary, although the size of the central portion is the
same in animals in which they are spherical, and is about 1/7500 of
an inch in diameter; and that the shape of the external part is
circular in the mammalia, and elliptical in birds and cold-blooded
animals, thus confirming and generalising the observations of
others
the shape of the central portion correspondent with that of the
external, – spherical when the latter is circular, oval when ellip-
tical. They found, that if the blood of two animals of different
species, the blood of one of which was transfused into the other,
differed in the size only of the globules, temporary restoration
of energy took place; but that if it differed in their shape,
convulsions and death were the result. They also find a
larger proportion of fibrin and red globules in warm than in cold-
blooded animals, and a larger in the former according to the
height of the temperature – (of 10,000 parts by weight; in pi-
geons, 1557; man, 1292; frogs, 690): – a smaller also, accordingly
as animals are bled; it thus appearing that bleeding promotes the
absorption of watery fluid.
in different animals: hence red and white-blooded animals.
shape also vary, although the size of the central portion is the
same in animals in which they are spherical, and is about 1/7500 of
an inch in diameter; and that the shape of the external part is
circular in the mammalia, and elliptical in birds and cold-blooded
animals, thus confirming and generalising the observations of
others
Hewson
observed the difference of their size in different animals, and
that
this bore no relation to the difference in the size of the animal. l. c. part iii.
p. 10. sqq.
this bore no relation to the difference in the size of the animal. l. c. part iii.
p. 10. sqq.
the shape of the central portion correspondent with that of the
external, – spherical when the latter is circular, oval when ellip-
tical. They found, that if the blood of two animals of different
species, the blood of one of which was transfused into the other,
differed in the size only of the globules, temporary restoration
of energy took place; but that if it differed in their shape,
convulsions and death were the result. They also find a
larger proportion of fibrin and red globules in warm than in cold-
blooded animals, and a larger in the former according to the
height of the temperature – (of 10,000 parts by weight; in pi-
geons, 1557; man, 1292; frogs, 690): – a smaller also, accordingly
as animals are bled; it thus appearing that bleeding promotes the
absorption of watery fluid.
Annales de Chimie,
t. xviii. xxiii. 1821 and 1823.
in different animals: hence red and white-blooded animals.
Hewson
chicken and viper larger than those of the adult animal: and
Prevost and Dumas have observed the red particles of the
foetal goat to be as large again as those of the adult; and
those of the chicken to be circular, till about the sixth day,
when some elliptic ones are first seen; and on the ninth, from
their progressive multiplication, none but elliptic ones can be
detected.
l. c. part iii. p.
39.
chicken and viper larger than those of the adult animal: and
Prevost and Dumas have observed the red particles of the
foetal goat to be as large again as those of the adult; and
those of the chicken to be circular, till about the sixth day,
when some elliptic ones are first seen; and on the ninth, from
their progressive multiplication, none but elliptic ones can be
detected.
Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, 1824, 1825.
The blood of invertebral animals is colourless, but has not
been
analysed.
analysed.
The sap of vegetables corresponds to the blood of animals, but
is totally different; is nearly as liquid as water; has always an acid,
sometimes free, more commonly united with lime and potash.
It has various vegetable principles; but sugar and mucilage are
is totally different; is nearly as liquid as water; has always an acid,
sometimes free, more commonly united with lime and potash.
It has various vegetable principles; but sugar and mucilage are
[21]
the most remarkable.
Sometimes it contains albumen, tannin,
and gluten.
and gluten.
It soon effervesces if left alone, and grows sour, or even vinous,
if much sugar be present.
if much sugar be present.
About forty years after the discovery of the circulation of the
blood, transfusion was practised upon brutes, and at length upon
the human subject, though some contend that the operation was
known to the ancients. Experiments were made upon the
effects of injecting medicated liquids into the blood, first by
Wahrendorf, in Germany. It was ascertained that they exert their
specific powers exactly as when swallowed, – cathartics, v. c.
purging, and emetics emptying the stomach. Among other liquids,
Dr. Christopher Wren proposed that blood should be injected,
and Dr. Lower first put this into practice. It was found that
if an animal was drained of its blood, and lay faint and almost
lifeless, and the blood of another was transfused into its cir-
culating system it soon revived, stood up, and presently ran
about as before, apparently none the worse for the operation.
If too much was poured in, the animal became drowsy, breathed
with difficulty, and died of plethora. An idea of curing diseases
in this way, by substituting the blood of the healthy for that
of the diseased, was immediately entertained when the possibility
of the operation was proved.
blood, transfusion was practised upon brutes, and at length upon
the human subject, though some contend that the operation was
known to the ancients. Experiments were made upon the
effects of injecting medicated liquids into the blood, first by
Wahrendorf, in Germany. It was ascertained that they exert their
specific powers exactly as when swallowed, – cathartics, v. c.
purging, and emetics emptying the stomach. Among other liquids,
Dr. Christopher Wren proposed that blood should be injected,
and Dr. Lower first put this into practice. It was found that
if an animal was drained of its blood, and lay faint and almost
lifeless, and the blood of another was transfused into its cir-
culating system it soon revived, stood up, and presently ran
about as before, apparently none the worse for the operation.
If too much was poured in, the animal became drowsy, breathed
with difficulty, and died of plethora. An idea of curing diseases
in this way, by substituting the blood of the healthy for that
of the diseased, was immediately entertained when the possibility
of the operation was proved.
But the first case of human transfusion proved fatal, and the
unfortunate results of some careless trials caused the Pope and
the King of France to prohibit the practice.
unfortunate results of some careless trials caused the Pope and
the King of France to prohibit the practice.
The extravagant hopes of curing diseases and restoring youth,
at first entertained in France, were disappointed, and the operation
fell into complete neglect, notwithstanding that Denys, in France,
was declared to have made a fool clever by a supply of lamb’s blood;
a Mr. Cox, in England to have cured an old mongrel of the mange
with the blood of a young spaniel; and a M. Gayant to have
made a blind old dog frisk with juvenile bound which before could
hardly stir; till Dr. Leacock brought it again into notice a few
years ago, and Dr. Blundel prosecuted this gentleman’s re-
searches. Dr. Blundel conceived it might be rationally expected
to be of benefit in cases of dangerous haemorrhage, and he soon
proved it to be void of danger in the human subject, if properly
performed. Many women who would probably otherwise have
at first entertained in France, were disappointed, and the operation
fell into complete neglect, notwithstanding that Denys, in France,
was declared to have made a fool clever by a supply of lamb’s blood;
a Mr. Cox, in England to have cured an old mongrel of the mange
with the blood of a young spaniel; and a M. Gayant to have
made a blind old dog frisk with juvenile bound which before could
hardly stir; till Dr. Leacock brought it again into notice a few
years ago, and Dr. Blundel prosecuted this gentleman’s re-
searches. Dr. Blundel conceived it might be rationally expected
to be of benefit in cases of dangerous haemorrhage, and he soon
proved it to be void of danger in the human subject, if properly
performed. Many women who would probably otherwise have
[22]
perished from uterine
haemorrhage, now owe their lives to his
disinterested zeal in establishing the practice.
disinterested zeal in establishing the practice.
I should think it applicable to many cases of exhaustion, be-
sides those arising from haemorrhage. The original history of
transfusion will be found in the early numbers of the Philosophi-
cal Transactions: the successful cases of its employment as a
remedy, in the late English journals. The double pump em-
ployed for emptying the stomach, or a common syringe, capable
of holding four or six ounces, answers very well. But Dr. Blundel
at present, when he has able assistants, sometimes receives the
blood from the blood-vessel into a funnel, the tube of which is
very long, and inserted into the vein of the subject supplied, so
that the blood enters by its gravity only.
sides those arising from haemorrhage. The original history of
transfusion will be found in the early numbers of the Philosophi-
cal Transactions: the successful cases of its employment as a
remedy, in the late English journals. The double pump em-
ployed for emptying the stomach, or a common syringe, capable
of holding four or six ounces, answers very well. But Dr. Blundel
at present, when he has able assistants, sometimes receives the
blood from the blood-vessel into a funnel, the tube of which is
very long, and inserted into the vein of the subject supplied, so
that the blood enters by its gravity only.
[23]
SECT. III.
OF THE SOLIDS IN GENERAL, AND OF THE MUCOUS
WEB IN
PARTICULAR.
17. The solids
rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually commence
in their respective situations, and differ infinitely in their
degrees
lary matter of the brain, to the vitreous substance of the
corona of the teeth.
Hier. Dav.
Gaubius, Spec. exhibens ideam generalem solidarum c.
h. partium.
Lugd. Bat. 1725. 4to.
Lugd. Bat. 1725. 4to.
rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually commence
in their respective situations, and differ infinitely in their
degrees
Abr. Kaau Boerhaave, on
the cohesion of the solids in the animal body,
Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. t. iv. p. 343. sq.
Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. t. iv. p. 343. sq.
lary matter of the brain, to the vitreous substance of the
corona of the teeth.
18. Besides the gelatinous (11) and glutinous (14) parts
of the solids, earth enters more or less into their composi-
tion, and is principally lime united with phosphoric acid,
whence it is commonly termed phosphate of lime. The bones
possess this in the greatest abundance, particularly in ad-
vanced age: whereas in childhood the gelatinous matter
abounds.
of the solids, earth enters more or less into their composi-
tion, and is principally lime united with phosphoric acid,
whence it is commonly termed phosphate of lime. The bones
possess this in the greatest abundance, particularly in ad-
vanced age: whereas in childhood the gelatinous matter
abounds.
19. With respect to texture, the majority of the similar
parts of the body, as the ancients called them,
fibres more or less parallel. This may be observed in the
bones, especially of foetuses,
parts of the body, as the ancients called them,
They divided the
human body into similar, or homogeneous parts, –
those con-
sisting of particles similar to one another, as the bones, cartilages, muscles, ten-
dons, &c.; and dissimilar, – those composed of the similar, as the head, trunk,
limbs, &c.
sisting of particles similar to one another, as the bones, cartilages, muscles, ten-
dons, &c.; and dissimilar, – those composed of the similar, as the head, trunk,
limbs, &c.
fibres more or less parallel. This may be observed in the
bones, especially of foetuses,
The parallel and reticulated bony fibres are most striking in the
radiated
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in new-born heads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my anatomical museum, a preparation of this kind,
where, in the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones the fibres are an inch or two
in length, distinct, and very delicate. The hardest parts of the skeleton, – the
bony and vitreous portions of the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which
in the zeolite, malachite, hematite, &c., all mineralogists call fibrous.
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in new-born heads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my anatomical museum, a preparation of this kind,
where, in the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones the fibres are an inch or two
in length, distinct, and very delicate. The hardest parts of the skeleton, – the
bony and vitreous portions of the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which
in the zeolite, malachite, hematite, &c., all mineralogists call fibrous.
[24]
ments, aponeuroses, and
in certain membranes, as the dura
mater, &c.
mater, &c.
20. In other parts no fibres can be discovered, but the
texture is peculiar, has been called parenchyma from the time
of Erasistratus, and differs in different viscera, especially the
secreting, – of one kind in the liver, for example, and of
another in the kidneys.
texture is peculiar, has been called parenchyma from the time
of Erasistratus, and differs in different viscera, especially the
secreting, – of one kind in the liver, for example, and of
another in the kidneys.
21. But in all these structures, whether fibrous or paren-
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
monly styled cellular, but improperly, because it rather is
continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-pellucid, and glu-
tinous.
and vesicular membrane, and demands a place among the
most important and remarkable constituents of the body. (A)
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
Dav. Chr. Schobinger,
(Praes, Hallero) De telae Cellulosae in fabrica. c.
h.
dignitate. Gotting. 174S. 4to.
dignitate. Gotting. 174S. 4to.
Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ. circa nervos
arterias adeuntes.
Francof. 1810. 4to.
Francof. 1810. 4to.
monly styled cellular, but improperly, because it rather is
continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-pellucid, and glu-
tinous.
Casp. Fr. Wolff, Nov. Act. Petropol. t. vi. p. 259.
and vesicular membrane, and demands a place among the
most important and remarkable constituents of the body. (A)
22. For, in the first place, many solid parts, v. c.
most
membranes and cartilages, may, by long-continued maceration,
be resolved into it alone. With some it is so intimately
united, as to afford a receptacle and support for other con-
stituents: v. c. the hardest bones consisted at first of cartilage,
which itself was a dense mucous web originally, though
subsequently distended by the effusion of bony matter into its
substance, and rendered more lax and cellular. In fact, it is
universally present in the solids, if we except the epidermis,
nails, hairs, and the vitreous exterior of the corona of the
teeth, in which I have never been able to discover it by em-
ploying the strongest acid.
membranes and cartilages, may, by long-continued maceration,
be resolved into it alone. With some it is so intimately
united, as to afford a receptacle and support for other con-
stituents: v. c. the hardest bones consisted at first of cartilage,
which itself was a dense mucous web originally, though
subsequently distended by the effusion of bony matter into its
substance, and rendered more lax and cellular. In fact, it is
universally present in the solids, if we except the epidermis,
nails, hairs, and the vitreous exterior of the corona of the
teeth, in which I have never been able to discover it by em-
ploying the strongest acid.
23. To the muscles and membranes especially it serves for
separation from other parts; to the vessels and nerves espe-
cially for support; and to every part it acts as the common
medium of connection.
separation from other parts; to the vessels and nerves espe-
cially for support; and to every part it acts as the common
medium of connection.
24. From these facts, two inferences may be drawn.
First: That this membrane is so fundamental a constituent
[25]
of our structure, that,
were every other part removed, and it
to retain its position, the body would still preserve its form.
to retain its position, the body would still preserve its form.
Secondly: That it forms a connection and sort of passage
between all parts of the system, however different from each
other in nature, or remote in situation: – a circumstance
worthy of attention, as putting an end to the verbal disputes
respecting the continuation of membranes, and affording an
explanation of many morbid phenomena.
between all parts of the system, however different from each
other in nature, or remote in situation: – a circumstance
worthy of attention, as putting an end to the verbal disputes
respecting the continuation of membranes, and affording an
explanation of many morbid phenomena.
25. As most of the solids owe their existence to this mem-
brane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph of the
blood, for I have seen lymph transuded on the surface of
inflamed lungs, and changed into this mucous web, which,
by forming false membranes, unites these organs to the pleura.
brane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph of the
blood, for I have seen lymph transuded on the surface of
inflamed lungs, and changed into this mucous web, which,
by forming false membranes, unites these organs to the pleura.
26. We shall now consider some varieties of this membrane.
First: its strength is not the same in every part.
In general, it is more delicate, caeteris paribus, in man than
in brutes, – a distinguishing prerogative, by which our sense
is rendered more delicate, and our motions and other func-
tions more perfect.
in brutes, – a distinguishing prerogative, by which our sense
is rendered more delicate, and our motions and other func-
tions more perfect.
I have treated this point at large in my work, De Generis Humani varietate
nativa, p. 46. edit 3.
nativa, p. 46. edit 3.
Among different individuals, it varies much in laxity and
firmness, according to age, sex, temperament, mode of life,
climate, &c.
firmness, according to age, sex, temperament, mode of life,
climate, &c.
Finally, it varies in different parts; – more lax in the pal-
pebrae and praeputium, and behind the fraenum of the tongue;
less so around the ears.
pebrae and praeputium, and behind the fraenum of the tongue;
less so around the ears.
27. Besides the purposes before mentioned (22, 23,) it
is destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids.
is destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids.
Its chief use in this respect is to receive the serous halitus
which moistens and lubricates every part. This, when formed
by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a sponge, and delivers
over to the lymphatics, thus constituting the grand connec-
tion between these two systems of vessels.
which moistens and lubricates every part. This, when formed
by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a sponge, and delivers
over to the lymphatics, thus constituting the grand connec-
tion between these two systems of vessels.
28. In certain parts
its office is to contain peculiar fluids;
v. c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous membrane, it contains
the vitreous humour:
v. c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous membrane, it contains
the vitreous humour:
[26]
In the bones, as the medullary membrane (improperly
denominated internal periosteum), the marrow:
denominated internal periosteum), the marrow:
In soft parts, it is in great abundance, and contains the
rest of the fat, of which we shall speak hereafter. (B)
rest of the fat, of which we shall speak hereafter. (B)
NOTES.
(A) Since this structure neither secretes mucus, nor consists of
mucus, but chiefly of what becomes gelatin by the operation
of boiling water, the generally-received appellation of cellular
membrane appears preferable to that of mucous tela adopted by
Blumenbach from Bordeu,
author (40) suggests the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile
power of the membrane.
mucus, but chiefly of what becomes gelatin by the operation
of boiling water, the generally-received appellation of cellular
membrane appears preferable to that of mucous tela adopted by
Blumenbach from Bordeu,
Recherches sur le Tissu Muqueux.
author (40) suggests the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile
power of the membrane.
(B) Dr. William Hunter contended that the fat is not contained
in the same cells of the cellular membrane as the fluid of
anasarca, but in distinct vesicles: because, – 1. The marrow, which
strongly resembles fat, is contained in vesicles or bags; 2. Parts
which are most loaded in anasarca, as the eyelids, never contain
fat; 3. In dropsical subjects, exhausted of the fat, the membrane
which contained fat appears still very different from the other, –
that immediately under the skin, for example, being thin and col-
lapsed, while that opposite the tendon of the latissimus dorsi is
thick and gelatinous; 4. Parts which become filled with fluid
from gravitation in dropsy, as the penis and scrotum, never con-
tain a drop of oil in the fattest persons; 5. Dropsical parts pit
on pressure; the fluid disperses, and returns when the pressure is
resumed. This is not the case with parts distended by fat,
although it is when oil is poured into the common cellular mem-
brane after death.
in the same cells of the cellular membrane as the fluid of
anasarca, but in distinct vesicles: because, – 1. The marrow, which
strongly resembles fat, is contained in vesicles or bags; 2. Parts
which are most loaded in anasarca, as the eyelids, never contain
fat; 3. In dropsical subjects, exhausted of the fat, the membrane
which contained fat appears still very different from the other, –
that immediately under the skin, for example, being thin and col-
lapsed, while that opposite the tendon of the latissimus dorsi is
thick and gelatinous; 4. Parts which become filled with fluid
from gravitation in dropsy, as the penis and scrotum, never con-
tain a drop of oil in the fattest persons; 5. Dropsical parts pit
on pressure; the fluid disperses, and returns when the pressure is
resumed. This is not the case with parts distended by fat,
although it is when oil is poured into the common cellular mem-
brane after death.
Medical Observations and
Inquiries, vol. ii. p. 33. sqq.
[27]
CHAP. IV.
OF THE VITAL POWERS IN GENERAL, AND
PARTICULARLY OF
CONTRACTILITY.
29. Hitherto we have spoken of the solids as the
con-
stituents of the system; we now shall view them as endowed
with vitality, – capable of receiving the agency of stimuli,
and of performing motions.
stituents of the system; we now shall view them as endowed
with vitality, – capable of receiving the agency of stimuli,
and of performing motions.
30. Although vitality
more easily known than defined, and usually, indeed, rendered
obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt at definition, its
effects are sufficiently manifest and ascribable to peculiar
powers only. The epithet vital is given to these powers,
because on them so much depend both the actions of the whole
body during life and those which remain in some parts for a
short time after death, that they are not referable to any
qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical.
A host of authors on the
vital powers will be found in Fr. Hildebrandt,
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, p. 54. sq. edit. 2. 1809. To whom we may add a
few of a large number, G. R. Treviranus, Biologie, Oder Philosophie der lebend-
en Natur, vol. i. Gött. 1802. E. Bartels, Systemat. Entwurf einer allgemeinen
Biologie. Franckfort. 1808. J. B. P. A. Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique.
Paris, 1809. 2 vols. 8vo. Bern. Fr. Sverman, or. de iis quae cum veteres tum
recentiores, imprimis Batavi et Germani, de vilae corporeae principio philosophati
sunt. Harderv. 1810. 4to.
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, p. 54. sq. edit. 2. 1809. To whom we may add a
few of a large number, G. R. Treviranus, Biologie, Oder Philosophie der lebend-
en Natur, vol. i. Gött. 1802. E. Bartels, Systemat. Entwurf einer allgemeinen
Biologie. Franckfort. 1808. J. B. P. A. Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique.
Paris, 1809. 2 vols. 8vo. Bern. Fr. Sverman, or. de iis quae cum veteres tum
recentiores, imprimis Batavi et Germani, de vilae corporeae principio philosophati
sunt. Harderv. 1810. 4to.
more easily known than defined, and usually, indeed, rendered
obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt at definition, its
effects are sufficiently manifest and ascribable to peculiar
powers only. The epithet vital is given to these powers,
because on them so much depend both the actions of the whole
body during life and those which remain in some parts for a
short time after death, that they are not referable to any
qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical.
31. The latter qualities, however, are of great importance
in our economy. For instance, by physical powers, depen-
dent on the density and figure of the humours of the eye,
the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by mechanical,
the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity, the changes of
respiration are effected. But the perfect difference of these
dead powers from those which we are now about to examine,
is evident on the slightest comparison of an organised eco-
in our economy. For instance, by physical powers, depen-
dent on the density and figure of the humours of the eye,
the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by mechanical,
the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity, the changes of
respiration are effected. But the perfect difference of these
dead powers from those which we are now about to examine,
is evident on the slightest comparison of an organised eco-
[28]
nomy with any inorganic
body, in which these inanimate
powers are equally strong.
powers are equally strong.
32. Indeed, the energy and strength of the vital powers
are most
conspicuously manifested by their resistance and superiority
to the others; v. c. during life, they so strongly oppose the
chemical affinities which induce putrefaction, that Stahl and
his followers referred their notion of life to this antiseptic
property;
according to the celebrated problem of Borelli, a dead muscle
would be broken asunder by the very same weight, which
it could easily raise if alive, &c.
conspicuously manifested by their resistance and superiority
to the others; v. c. during life, they so strongly oppose the
chemical affinities which induce putrefaction, that Stahl and
his followers referred their notion of life to this antiseptic
property;
“Life is formally nothing more than the preservation of the body in mix-Stahl.
ture, corruptible indeed, but without the occurrence of corruption.”
“What we call life is opposite to putridity.”J. Junker.
according to the celebrated problem of Borelli, a dead muscle
would be broken asunder by the very same weight, which
it could easily raise if alive, &c.
33. As, on the one hand, the vital properties are com-
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so, on
the other, they must be carefully distinguished from the
mental faculties, which will form the subject of the next chap-
ter: between them, however, there exists an intimate and
various relation, observable in many phenomena, but espe-
cially in the diversity of temperament.
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so, on
the other, they must be carefully distinguished from the
mental faculties, which will form the subject of the next chap-
ter: between them, however, there exists an intimate and
various relation, observable in many phenomena, but espe-
cially in the diversity of temperament.
34. The vital energy is the very basis of physiology, and has
therefore been always noticed, though under different appel-
lations. The titles of impetum faciens, innate heat, archaeus,
vital spirit, brute life, head of the nervous system, active
thinking principle, vital tonic attraction, have been bestowed
upon it by different authors.
therefore been always noticed, though under different appel-
lations. The titles of impetum faciens, innate heat, archaeus,
vital spirit, brute life, head of the nervous system, active
thinking principle, vital tonic attraction, have been bestowed
upon it by different authors.
35. Nor has there been less variety in the notions and
de-
finitions to which it has given rise; though in this one point
all have agreed, – that its nature and causes are most
obscure.
finitions to which it has given rise; though in this one point
all have agreed, – that its nature and causes are most
obscure.
36. As to the question so long agitated by physiologists, –
whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited in the
similar parts of the living solid is to be attributed to mo-
difications only, or to distinct species, of the vital energy, we
think it best to establish distinct orders of the vital powers,
whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited in the
similar parts of the living solid is to be attributed to mo-
difications only, or to distinct species, of the vital energy, we
think it best to establish distinct orders of the vital powers,
Digitalisat/621