link
THE
BY
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE THIRD AND
LAST
AND
Quaeramus optima, nec protinus se offerentibus
gaudeamus; adlubeatur judicium
inventis, dispositio probatis.Quintilian. 
THE
Grafton Street, Bond Street.
Dec. 1816. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
September 10, 1810. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
- Of Digestion 199
- Of the Pancreatic Juice 205
- Of the Bile 207
- Of the Function of the Spleen 216
- Of the Function of the Omentum 220
- Of the Function of the Intestines 223
- Of the Function of the Absorbent System 231
- Of Sanguification 240
- Of Nutrition 243
- Of the Secretions in general 248
- Of the Fat 257
- Of the Urine 261
- Of the general Differences between the Sexes 267
- Of the Genital Function of the Male 274
- Of the Genital Function of the Female
in general 298 - Of the Menstrua 307
- Of Conception and Pregnancy 311
- Of the Nisus Formativus 333
- Of Labour and its Sequelae 340
- Of the Milk 345
- Of the Differences in the System before
and
after Birth 355 - Of the Growth, stationary Condition, and
Decrease of the System 363 
THE
SECT. I.
SECT. II.
tion, but the separation of the serum in dropsy,
vesication,
&c. led Mr. Hunter to a different conclusion. View of the
present State and Progress of Animal Chymistry by Jöns
Jacob Berzelius, M.D. &c. Translated by Dr. Brunnmark,
1813, p. 23. Hunter On the Blood, &c 4to. p. 18. 
views them all three as modifications of the same
substance.
Albumen has a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrin, and
has sulphur for a constituent part, which consequently can-
not be detected while the albumen is entire, any more than
the iron while the cruor is entire. The chief differences be-
tween the colouring matter and fibrin are colour; the sponta-
neous coagulation of fibrin at all temperatures, while the co-
louring matter may be dried without losing its solubility in wa-
ter, and becomes insoluble only at a certain temperature; and
the peculiarity of the latter, of not diminishing in volume,
like fibrin, during exsiccation. – Berzelius, l. c. 
SECT. III.
SECT. IV.
SECT. V.
to take the word in its most extensive meaning.
SECT. VI.
having published a work
expressly on the subject, has re-
ceived the whole honour, both in Great Britain and on the
Continent. 
occur, it
would be better, were one organ or one half to
act alone. This is unquestionably true of the eye, but
can be supposed by analogy only with regard to the brain,
ears, &c. It certainly does not hold good in the action
of the voluntary muscles, or in the operations of the brain
or spinal marrow in willing their actions. From the du-
plicity of the organs, it also happens that one side may
cease to act without detriment to the function of the
other, while in the vital or organic class no harmony of
action is possible, and the derangement of any one part
of an organ generally affects the whole; an obstruction in
the colon disturbs the functions of the whole alimentary
canal.
[binding_recto]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[titlePage_recto]
THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY,
BY
J. FRED.
BLUMENBACH ,
Professor of Medicine in the University of
Gottingen.
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE THIRD AND
LAST
EDITION.
AND
Supplied
with numerous and extensive notes,
BY
JOHN ELLIOTSON,
M.D.
Member of Jesus College, Cambridge; the Royal College of Physicians,
London; the
Medico-Chirurgical Society of London; Member, and formerly
President of
the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh.
SECOND EDITION.
inventis, dispositio probatis.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY BENJAMIN WARNER, AND FOR SALE AT
PHILADELPHIA, AND RICHMOND, VIRGINIA
1817.
PUBLISHED BY BENJAMIN WARNER, AND FOR SALE AT
PHILADELPHIA, AND RICHMOND, VIRGINIA
[titlePage_verso]
[[iii]]
THE
TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.
The highly flattering manner
in which the Edition which
I last year published of this work, was received, has both en-
couraged and compelled me this year to prepare a second
Edition.
I last year published of this work, was received, has both en-
couraged and compelled me this year to prepare a second
Edition.
The translation has been revised, all Blumenbach’s referen-
ces inserted, and my own notes and references increased to a
considerable extent. In the latter, the progress of Physiolo-
gical science since 1810, when the last Edition of Blumen-
bach’s work was published, is detailed, and many points are
treated of at large which could not, consistently with Blumen-
bach’s design, be more than briefly mentioned in the original.
The last note, – upon the characteristics and varieties of man-
kind, is an independent addition.
ces inserted, and my own notes and references increased to a
considerable extent. In the latter, the progress of Physiolo-
gical science since 1810, when the last Edition of Blumen-
bach’s work was published, is detailed, and many points are
treated of at large which could not, consistently with Blumen-
bach’s design, be more than briefly mentioned in the original.
The last note, – upon the characteristics and varieties of man-
kind, is an independent addition.
No one can be more sensible than myself to the imperfec-
tions of my performance. In excuse I must urge the prodi-
gious extent and variety of my subject, and the short period
allowed me through the rapid sale of the first Edition and
the importunities of my Bookseller for the second.
tions of my performance. In excuse I must urge the prodi-
gious extent and variety of my subject, and the short period
allowed me through the rapid sale of the first Edition and
the importunities of my Bookseller for the second.
No one will ever listen more readily to friendly criticism, or
more readily smile at and forgive the suggestions of ill nature.
more readily smile at and forgive the suggestions of ill nature.
[[iv]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO THE
LAST EDITION.
Whenever my booksellers have
informed me that a
new edition of any of my works was required, I have always
gladly seized the opportunity of correcting inaccuracies,
arising either from carelessness or the imperfection of human
nature; of adding in some places and altering in others; in
short, of sending forth the production of my abilities in a
more finished state.
new edition of any of my works was required, I have always
gladly seized the opportunity of correcting inaccuracies,
arising either from carelessness or the imperfection of human
nature; of adding in some places and altering in others; in
short, of sending forth the production of my abilities in a
more finished state.
In preparing this new edition of my Institutions
of
Physiology for the press, the same anxious wish has been
considerably heightened by the importance of the subject, and
by the approbation evidently bestowed upon the last edition,
from its translation into our own language, into Spanish,
French, English, Dutch, and Russian, not to mention other
proofs of its favourable reception. I have endeavoured,
therefore, to enrich it not so much with an addition of pages,
as of various matter; to arrange the heads in a more natural
order; and to render the Whole as useful to students as
possible.
Physiology for the press, the same anxious wish has been
considerably heightened by the importance of the subject, and
by the approbation evidently bestowed upon the last edition,
from its translation into our own language, into Spanish,
French, English, Dutch, and Russian, not to mention other
proofs of its favourable reception. I have endeavoured,
therefore, to enrich it not so much with an addition of pages,
as of various matter; to arrange the heads in a more natural
order; and to render the Whole as useful to students as
possible.
[[v]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO THE
FIRST EDITION.
The same considerations which
led Boerhaave, and after
him Haller, to write their Compendiums of Physiology, in-
duced the author to compose these Institutions.
him Haller, to write their Compendiums of Physiology, in-
duced the author to compose these Institutions.
The former says,
“that a teacher succeeds better in com-&c.
menting upon his own thoughts, than upon a work written
by another: – that his doctrine will be clearer, and his lan-
guage generally animated,”
Pref. to the
Institut. Medic. Leyden. Fourth
edition.
The latter,
“That although he formerly used Boerhaave’s
work as a text-book, he afterwards lectured upon one written
by himself, because, since the time of Boerhaave, anatomy
has been so improved as to become almost a new science.”
Pref. to the Prim. lin. Physiol. Gottingen. First
edition.
What Haller said at that period respecting anatomy, will
be allowed to apply much more forcibly at present to physi-
ology, by any one who considers the most important parts of
the science, – the principal purpose of respiration, animal
heat, digestion, the true nature and use of the bile, the func-
tion of generation, &c.
be allowed to apply much more forcibly at present to physi-
ology, by any one who considers the most important parts of
the science, – the principal purpose of respiration, animal
heat, digestion, the true nature and use of the bile, the func-
tion of generation, &c.
More, therefore, must be ascribed to the age than to the
[vi]
author, if in these Institutions,
after so many modern physi-
ological discoveries, he delivers doctrines more sound and
natural than it was in the power of his most meritorious pre-
decessors to deliver.
ological discoveries, he delivers doctrines more sound and
natural than it was in the power of his most meritorious pre-
decessors to deliver.
Whatever he can claim as his own, whether really new or
only explained in a new manner, will be easily discovered by
the learned and impartial reader; especially from the notes,
in which he has treated some of these subjects rather more
minutely than, in the text, was compatible with the concise-
ness of his plan.
only explained in a new manner, will be easily discovered by
the learned and impartial reader; especially from the notes,
in which he has treated some of these subjects rather more
minutely than, in the text, was compatible with the concise-
ness of his plan.
He has been at great pains in arranging the subjects, so
that the sections might succeed naturally and easily, and
arise, as it were, one out of another.
that the sections might succeed naturally and easily, and
arise, as it were, one out of another.
He has not quoted a dry farrago of books, but a select
number, in doing which, he has wished both to point out to
students some excellent authors not commonly known, es-
pecially those who have professedly treated on particular
branches of the subject, and to open, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he conceives, to Phy-
siology as they deserve.
number, in doing which, he has wished both to point out to
students some excellent authors not commonly known, es-
pecially those who have professedly treated on particular
branches of the subject, and to open, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he conceives, to Phy-
siology as they deserve.
His grand object has been to deliver, in a faithful, concise,
and intelligible manner, the principles of a science inferior
in beauty, importance, and utility, to no part of medicine, if
the words prefixed by the immortal Galen to his Methodus
Medendi, are, as they most certainly are, true, –
and intelligible manner, the principles of a science inferior
in beauty, importance, and utility, to no part of medicine, if
the words prefixed by the immortal Galen to his Methodus
Medendi, are, as they most certainly are, true, –
“The mag-
nitude of a disease is in proportion to its deviation from the
healthy state; and the extent of this deviation can be ascer-
tained by him only who is perfectly acquainted with the
healthy state.”
[[vii]]
CONTENTS.
sect.
page.
- Of the Living Human Body in general 1
- Of the Fluids in general, and particularly of
the Blood 3 - Of the Solids in general, and particularly of
the Mucous Tela 12 - Of the Vital Powers in general, and parti-
cularly of Contractility16 - Of the Mental Faculties 29
- Of Health and Human Nature 32
- Of the Motion of the Blood 49
- Of Respiration and its principal Use 73
- Of Voice and Speech 87
- Of animal Heat 96
- Of the Cutaneous Perspiration 105
- Of the Functions of the Nervous System in
general 116 - Of the external Senses in general, and parti-
cularly of Touch 133 - Of Taste 136
- Of Smell 139
- Of Hearing 143
- Of Sight 147
- Of the voluntary Motions 161
- Of Muscular Motion 166
- Of Sleep 177
- Of Food and Hunger 185
[viii]
in general 298
after Birth 355
Decrease of the System 363
The translator’s notes are annexed each to the section
to which its subject respectively belongs.
to which its subject respectively belongs.
The note on the characteristics and varieties of man-
kind begins at 376
kind begins at 376
[1]
THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY.
SECT. I.
OF THE LIVING HUMAN BODY IN GENERAL.
1. In the living human body, regarded as a peculiar
or-
ganization, there are three objects of consideration.
ganization, there are three objects of consideration.
Thus, long ago, the
author of the book, generally included among the
writings of Hippocrates, Epidemic, VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said
Kaau Boerhaave, entitled,
writings of Hippocrates, Epidemic, VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said
“Those thingsThis celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr.
which contain, are contained, or moved in us with force, are to be consider-
ed.”
Kaau Boerhaave, entitled,
“Impetum faciens dictum Hippocrati per corpusL.B. 1745. 8 vo.
consentient
The materials of its subsistence, afforded by the
fluids;
The structure of the solids, containing the fluids;
Lastly, and principally, the vital powers, by which
the
solids are enabled to receive the influence of the fluids –
to propel the fluids – and perform various other motions;
solids are enabled to receive the influence of the fluids –
to propel the fluids – and perform various other motions;
[2]
and which, as they, in a certain
sense, constitute the essence
of the living machine in general, so also are of very different
orders: some being common to animals and vegetables, and
some peculiar to animals, and intimately connected with the
mental faculties.
of the living machine in general, so also are of very different
orders: some being common to animals and vegetables, and
some peculiar to animals, and intimately connected with the
mental faculties.
2. But these three, although really distinct, and there-
fore distinctly considered by us, are so closely related in the
living system, (the phenomena, conditions, and laws of whose
functions, in the healthy state, are the object of physiology,)
that no one can be contemplated, but in its relation to the
rest.
fore distinctly considered by us, are so closely related in the
living system, (the phenomena, conditions, and laws of whose
functions, in the healthy state, are the object of physiology,)
that no one can be contemplated, but in its relation to the
rest.
For the materials of the body, although originally fluid,
are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on the other
hand, the solids, besides having been formed from the fluids,
abound, however dry they may appear, in various kinds of
fluid constituents, both liquid and aeriform: lastly, it may
probably be affirmed that no fibril, during life, is detitute
of vital power.
are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on the other
hand, the solids, besides having been formed from the fluids,
abound, however dry they may appear, in various kinds of
fluid constituents, both liquid and aeriform: lastly, it may
probably be affirmed that no fibril, during life, is detitute
of vital power.
3. We shall now examine each of these separately; and
first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which form
the fundamental and most considerable portion of our bo-
dies.
first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which form
the fundamental and most considerable portion of our bo-
dies.
The great
preponderance of the fluids is strikingly exemplified in an
entire,
but perfectly dry mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the Island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anatomical museum by the il-
lustrious Banks; and though all its viscera and muscles are preserved, does
not exceed 7 1.2 lbs. in weight.
but perfectly dry mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the Island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anatomical museum by the il-
lustrious Banks; and though all its viscera and muscles are preserved, does
not exceed 7 1.2 lbs. in weight.
[3]
SECT. II.
OF THE FLUIDS IN GENERAL, AND PARTICULARLY
OF THE
BLOOD.
4. The fluids of the body may be conveniently
reduced
to three classes.
to three classes.
A. The crude; viz. the chyle, contained in the primae
vise,
and destined to become blood; also, matters absorbed on the
surface, and destined to be conveyed to the chyle.
and destined to become blood; also, matters absorbed on the
surface, and destined to be conveyed to the chyle.
B. The blood itself.
C. Those secreted from the blood, whether inert and
ex-
crementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain pur-
poses in the economy: the latter may be permanently liquid,
as the bile – or disposed to solidity, as the osseous and other
plastic juices.
crementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain pur-
poses in the economy: the latter may be permanently liquid,
as the bile – or disposed to solidity, as the osseous and other
plastic juices.
5. Of the first and third of these classes, we shall here-
after speak, in treating of chylosis, secretion, and the other
functions to which each fluid appertains. At present our
attention shall be devoted to the blood,
mary fluid – the vehicle of those successions of oxygenous
(A) and carbonaceous particles, which cease only with life –
the nourisher of the frame – the source of almost every fluid –
that into which the crude fluid is converted, and from which
all the secretions are derived; and which, with the excep-
tion of some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
after speak, in treating of chylosis, secretion, and the other
functions to which each fluid appertains. At present our
attention shall be devoted to the blood,
J. Hunter’s Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c.
London, 1794,
4to.
4to.
mary fluid – the vehicle of those successions of oxygenous
(A) and carbonaceous particles, which cease only with life –
the nourisher of the frame – the source of almost every fluid –
that into which the crude fluid is converted, and from which
all the secretions are derived; and which, with the excep-
tion of some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
[4]
noid, the amnion, &c. the virtreous substance of
the teeth,
the body of the chrystaline lens, &c. is universally dif-
fused through the system, in various proportions, indeed,
according to the various natures of the similar parts, to use
the language of the ancients,
and glands, sparingly in the tendons and cartilages.
the body of the chrystaline lens, &c. is universally dif-
fused through the system, in various proportions, indeed,
according to the various natures of the similar parts, to use
the language of the ancients,
They divided
the body into similar or homogeneous parts as
the bones,
cartilages, muscles, tendons, &c.; and dissimilar, composed of the similar,
as the head, trunk, limbs, &c.
cartilages, muscles, tendons, &c.; and dissimilar, composed of the similar,
as the head, trunk, limbs, &c.
and glands, sparingly in the tendons and cartilages.
Physiologists have variously estimated the
quantity of the blood in a well
formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Albeildgaard, make it scarcely more
than 8 pounds; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Hamberger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The
former are evidently nearer the truth.
formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Albeildgaard, make it scarcely more
than 8 pounds; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Hamberger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The
former are evidently nearer the truth.
6. The blood is a peculiar fluid, of a well known colour
and remarkable odour; its taste rather salt and nauseous;
its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit; glutinous to the
touch; its specific gravity, though different in different in-
dividuals, may be generally estimated as 1050, water being
1000: when first drawn, and received into a vessel, it exhi-
bits the following appearances.
and remarkable odour; its taste rather salt and nauseous;
its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit; glutinous to the
touch; its specific gravity, though different in different in-
dividuals, may be generally estimated as 1050, water being
1000: when first drawn, and received into a vessel, it exhi-
bits the following appearances.
J. Martin Butt. De spontanea sanguinis
separatione. Edinb. 1760, 8vo.
reprinted in Standifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J.H.L. Bader. Experimenta
circa sanguinem. Argent. 1788, 8vo.
reprinted in Standifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J.H.L. Bader. Experimenta
circa sanguinem. Argent. 1788, 8vo.
7. At first, especially while still warm, it emits a
vapour which has of late been denominated an animal
gas, and shewn to consist of hydrogen and carbon, sus-
pended by caloric.
vapour which has of late been denominated an animal
gas, and shewn to consist of hydrogen and carbon, sus-
pended by caloric.
The elements of aeriform fluids of course
exist in the blood; that they are
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed,
was clearly shewn in some experiments made by me during the year 1812,
upon other mamalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air infused
into the jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and if
the quantity was rather increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these
experiments in the Medic. Biblioth. vol. i. 177. The illustrious Bichat ob-
served the same effects in his experiments. Journal de Saute, &c. de Bor-
deaux. T. 11. 61
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed,
was clearly shewn in some experiments made by me during the year 1812,
upon other mamalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air infused
into the jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and if
the quantity was rather increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these
experiments in the Medic. Biblioth. vol. i. 177. The illustrious Bichat ob-
served the same effects in his experiments. Journal de Saute, &c. de Bor-
deaux. T. 11. 61
[5]
sembling dew of a watery
nature, but endowed with a
nidorous odour, most remarkable in the blood of carnivo-
rous animals, peculiar and truly animal. Much of this
watery liquor still remains united with the other parts of the
blood.
nidorous odour, most remarkable in the blood of carnivo-
rous animals, peculiar and truly animal. Much of this
watery liquor still remains united with the other parts of the
blood.
8. In the mean time the blood, when its temperature
has fallen to about 78°, begins to separate into two por-
tions. A coagulum is formed, from the surface of which,
as it were, exudes a fluid of a yellowish slightly red
colour, denominated serum: the more abundantly this
exudes, the greater is the contraction of the glutinous
coagulum, which has received the appellations of crassa-
mentum; and, from some resemblance to the liver, in colour
and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of placenta; and from
the circumstance of its being surrounded by the serum, of
insula.
has fallen to about 78°, begins to separate into two por-
tions. A coagulum is formed, from the surface of which,
as it were, exudes a fluid of a yellowish slightly red
colour, denominated serum: the more abundantly this
exudes, the greater is the contraction of the glutinous
coagulum, which has received the appellations of crassa-
mentum; and, from some resemblance to the liver, in colour
and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of placenta; and from
the circumstance of its being surrounded by the serum, of
insula.
9. The crassamentum may, by agitation, or repeated
ablution, be easily separated into two constituent parts:
into the cruor, which imparted to the blood its purple
colour, and into the lymph, which on washing is forsaken
by the cruor, and called, from its-greater solidity, the
basis of the crassamentum. The stronger affinity of the
cruor for the lymph than for the serum, is proved by the
necessity of violence to effect their disunion (B). By the
removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gradually paler, till
it is at length merely a white tenacious coagulum.
ablution, be easily separated into two constituent parts:
into the cruor, which imparted to the blood its purple
colour, and into the lymph, which on washing is forsaken
by the cruor, and called, from its-greater solidity, the
basis of the crassamentum. The stronger affinity of the
cruor for the lymph than for the serum, is proved by the
necessity of violence to effect their disunion (B). By the
removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gradually paler, till
it is at length merely a white tenacious coagulum.
10. Besides the watery fluid first mentioned, there are
the three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum, the
cruor, and the lymph: we shall presently treat of each
the three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum, the
cruor, and the lymph: we shall presently treat of each
[6]
more particularly. These, however, while recent, and in
possession of their native heat, are intimately mixed, and
form an equable, homogeneous fluid. Their relative pro-
portion is astonishingly diversified, according to age, tem-
perament, diet, and similar circumstances, which constitute
the peculiar health of each individual.
possession of their native heat, are intimately mixed, and
form an equable, homogeneous fluid. Their relative pro-
portion is astonishingly diversified, according to age, tem-
perament, diet, and similar circumstances, which constitute
the peculiar health of each individual.
11. The serum is a fluid, sui generis; the chief
cause
of the viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art
into different constituent principles. If subjected to a
temperature of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a
white scissile substance, resembling boiled albumen: the
rest exhibits besides the watery fluid so often mentioned,
a turbid fluid of a gelatinous, or rather mucous
which on cooling appears a tremulous coagulum. The
serum is remarkable for the quantity of soda (mineral al-
kali) which it contains. (C)
of the viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art
into different constituent principles. If subjected to a
temperature of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a
white scissile substance, resembling boiled albumen: the
rest exhibits besides the watery fluid so often mentioned,
a turbid fluid of a gelatinous, or rather mucous
J. Bostock, in The
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, published by the
Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
which on cooling appears a tremulous coagulum. The
serum is remarkable for the quantity of soda (mineral al-
kali) which it contains. (C)
12. The cruor is marked by many irregularities, both
in
the colour and the figure of its particles. It consists of
globules, which in recent blood are of a constant form
and size, and said to be 1/300 of an inch in diameter.
Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dispute; but I
am disposed to consider it as much more simple than
some writers of great celebrity have imagined. I have
always found it globular, and could never discover the
lenticular shape, which some have asserted that they re-
marked.
the colour and the figure of its particles. It consists of
globules, which in recent blood are of a constant form
and size, and said to be 1/300 of an inch in diameter.
Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dispute; but I
am disposed to consider it as much more simple than
some writers of great celebrity have imagined. I have
always found it globular, and could never discover the
lenticular shape, which some have asserted that they re-
marked.
It has been likewise advanced, that the globules change
their form, while passing through a vessel of very small
capacity; that, from being spherical, they become oval;
and when they have emerged into a vessel of larger area,
their form, while passing through a vessel of very small
capacity; that, from being spherical, they become oval;
and when they have emerged into a vessel of larger area,
[7]
that they
again resume their globular shape.
I would by no means deny it, I cannot conceive to occur du-
ring the tranquil and healthy motion of the blood, but should
refer it to a spasm of the small vessels.
G. Chr. Reichel,
De Sanguine ejusque motu experimenta. Lips.
1767.
4to. p. 27, fig. 3, g.g.
4to. p. 27, fig. 3, g.g.
I would by no means deny it, I cannot conceive to occur du-
ring the tranquil and healthy motion of the blood, but should
refer it to a spasm of the small vessels.
Their globular figure can be seen in a living animal
only, or in blood very recently drawn: for they are
soon unobservable, becoming a shapeless mass which
resembles serum in every circumstance, excepting co-
lour.
only, or in blood very recently drawn: for they are
soon unobservable, becoming a shapeless mass which
resembles serum in every circumstance, excepting co-
lour.
Their colour is red, and from it is derived the colour
of
the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely; paler in animals
which have been poorly nourished or have suffered from
haemorrhage; more florid, when oxygenized,
arterial, to use the common phrase) by exposure ei-
ther to atmospheric air, or more especially, oxygen;
darker when carbonized (in common language render-
ed venous) by exposure to carbonic acid gas, or to hydro-
gen.
the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely; paler in animals
which have been poorly nourished or have suffered from
haemorrhage; more florid, when oxygenized,
Unwilling as I am to
follow the example of those, who especially in mo-
dern times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the
word, oxygenized and carbonized may be advantageously substituted for arte-
rial and venous; because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called
veins, v.c. the pulmonary and umbilical, while, on the other hand, venous
blood is contained in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same man-
ner, the veins of the chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial, the arte-
ries venous, blood, to use these expressions in their common acceptation.
dern times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the
word, oxygenized and carbonized may be advantageously substituted for arte-
rial and venous; because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called
veins, v.c. the pulmonary and umbilical, while, on the other hand, venous
blood is contained in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same man-
ner, the veins of the chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial, the arte-
ries venous, blood, to use these expressions in their common acceptation.
arterial, to use the common phrase) by exposure ei-
ther to atmospheric air, or more especially, oxygen;
darker when carbonized (in common language render-
ed venous) by exposure to carbonic acid gas, or to hydro-
gen.
Consult among
others whom we shall recommend in the chapter on
respiration, Chr. Girtanner in the Journal de Physique, August 1790.
respiration, Chr. Girtanner in the Journal de Physique, August 1790.
Fourcroy in the Annales de Chemie, T. vij.
Hossenfratz, ibidem. T. ix.
J. Ferd. h. Autenreith, Experimenta et observata de
sanguine praesertim
venoso. Stuttg. 1792, 4to.
venoso. Stuttg. 1792, 4to.
[8]
oxide of iron,
that it has been most variously estimated (D).
By Will. C. Wells, Philos.
Trans. 1797, the redness of the blood in gene-
ral is rather ascribed to the peculiar fabric of the globules, and its various de-
grees and changes simply to the reflection of light.
ral is rather ascribed to the peculiar fabric of the globules, and its various de-
grees and changes simply to the reflection of light.
that it has been most variously estimated (D).
14. The last constituent principle of the blood to be no-
ticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with the
serum. This has been called the basis of the crassamentum,
the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter of the blood,
and, like the caseous part of milk, and the gluten of vegeta-
bles, been discovered by late analysis to abound in carbon
and azote (E).
ticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with the
serum. This has been called the basis of the crassamentum,
the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter of the blood,
and, like the caseous part of milk, and the gluten of vegeta-
bles, been discovered by late analysis to abound in carbon
and azote (E).
15. It is properly denomiated plastic, because it affords
the chief materials from which the similar parts, especially
the muscles, are immediately produced; nourishes the body
throughout life, repairs wounds and fractures in an ex-
traordinary manner, fills up the areae of large divided
blood vessels, and forms those concretions which accompany
inflammations
found in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
the chief materials from which the similar parts, especially
the muscles, are immediately produced; nourishes the body
throughout life, repairs wounds and fractures in an ex-
traordinary manner, fills up the areae of large divided
blood vessels, and forms those concretions which accompany
inflammations
Such are those spurious membranes found exuded on the surface
of in-
flamed viscera, v.c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura
after peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchiae after
croup; such also are those artificial ones called, after their inventor, Ruyschian,
and made by stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
flamed viscera, v.c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura
after peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchiae after
croup; such also are those artificial ones called, after their inventor, Ruyschian,
and made by stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
found in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
16. Thus much have we said, respecting the constituent
parts and nature of the blood, the most important fluid of
the animal machine, – a fluid, which excites the heart to
parts and nature of the blood, the most important fluid of
the animal machine, – a fluid, which excites the heart to
[9]
contraction, which
distributes oxygen to every part, and
conveys the carbon to the excretory vessels, giving rise,
by this change, to animal heat; which originally supplies
the materials of the solids, and afterwards their nourish-
ment; from which all the fluids, with the exception of
the crude (4.) are secreted and derived. Of the multifa-
rious importance of the blood, we shall speak particularly
hereafter.
conveys the carbon to the excretory vessels, giving rise,
by this change, to animal heat; which originally supplies
the materials of the solids, and afterwards their nourish-
ment; from which all the fluids, with the exception of
the crude (4.) are secreted and derived. Of the multifa-
rious importance of the blood, we shall speak particularly
hereafter.
NOTES.
(A) The blood is not at present believed to absorb any
oxygen during respiration. See note (C) to Sect. viii.
oxygen during respiration. See note (C) to Sect. viii.
(B) The red particles, or cruor, are merely suspended
in the serum, as Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker long since
proved, for if, when separated, they are triturated in
serum, part of them is taken up, and the serum assumes a
red colour; but if the fluid is allowed to settle in a cylin-
drical glass, they slowly precipitate themselves to the
bottom, and the serum above becomes clear, as before.
The serum easily separates on the coagulation of the
lymph; the colouring part does not fall to the bottom
before the lymph coagulating envelopes it and prevents
its separation: but if the lymph coagulate slowly, as in
the phlogistic diathesis, the greater specific gravity of the
cruor detaches it very considerably from the lymph,
which remains colourless above, constituting what is
called the inflammatory coat, crust or buff. Berzelius
even believes the lymph to be in a state of solution in the
serum, while the cruor is simply suspended in this solu-
in the serum, as Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker long since
proved, for if, when separated, they are triturated in
serum, part of them is taken up, and the serum assumes a
red colour; but if the fluid is allowed to settle in a cylin-
drical glass, they slowly precipitate themselves to the
bottom, and the serum above becomes clear, as before.
The serum easily separates on the coagulation of the
lymph; the colouring part does not fall to the bottom
before the lymph coagulating envelopes it and prevents
its separation: but if the lymph coagulate slowly, as in
the phlogistic diathesis, the greater specific gravity of the
cruor detaches it very considerably from the lymph,
which remains colourless above, constituting what is
called the inflammatory coat, crust or buff. Berzelius
even believes the lymph to be in a state of solution in the
serum, while the cruor is simply suspended in this solu-
[10]
&c. led Mr. Hunter to a different conclusion. View of the
present State and Progress of Animal Chymistry by Jöns
Jacob Berzelius, M.D. &c. Translated by Dr. Brunnmark,
1813, p. 23. Hunter On the Blood, &c 4to. p. 18.
(C) The coagulable part of serum is albumen; that which
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen,
and contains no jelly, as the French chymists asserted, but
an animal matter different from both jelly and albumen,
with a minute portion of albumen and fibrin, a little free
soda, muriate, lactate,
of potash, with 905/1000 of water.
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen,
and contains no jelly, as the French chymists asserted, but
an animal matter different from both jelly and albumen,
with a minute portion of albumen and fibrin, a little free
soda, muriate, lactate,
Berzelius
discovers lactic acid free or combined in all animal fluids.
It
was first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of
acetous acid with animal matter.
was first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of
acetous acid with animal matter.
of potash, with 905/1000 of water.
See Dr. Bostock’s papers in the first,
second, and fourth volumes of
The Medico Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius in the third.
The Medico Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius in the third.
(D) It has been generally supposed that iron existed in
the red particles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius
informs us that serum, although able to dissolve a small
portion of the oxydes, not indeed of the phosphates of iron,
does not acquire a red colour by their addition; and that he
has never discovered iron nor lime in the entire blood, al-
though both are so abundant in its ashes; and concludes that
the blood contains the elements of phosphate of iron and
of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also of phosphate of
magnesia, united in a manner different from their combina-
tion in the salts.
the red particles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius
informs us that serum, although able to dissolve a small
portion of the oxydes, not indeed of the phosphates of iron,
does not acquire a red colour by their addition; and that he
has never discovered iron nor lime in the entire blood, al-
though both are so abundant in its ashes; and concludes that
the blood contains the elements of phosphate of iron and
of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also of phosphate of
magnesia, united in a manner different from their combina-
tion in the salts.
(E) Oxygen and hydrogen also exist in fibrin. The
fibrin, albumen and colouring matter afford, on decom-
postion, the same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius
fibrin, albumen and colouring matter afford, on decom-
postion, the same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius
[11]
Albumen has a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrin, and
has sulphur for a constituent part, which consequently can-
not be detected while the albumen is entire, any more than
the iron while the cruor is entire. The chief differences be-
tween the colouring matter and fibrin are colour; the sponta-
neous coagulation of fibrin at all temperatures, while the co-
louring matter may be dried without losing its solubility in wa-
ter, and becomes insoluble only at a certain temperature; and
the peculiarity of the latter, of not diminishing in volume,
like fibrin, during exsiccation. – Berzelius, l. c.
[12]
SECT. III.
OF THE SOLIDS IN GENERAL, AND OF THE MUCOUS
WEB IN PARTI-
CULAR.
17. The solids
rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually com-
mence in their respective situations, and differ infinitely in
their degrees
medullary matter of the brain, to the vitreous substance of
the corona of the teeth.
Hier. Dav.
Gaubius’ Spec. exhibens ideam generalem solidarum c.
h. parti-
um. Lugd. Bat. 1725, 4to.
um. Lugd. Bat. 1725, 4to.
rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually com-
mence in their respective situations, and differ infinitely in
their degrees
Abr. Kaau Boerhaave, on the cohesion of the
solids in the animal body, in
the Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. T. iv. p. 343, sq.
the Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. T. iv. p. 343, sq.
medullary matter of the brain, to the vitreous substance of
the corona of the teeth.
18. Besides the gelatinous (11) and glutinous (15) parts
of the solids, earth enters more or less into their composition,
and is principally lime united with phosphoric acid. The
bones possess this in the greatest abundance, particu-
larly in advanced age, whereas in childhood the gelatinous
matter abounds.
of the solids, earth enters more or less into their composition,
and is principally lime united with phosphoric acid. The
bones possess this in the greatest abundance, particu-
larly in advanced age, whereas in childhood the gelatinous
matter abounds.
19. With respect to texture, a great part of the solids
consist of fibres more or less parallel. This may be ob-
served in the bones, especially of foetuses,
consist of fibres more or less parallel. This may be ob-
served in the bones, especially of foetuses,
The parallel and reticulated bony fibres are
most striking in the radiated
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in young heads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my museum, a preparation of this kind, where, in
the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones, the fibres are an inch or two in
length, distinct and delicate. The hardest parts, the bony and vitreous por-
tions of the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which in the zeolite, ma-
lachite, hematite, &c. all mineralogists call fibrous.
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in young heads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my museum, a preparation of this kind, where, in
the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones, the fibres are an inch or two in
length, distinct and delicate. The hardest parts, the bony and vitreous por-
tions of the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which in the zeolite, ma-
lachite, hematite, &c. all mineralogists call fibrous.
[13]
cles, tendons, ligaments,
aponeuroses, and in certain mem-
branes, as the dura mater, &c.
branes, as the dura mater, &c.
20. In other parts no fibres can be discovered, but the
texture is peculiar, called parenchyma, from the time of
Erasistratus, and differing in different viscera, especially
the secreting, – of one kind in the liver, of another in the
kidneys.
texture is peculiar, called parenchyma, from the time of
Erasistratus, and differing in different viscera, especially
the secreting, – of one kind in the liver, of another in the
kidneys.
21. But in all the structures, whether fibrous or paren-
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
commonly but improperly styled cellular, because it rather
is continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-pellucid, and
glutinous.
lar and vesicular membrane, and demands a place among
the most important and remarkable constituents of the bo-
dy. (A.)
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
Dav. Chr. Schobinger
(Praes. Hallero) De telae Cellulosae in fabrica c.
h.
dignitate, Gotting. 1748, 4to. Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ.
Anatom, circa nervos arterias adeuntes. Francof. 1810, 4to.
dignitate, Gotting. 1748, 4to. Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ.
Anatom, circa nervos arterias adeuntes. Francof. 1810, 4to.
commonly but improperly styled cellular, because it rather
is continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-pellucid, and
glutinous.
Casp. Fr. Wolff, in the Nov. Act. Petropol.
T. vi. p. 259.
lar and vesicular membrane, and demands a place among
the most important and remarkable constituents of the bo-
dy. (A.)
22. For, in the first place, many solid parts, v.c. most
membranes and cartilages, may by long continued mace-
ration be resolved into it alone. With some it is so inti-
mately united, as to afford a receptacle and support for
other constituents: v.c. the hardest bones consisted at
first of cartilage, which was originally condensed mucous
membrane; but since become distended by the effusion of
bony matter into its substance, which is rendered more lax
and cellular. In fact, it is universally present in the solids,
if we except the epidermis, nails, and hairs, and the vi-
treous exterior of the corona of the teeth, in which I have
never been able to discover it by employing the strongest
acid.
membranes and cartilages, may by long continued mace-
ration be resolved into it alone. With some it is so inti-
mately united, as to afford a receptacle and support for
other constituents: v.c. the hardest bones consisted at
first of cartilage, which was originally condensed mucous
membrane; but since become distended by the effusion of
bony matter into its substance, which is rendered more lax
and cellular. In fact, it is universally present in the solids,
if we except the epidermis, nails, and hairs, and the vi-
treous exterior of the corona of the teeth, in which I have
never been able to discover it by employing the strongest
acid.
[14]
23. To the muscles and membranes especially it serves for
separation from other parts; to the vessels and nerves for
support; and to every part it acts as the common medium of
connection.
separation from other parts; to the vessels and nerves for
support; and to every part it acts as the common medium of
connection.
24. From these facts, two inferences may be drawn. First:
That this membrane is so fundamental a constituent of our
structure, that, were every other part removed, the body
would still retain its form.
That this membrane is so fundamental a constituent of our
structure, that, were every other part removed, the body
would still retain its form.
Secondly: That it forms a connection between all parts of
the system, however different from each other in nature, or
remote in situation: – a circumstance worthy of attention, as
putting an end to the verbal disputes respecting the continu-
ation of membranes, and affording an explanation of many
morbid phenomena.
the system, however different from each other in nature, or
remote in situation: – a circumstance worthy of attention, as
putting an end to the verbal disputes respecting the continu-
ation of membranes, and affording an explanation of many
morbid phenomena.
25. As most of the solids owe their existence to this mem-
brane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph of the
blood. I have found the lymph changed into this mem-
brane, when transuded on the surface of inflamed lungs, and
by forming false membranes, it afterwards unites these organs
to the pleura.
brane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph of the
blood. I have found the lymph changed into this mem-
brane, when transuded on the surface of inflamed lungs, and
by forming false membranes, it afterwards unites these organs
to the pleura.
26. We shall now consider some varieties of this mem-
brane. In general, it is more delicate, caeteris paribus, in
man than in animals, – a distinguishing prerogative, by
which our sense is rendered more delicate, and our mo-
tions and other functions more perfect.
ferent individuals, it varies much in laxity and firmness,
according to age, sex, temperament, mode of life, climate,
&c.
brane. In general, it is more delicate, caeteris paribus, in
man than in animals, – a distinguishing prerogative, by
which our sense is rendered more delicate, and our mo-
tions and other functions more perfect.
I have treated this point at large in my work, De Generis humani varie-
tate nativa, p. 46, edit. 3.
tate nativa, p. 46, edit. 3.
ferent individuals, it varies much in laxity and firmness,
according to age, sex, temperament, mode of life, climate,
&c.
Finally, it varies in different parts; more lax in the pal-
[15]
pebrae and preputium, and
behind the fraenum of the tongue;
less so round the ears.
less so round the ears.
27. Besides the purposes before mentioned, (22, 23) it is
destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids. Its
chief use in this respect is to receive that serous halitus
which moistens and lubricates every part. This, when
formed by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a sponge, and
delivers over to the lymphatics, thus constituting the grand
connection between these two systems of vessels.
destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids. Its
chief use in this respect is to receive that serous halitus
which moistens and lubricates every part. This, when
formed by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a sponge, and
delivers over to the lymphatics, thus constituting the grand
connection between these two systems of vessels.
28. In certain parts its office is to contain peculiar fluids,
v.c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous membrane, it con-
tains the vitreous humour: in the bones, as the medullary
membrane (improperly denominated internal periosteum,)
the marrow; in soft parts, it is in great abundance, and con-
tains the rest of the fat, of which we shall speak hereafter.
v.c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous membrane, it con-
tains the vitreous humour: in the bones, as the medullary
membrane (improperly denominated internal periosteum,)
the marrow; in soft parts, it is in great abundance, and con-
tains the rest of the fat, of which we shall speak hereafter.
NOTE.
(A) The generally received appellation of cellular mem-
brane appears preferable to that of mucous web adopted by Blu-
menbach from Bordeu (Recherches sur le tissu Muqueux,)
and especially in this work, as our author (par. 40) suggests
the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile power of the mem-
brane.
brane appears preferable to that of mucous web adopted by Blu-
menbach from Bordeu (Recherches sur le tissu Muqueux,)
and especially in this work, as our author (par. 40) suggests
the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile power of the mem-
brane.
[16]
SECT. IV.
OF THE VITAL POWERS IN GENERAL, AND
PARTICULARLY OF
CONTRACTILITY.
29. Hitherto we have spoken of the solids, as the
con-
stituents of the system; we now shall view them as endowed
with vitality, – capable of receiving the agency of stimuli,
and of performing motions.
stituents of the system; we now shall view them as endowed
with vitality, – capable of receiving the agency of stimuli,
and of performing motions.
30. Although vitality
more easily known than defined, and usually indeed render-
ed obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt at defini-
tion, its effects are sufficiently manifest, and ascribable to pe-
culiar powers only. The epithet vital is given to these
powers, because on them so much depend the actions of the
body during life, and of those parts which for a short time
after death preserve their vitality, that they are not re-
ferrible to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or me-
chanical.
A host of authors on the
vital powers will be found in Fr. Hildebrandt’s
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, p. 54, sq. edit. 2, 1809, to whom we may add E.
Bartel’s Systemat. Entwurf einer Allgemeinen Biologie. Francof. 1808, and J.
B.P.A. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique, Paris, 1809, 11 vols. 8vo.
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, p. 54, sq. edit. 2, 1809, to whom we may add E.
Bartel’s Systemat. Entwurf einer Allgemeinen Biologie. Francof. 1808, and J.
B.P.A. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique, Paris, 1809, 11 vols. 8vo.
more easily known than defined, and usually indeed render-
ed obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt at defini-
tion, its effects are sufficiently manifest, and ascribable to pe-
culiar powers only. The epithet vital is given to these
powers, because on them so much depend the actions of the
body during life, and of those parts which for a short time
after death preserve their vitality, that they are not re-
ferrible to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or me-
chanical.
31. The latter qualities, however, are of great impor-
tance in our economy. By physical powers, dependent
on the density and figure of the humours of the eye,
the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by mechanical,
the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity, the changes
of respiration are effected. But the perfect difference of
tance in our economy. By physical powers, dependent
on the density and figure of the humours of the eye,
the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by mechanical,
the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity, the changes
of respiration are effected. But the perfect difference of
[17]
these dead powers from those which we are now about to
examine, is evident from the slightest comparison of an or-
ganized economy with any inorganic body, in which these
inanimate powers are equally strong.
examine, is evident from the slightest comparison of an or-
ganized economy with any inorganic body, in which these
inanimate powers are equally strong.
32. Indeed the vital powers are most conspicuously
mani-
fested by their resistance and superiority to the others;
v.c. during life, they so strongly oppose the chymical affini-
ties which induce putrefaction, that Stahl and his followers
referred their notion of life to this antiseptic property;
Stahl.
they so far exceed the force of gravity, that, according to
the celebrated problem of Borelli, a dead muscle would be
broken asunder by the very same weight, which, if alive, it
could easily raise, &c.
fested by their resistance and superiority to the others;
v.c. during life, they so strongly oppose the chymical affini-
ties which induce putrefaction, that Stahl and his followers
referred their notion of life to this antiseptic property;
“Life formally is nothing more than the preservation of the body in
mixture, corruptible indeed, but without the occurrence of corruption.”
Stahl.
“What we call life is opposite to putridity.”J. Junker
they so far exceed the force of gravity, that, according to
the celebrated problem of Borelli, a dead muscle would be
broken asunder by the very same weight, which, if alive, it
could easily raise, &c.
33. As on the one hand, the vital properties are com-
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so, on
the other, they must be carefully distinguished from the
mental faculties which will form the subject of the next
chapter: between them, however, there exists an intimate
and various relation observable in many phenomena, but
especially in the diversity of temperament.
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so, on
the other, they must be carefully distinguished from the
mental faculties which will form the subject of the next
chapter: between them, however, there exists an intimate
and various relation observable in many phenomena, but
especially in the diversity of temperament.
34. The vital energy is the very basis of physiology, and
has therefore been always noticed, though under different
appellations. The titles of impetum faciens, innate heat,
archaeus, vital spirit, brute life, head of the nervous system,
active thinking principle, vital tonic attraction, have been
bestowed upon it by different authors.
has therefore been always noticed, though under different
appellations. The titles of impetum faciens, innate heat,
archaeus, vital spirit, brute life, head of the nervous system,
active thinking principle, vital tonic attraction, have been
bestowed upon it by different authors.
35. Nor has there been less variety in the notions
and
[18]
definitions
to which it has given rise; though in this one
point all have agreed, – that its nature and causes are most
obscure. (A.)
point all have agreed, – that its nature and causes are most
obscure. (A.)
36. As to the question so long agitated by physiologists,
whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited in the
similar parts of the living solid, are to be attributed to mo-
difications only, or to distinct species, of the vital energy,
we think it best to establish distinct orders of the vital
powers, according to the variety of phenomena by which they
are manifested.
whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited in the
similar parts of the living solid, are to be attributed to mo-
difications only, or to distinct species, of the vital energy,
we think it best to establish distinct orders of the vital
powers, according to the variety of phenomena by which they
are manifested.
37. These phenomena are threefold. Organic formation
and increase; motion in the parts when formed; sensation
from the motion of certain similar parts.
and increase; motion in the parts when formed; sensation
from the motion of certain similar parts.
38. The first requisite involved in the name and notion
of an organized body, is a determinate form designed for
certain ends. That species, therefore, of the vital powers
is most general, which produces the genital and nutritive
fluids, and prepares them for organic nature. This species
we have denominated the nisus formativus, since it is the
source of all generation, nutrition, and reproduction, in each
organized kingdom.
of an organized body, is a determinate form designed for
certain ends. That species, therefore, of the vital powers
is most general, which produces the genital and nutritive
fluids, and prepares them for organic nature. This species
we have denominated the nisus formativus, since it is the
source of all generation, nutrition, and reproduction, in each
organized kingdom.
39. Those vital powers which are manifested (37) by
motion, properly so called, in parts already formed, may be
divided into common and proper. The common are those
belonging to similar parts which are widely distributed;
v.c. contractility to the mucous structure; irritability to
the muscular fibre. (B.) The proper are those possessed
only by individual organs, whose motions are peculiar and
characteristic.
motion, properly so called, in parts already formed, may be
divided into common and proper. The common are those
belonging to similar parts which are widely distributed;
v.c. contractility to the mucous structure; irritability to
the muscular fibre. (B.) The proper are those possessed
only by individual organs, whose motions are peculiar and
characteristic.
40. Contractility is as generally distributed as the
mu-
cous structure, which it may be said to animate; and
therefore would perhaps not improperly be called the vis
cellulosa. It is characterized by a simple and not very
cous structure, which it may be said to animate; and
therefore would perhaps not improperly be called the vis
cellulosa. It is characterized by a simple and not very
[19]
sensible
effort to contract and react upon its contents, espe-
cially upon its source of moisture, – the serous vapour and to
propel this into the lymphatic system.
cially upon its source of moisture, – the serous vapour and to
propel this into the lymphatic system.
That Haller and Theoph.
de Bordeu, the chief writers on the mucous
tela, did not form a just conception of this vital power, will be evident from the
latter’s Recherches sur le Tissu Muqueux, Par. 1767, 8vo. and the dissertation
of the former on Irritability in the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique d’Yverdun.
T. xxv.
tela, did not form a just conception of this vital power, will be evident from the
latter’s Recherches sur le Tissu Muqueux, Par. 1767, 8vo. and the dissertation
of the former on Irritability in the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique d’Yverdun.
T. xxv.
41. Irritability, we mean the irritability of Haller, is
pecu-
liar to the muscles, and may be called the vis muscalaris.
It is marked by an oscillatory or tremulous motion, distin-
guished from the action of simple contractility, by being far
more permanent, and by occurring far more easily on the ap-
plication of any pretty strong stimulus.
liar to the muscles, and may be called the vis muscalaris.
It is marked by an oscillatory or tremulous motion, distin-
guished from the action of simple contractility, by being far
more permanent, and by occurring far more easily on the ap-
plication of any pretty strong stimulus.
Haller De Partibus Corp. Hum.
iritabilibus in the Nov. Comm. Soc.
Reg.
Scient. Gotting. T. iv.
Scient. Gotting. T. iv.
42. Such are the common (39) moving vital powers.
But
some organs differ from the rest so much in their structure,
motions and functions, as not to come under the laws
of the common orders of vital power. We must, conse-
quently, either reform the characters of these orders, insti-
tute new ones, and extend their limits, or till this be done,
separate these peculiar motions from the common orders,
and designate them by the name of vitae propriae.
examples may be adduced, the motions of the iris; the
erection of the nipple; the motions of the fimbriae of the
Fallopian tubes; the action of the placenta, and of the womb
during labour; and probably the greater part of the function
of secretion.
some organs differ from the rest so much in their structure,
motions and functions, as not to come under the laws
of the common orders of vital power. We must, conse-
quently, either reform the characters of these orders, insti-
tute new ones, and extend their limits, or till this be done,
separate these peculiar motions from the common orders,
and designate them by the name of vitae propriae.
I have spoken of these at large both in my
treatise De Iridis Motu 1784,
and my programma De Vi Vitali Sanguini deneganda 1795.
and my programma De Vi Vitali Sanguini deneganda 1795.
examples may be adduced, the motions of the iris; the
erection of the nipple; the motions of the fimbriae of the
Fallopian tubes; the action of the placenta, and of the womb
during labour; and probably the greater part of the function
of secretion.
On the vita propria of the absorbent vessels
consult Seb. Justin. Brag-
mans, De Causa Absorptionis per Vasa Lymphatica. Ludg. Bat. 1795, 8vo.
mans, De Causa Absorptionis per Vasa Lymphatica. Ludg. Bat. 1795, 8vo.
On the peculiar
vital properties of the arteries consult Chr. Kramp, Kritik
der Praktischen Arzneikunde. Lips. 1795, 8 vo.
der Praktischen Arzneikunde. Lips. 1795, 8 vo.
Many of the phenomena now mentioned are ascribed by others to an or-
gasm, to use an old expression, struggling from the centre to the circumfe-
rence, and lately designated vital turgor.
gasm, to use an old expression, struggling from the centre to the circumfe-
rence, and lately designated vital turgor.
[20]
43. So much in regard to the vital powers displayed by
motion. (37, 39, 42.) We have now to speak of sensibility,
which is peculiar to the nervous medulla communicating
with the sensorium. It bears the title of vis nervea, and is
the cause of perception when irritation is excited in parts to
which it is distributed.
motion. (37, 39, 42.) We have now to speak of sensibility,
which is peculiar to the nervous medulla communicating
with the sensorium. It bears the title of vis nervea, and is
the cause of perception when irritation is excited in parts to
which it is distributed.
Fouquet in the Dictionarie Encyclopedique de Paris T. xv. Art.
Sensibilité
44. The order which we have followed in enumerating
the
vital powers, (38, 43,) is that in which they successively arise
both during our formation and after birth.
vital powers, (38, 43,) is that in which they successively arise
both during our formation and after birth.
The nisus formativus must take place before we can ascer-
tain the existence of the new conception.
tain the existence of the new conception.
Then contractility is exerted in the gelatinous substance of
the embryo.
the embryo.
When the muscular fibres are produced, they acquire ir-
ritability.
ritability.
In those few organs whose motions cannot properly be re-
ferred either to contractility or irritability, there next exists
a vita propria.
ferred either to contractility or irritability, there next exists
a vita propria.
Finally, after birth, sensibility, is superadded.
45. Similar also is the order, according to which the
vital
powers, both common and proper, are distributed to the or-
ganized bodies of each kingdom.
powers, both common and proper, are distributed to the or-
ganized bodies of each kingdom.
Consult C. Fr.Kielmeyer
Uber die Verhältnisse der organischen Krafte
inder
Reihe der verschiedenen organisationen, 1793, 8vo H.F. Link Uber die Lebens-
kräfte in naturhistorischer Rücksicht. Rostoch. 1795, 8vo.
Reihe der verschiedenen organisationen, 1793, 8vo H.F. Link Uber die Lebens-
kräfte in naturhistorischer Rücksicht. Rostoch. 1795, 8vo.
[21]
The formative power must be most universal; without it
indeed organization cannot be conceived to exist.
indeed organization cannot be conceived to exist.
Contractility likewise is common to each kingdom.
Irritability and sensibility, in the sense above explained, are
peculiar to animals.
peculiar to animals.
Lastly, the vita propria is variously observable in some
or-
gans, particularly the generative, both of certain animals and
vegetables. (C)
gans, particularly the generative, both of certain animals and
vegetables. (C)
46. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that most of these
modes of vital energy, though necessarily distinguished into
orders, are intimately connected; v.c. the mucous membrane,
forming the basis and seat of contractility in so many organs,
is interwoven also with the irritable muscular fibres
sensible nerves.
modes of vital energy, though necessarily distinguished into
orders, are intimately connected; v.c. the mucous membrane,
forming the basis and seat of contractility in so many organs,
is interwoven also with the irritable muscular fibres
See Abildgaard in the Acta Reg. Soc. Med. Havniens. T. 1.
sensible nerves.
47. Whatever may have been the opinions of physiolo-
gists respecting the difference or identity of the vital
powers, it is universally agreed that they exist in the simi-
lar solid parts, as the ancients called them, of which the
organs or dissimilar parts are composed. But it has been
disputed, and particularly of late, whether vitality is pe-
culiar to the solids, or common also to the fluids; and the
latter being granted, whether or no the blood alone is so en-
dowed.
gists respecting the difference or identity of the vital
powers, it is universally agreed that they exist in the simi-
lar solid parts, as the ancients called them, of which the
organs or dissimilar parts are composed. But it has been
disputed, and particularly of late, whether vitality is pe-
culiar to the solids, or common also to the fluids; and the
latter being granted, whether or no the blood alone is so en-
dowed.
48. As to the first question, the whole natural history
of
each organic kingdom, as far as it has hitherto been cultivat-
ed, abundantly shows that those living parts, however deli-
cate, of all known animals and vegetables, are solid; a cir-
cumstance necessarily implied in their determinate figure
destined for certain uses. For, not to speak of entire
animals (which, however simple, as worms, are neverthe-
each organic kingdom, as far as it has hitherto been cultivat-
ed, abundantly shows that those living parts, however deli-
cate, of all known animals and vegetables, are solid; a cir-
cumstance necessarily implied in their determinate figure
destined for certain uses. For, not to speak of entire
animals (which, however simple, as worms, are neverthe-
[22]
less
supplied with enveloping membranes) the newly laid
egg, though at first sight merely fluid, on a more careful
examination is discovered to consist of different membranes,
of the halones, the cicatricula, &c.
egg, though at first sight merely fluid, on a more careful
examination is discovered to consist of different membranes,
of the halones, the cicatricula, &c.
Humidity is indeed necessary in the living solid, for the
exertion of vitality. But that vitality exists in the solid, as
solid, is proved by the well known instances of animalcules
and the seeds of plants, in which, although long dried, the
vital principle is so entire, that they again live and germi-
nate.
exertion of vitality. But that vitality exists in the solid, as
solid, is proved by the well known instances of animalcules
and the seeds of plants, in which, although long dried, the
vital principle is so entire, that they again live and germi-
nate.
49. With respect to the supposed exclusive vitality of the
blood, I candidly confess that no argument has been adduced
in its favour since the time of Harvey, which might not, I
think, be more easily, simply, and naturally explained on the
contrary supposition.
blood, I candidly confess that no argument has been adduced
in its favour since the time of Harvey, which might not, I
think, be more easily, simply, and naturally explained on the
contrary supposition.
For example, the incorruptibility of the blood during life,
is far more explicable from the perpetual changes which it
undergoes, especially in respiration.
is far more explicable from the perpetual changes which it
undergoes, especially in respiration.
That the blood is the material from which the living
solids are produced, is no stronger an argument of its vi-
tality, than the formation of nymphaeae and so many
other remarkable plants, would be for the vitality of
water.
solids are produced, is no stronger an argument of its vi-
tality, than the formation of nymphaeae and so many
other remarkable plants, would be for the vitality of
water.
It is difficult to comprehend how the coagulation of the
lymph of the blood can demonstrate its vitality. The or-
ganic formation of this lymph in generation, nutrition, and
reproduction, depends not upon the lymph itself, as
lymph, but upon the action of the nisus formativus (38) up-
on it.
lymph of the blood can demonstrate its vitality. The or-
ganic formation of this lymph in generation, nutrition, and
reproduction, depends not upon the lymph itself, as
lymph, but upon the action of the nisus formativus (38) up-
on it.
50. Those who formerly contended
V.C. Dan.
Bernouilli De Respiratione,Basil, 1721.
“Respiration supplies a very subtle air, which, when intimately mixed
with the blood, greatly condensed, conveyed to the moving fibres, and al-
lowed by the animal spirits to exert its powers, inflates, contracts and moves
the muscles, and thus promotes the circulation of fluids, and imparts motion
to mobile parts.”
[23]
acquires in the lungs from the
air a certain principle to be
universally distributed during circulation, for the purpose of
imparting motion, &c. to the organs, were right, if they re-
garded that principle (analogous to the oxygen of the mo-
derns) as the stimulant of the living solid; wrong, if they
regarded it as vitality itself.
universally distributed during circulation, for the purpose of
imparting motion, &c. to the organs, were right, if they re-
garded that principle (analogous to the oxygen of the mo-
derns) as the stimulant of the living solid; wrong, if they
regarded it as vitality itself.
51. For it is on all hands agreed, that no motion occurs
but upon the action of stimuli, to receive which action the
vital powers are naturally adapted and intended.
but upon the action of stimuli, to receive which action the
vital powers are naturally adapted and intended.
52. These stimuli,
ly reduced to three classes; chemical, mechanical, and men-
tal. For the present, we shall say nothing of their various
modes of action, in some instances direct, in others indirect,
by sympathy and sensorial reaction. It is sufficient at pre-
sent to cite a few examples of functions, to which each class
of stimuli conspires: such is the increased secretion of tears,
saliva, bile, &c. and the venereal turgescence of the geni-
tals.
Laur. Bellini De Sanguinis Missione, p. 165–193.
Sylvest. Douglas De Stimulis. Lugd. Bat.
1766.
ly reduced to three classes; chemical, mechanical, and men-
tal. For the present, we shall say nothing of their various
modes of action, in some instances direct, in others indirect,
by sympathy and sensorial reaction. It is sufficient at pre-
sent to cite a few examples of functions, to which each class
of stimuli conspires: such is the increased secretion of tears,
saliva, bile, &c. and the venereal turgescence of the geni-
tals.
53. If the nature of stimuli is infinitely various, no less
so are their effects, according to their nature, intensity, or
continued and repeated application to the living solid.
Hence they are generally divided into exciting and de-
pressing.
so are their effects, according to their nature, intensity, or
continued and repeated application to the living solid.
Hence they are generally divided into exciting and de-
pressing.
54. The power of certain stimuli in increasing the effects
of others, is very remarkable: v.c. the power of caloric,
of others, is very remarkable: v.c. the power of caloric,
[24]
upon which probably national temperament chiefly
depends.
That of joy, a most energetic mental stimulis is similar.
Likewise perhaps that of oxygen, (50) by whose chemical
stimulus the vital powers, particularly irritability, are greatly
excited and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of
other stimuli.
Montesquieu De l’Esprit des Lois. T. ii. p. 34. London,
1757,
8vo.
8vo.
That of joy, a most energetic mental stimulis is similar.
Jo. Casp. Hirzel De Animi laeti et erecti efficacia in Corpore sano et
aegro.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
Likewise perhaps that of oxygen, (50) by whose chemical
stimulus the vital powers, particularly irritability, are greatly
excited and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of
other stimuli.
55. Not less considerable than the variety of stimuli, is
that more minute discrepancy of the different organs, and of
the same organs in different individuals, according to age,
sex, temperament, idiosyncracy, habit, mode of life, &c., to
which are owing the diversified effects of the same stimuli
upon different organs,
individuals, and upon which depends what the English have
lately termed specific irritability.
that more minute discrepancy of the different organs, and of
the same organs in different individuals, according to age,
sex, temperament, idiosyncracy, habit, mode of life, &c., to
which are owing the diversified effects of the same stimuli
upon different organs,
Called Le Tact ou le Gout
particulier de chaque Partie, by Theoph. de
Bordeu, in his Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes, p. 376. sq.
Bordeu, in his Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes, p. 376. sq.
individuals, and upon which depends what the English have
lately termed specific irritability.
Sam. Farr on Animal Motion, 1771, 8vo. p.
141.
Jo. Mudge’s Cure for a recent catarrhous Cough.
Edit. 2. 1779, 8vo. p.
238.
238.
Gilb. Blane On Muscular Motion, 1788, 4to. p.
22.
J.L. Gautier De irritabilitatis Notione, &c.
Hal. 1793, 8vo. p. 56.
56. Lastly, the influence of stimuli by means of sympathy,
is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part is excited,
another, frequently very remote, consents in feeling, motion,
or some peculiar function.
is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part is excited,
another, frequently very remote, consents in feeling, motion,
or some peculiar function.
J.H. Rahn De Causis Physicis Sympathiae. Exerc. 1. – vii.
Figur. from
1786, 4to.
1786, 4to.
Sylloge selectiorum opusculor de mirabili sympathia
quae partes inter. diversas
c. h. intercedit. Edited by J.C. Tr. Schlegel. Lips. 1787, 8vo.
c. h. intercedit. Edited by J.C. Tr. Schlegel. Lips. 1787, 8vo.
The primary and most extensive cause of sympathy
[25]
must be referred to the nerves,
sensorial reaction;
the sensorium is affected, which reacting by means of the
nerves on another part, draws it into consent with the first,
although there exist between them no immediate nervous
connection. Such is the sympathy of the iris, when
the retina is stimulated by light; and of the diaphragm
during sneezing, when the Schneiderian membrane is ir-
ritated.
G. Egger (the
author Lawr. Gasser) De consensu nevorum.
Vindob. 1766,
8vo.
8vo.
sensorial reaction;
J.G. Zinn’s
Observations on the different Structure of the Human Eye
and that of Brutes. Diss. ii. 1757. in the Comment Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
antiquiores. T. 1.
and that of Brutes. Diss. ii. 1757. in the Comment Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
antiquiores. T. 1.
the sensorium is affected, which reacting by means of the
nerves on another part, draws it into consent with the first,
although there exist between them no immediate nervous
connection. Such is the sympathy of the iris, when
the retina is stimulated by light; and of the diaphragm
during sneezing, when the Schneiderian membrane is ir-
ritated.
There are other examples of sympathy, in which the
nerves, if they have any, have a more remote and accessory
share;
the blood vessels, strikingly instanced between the inter-
nal mammary and epigastric arteries, especially in ad-
vanced pregnancy: that along the lymphatic vessels,
most remarkable during pregnancy and suckling; and
again, that dependent on analogy of structure and function,
v.c. the sympathy of the lungs with the surface and intes-
tines. (E)
nerves, if they have any, have a more remote and accessory
share;
Consider the
constant sympathy of heat between certain parts of some
animals, v.c. of the hairs with the fauces, in variegated rabbits, sheep,
dogs, &c. of the feathers with the covering of the bill and feet in varieties of
the domestic duck. That many such instances are not referable to the
influence of nerves, I contended in my Comm. de Motu iridis, p. 12, et seq.
and also in my work de Generis humani varietate nativa, p. 361. et seq.
animals, v.c. of the hairs with the fauces, in variegated rabbits, sheep,
dogs, &c. of the feathers with the covering of the bill and feet in varieties of
the domestic duck. That many such instances are not referable to the
influence of nerves, I contended in my Comm. de Motu iridis, p. 12, et seq.
and also in my work de Generis humani varietate nativa, p. 361. et seq.
the blood vessels, strikingly instanced between the inter-
nal mammary and epigastric arteries, especially in ad-
vanced pregnancy: that along the lymphatic vessels,
Innumerable pathological phenomena will be found explained by
this
sympathy in S. Th. Soemmerring’s De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Diss.
quae praemium retulit. Francof. 1795. 8vo.
sympathy in S. Th. Soemmerring’s De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Diss.
quae praemium retulit. Francof. 1795. 8vo.
most remarkable during pregnancy and suckling; and
again, that dependent on analogy of structure and function,
v.c. the sympathy of the lungs with the surface and intes-
tines. (E)
[26]
57. The vital powers will be hereafter separately con-
sidered, under the distinct heads of our subject. The nisus
formativus under the head of Generation; irritability
under that of the Muscles; sensibility under that of the
nervous System; the vita propria when occasion re-
quires.
sidered, under the distinct heads of our subject. The nisus
formativus under the head of Generation; irritability
under that of the Muscles; sensibility under that of the
nervous System; the vita propria when occasion re-
quires.
58. Besides our former brief remarks (40) upon contrac-
tility, a few more minute will at present be very oppor-
tune.
tility, a few more minute will at present be very oppor-
tune.
It prevails universally, (40) wherever the mucous tela is
discoverable.
discoverable.
It is consequently most abundant in parts destitute of
proper parenchyma, but composed almost entirely of mucous
tela, v.c. in certain membranes: for no one will deny their
contractility, who reflects upon the spastic motions of the
dartos, the male urethra, or the gall bladder, which during
death is always closely contracted upon any calculi it may
contain.
proper parenchyma, but composed almost entirely of mucous
tela, v.c. in certain membranes: for no one will deny their
contractility, who reflects upon the spastic motions of the
dartos, the male urethra, or the gall bladder, which during
death is always closely contracted upon any calculi it may
contain.
It appears also in those viscera which consist chiefly of
this tela, v.c. in the lungs, whose external surface we have
found on living dissection very contractile; but by no means,
as Varnierus asserts, truly irritable. (F)
this tela, v.c. in the lungs, whose external surface we have
found on living dissection very contractile; but by no means,
as Varnierus asserts, truly irritable. (F)
The presence of contractility even in the bones, is demon-
strated by the shrinking of the alveoli after the loss of the
teeth, and by the process of necrosis, by which the new bone,
when the dead portion is extricated from its cavity, contracts
to its natural size and figure. (G)
strated by the shrinking of the alveoli after the loss of the
teeth, and by the process of necrosis, by which the new bone,
when the dead portion is extricated from its cavity, contracts
to its natural size and figure. (G)
The vitreous substance of the teeth being destitute of this
tela (22) possesses no contractility, as I think appears from
the circumstance of its not shrinking, like the alveoli, if a
portion is separated by caries or fracture.
tela (22) possesses no contractility, as I think appears from
the circumstance of its not shrinking, like the alveoli, if a
portion is separated by caries or fracture.
59. This contractility of the mucous tela is the chief
cause of strength, health, and beauty; since on it depend
cause of strength, health, and beauty; since on it depend
[27]
the vital elasticity and fulness,
so elegantly described by Stahl; for by its means, the mu-
cous tela, to mention one only of its functions, absorbs, du-
ring health, the serous fluid (27) like a sponge, and propels
it into the lymphatic vessels: in disease, on the contrary,
having lost its tone, it is filled with water, giving rise to aede-
ma and similar cachexies.
Hence after death, even in young subjects full of juices, the back,
loins,
and buttocks, having for some time lost their vital tone, are, if the body is
supine, depressed and flattened by the superincumbent weight, which now
is not resisted: this appearance I regard among the indubitable signs of
death.
and buttocks, having for some time lost their vital tone, are, if the body is
supine, depressed and flattened by the superincumbent weight, which now
is not resisted: this appearance I regard among the indubitable signs of
death.
so elegantly described by Stahl; for by its means, the mu-
cous tela, to mention one only of its functions, absorbs, du-
ring health, the serous fluid (27) like a sponge, and propels
it into the lymphatic vessels: in disease, on the contrary,
having lost its tone, it is filled with water, giving rise to aede-
ma and similar cachexies.
60. Finally, the great influence of this contractility in pro-
ducing the peculiar constitution and temperaments of indi-
viduals, is manifest from its universal presence, its close
union with the other vital powers, and from its infinite
modes and degrees in different persons.
ducing the peculiar constitution and temperaments of indi-
viduals, is manifest from its universal presence, its close
union with the other vital powers, and from its infinite
modes and degrees in different persons.
NOTES.
| (A.) (B.) (C.) (D.) | } See Note to Sect. VI. |
(E.) Mr. Hunter divides sympathy into general and par-
tial; such as fever from a wound, and convulsion of the
diaphragm from irritation in the nose. Partial sympathy
he subdivides into remote, contiguous and continuous, –
Where there is no evident connexion between the sympa-
thising parts, sufficient to account for the circumstance, –
where there is proximity of the sympathising parts, – and
where, as most commonly, the sympathising parts are conti-
nuous.
tial; such as fever from a wound, and convulsion of the
diaphragm from irritation in the nose. Partial sympathy
he subdivides into remote, contiguous and continuous, –
Where there is no evident connexion between the sympa-
thising parts, sufficient to account for the circumstance, –
where there is proximity of the sympathising parts, – and
where, as most commonly, the sympathising parts are conti-
nuous.
Treatise on the Blood, &c.
Introduction.
[28]
Bichat’s division is much better.
stood, indeed, till after the perusal of the note to the sixth
section. He considers sympathy as affecting either animal
sensibility or contractility, or organic sensibility or con-
tractility. Sympathy does not arise from nervous com-
munication, because it frequently happens that no particular
nervous communications of sympathising parts are discover-
able, while remarkable ones exist between other parts not
disposed to sympathise.
occurs only when the nerves, connecting the affected muscles
with the brain, are entire; when they were divided by Bi-
chat, the convulsions in the corresponding muscles ceased.
The sympathies of the organic functions are never ascriba-
ble, as many might imagine, to continuity of surface; for
after dividing the aesophagus of a dog, Bichat produced vo-
miting equally as before, on irritating the fauces.
Anatomie Generale. T. i. p. 183,
sq.
stood, indeed, till after the perusal of the note to the sixth
section. He considers sympathy as affecting either animal
sensibility or contractility, or organic sensibility or con-
tractility. Sympathy does not arise from nervous com-
munication, because it frequently happens that no particular
nervous communications of sympathising parts are discover-
able, while remarkable ones exist between other parts not
disposed to sympathise.
Consult Whytt’s Observations on Nervous Diseases. Ch. i.
occurs only when the nerves, connecting the affected muscles
with the brain, are entire; when they were divided by Bi-
chat, the convulsions in the corresponding muscles ceased.
The sympathies of the organic functions are never ascriba-
ble, as many might imagine, to continuity of surface; for
after dividing the aesophagus of a dog, Bichat produced vo-
miting equally as before, on irritating the fauces.
(F) Our author here, as in paragraph 135, means the pul-
monary portion of the pleura, and very properly regards this
and other serous membranes, as condensed cellular sub-
stance; that is, as a substance not originally cellular and now
condensed, but of the same nature with the cellular mem-
brane, though much more compact. Consult Bichat’s Traité
des Membranes.
monary portion of the pleura, and very properly regards this
and other serous membranes, as condensed cellular sub-
stance; that is, as a substance not originally cellular and now
condensed, but of the same nature with the cellular mem-
brane, though much more compact. Consult Bichat’s Traité
des Membranes.
(G) See note to sect. 6.
[29]
SECT. V.
OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES.
61. Man, whom we have found possessed of a
body,
answering completely both in matter and texture, as well
as vital powers, the purposes of its formation, is endowed
likewise with a mind, a
mately connected with the body, and developing by edu-
cation and exercise various kinds of faculties, which we
shall concisely enumerate, as far as they belong to our
subject.
answering completely both in matter and texture, as well
as vital powers, the purposes of its formation, is endowed
likewise with a mind, a
“divinae particula aurae,”inti-
mately connected with the body, and developing by edu-
cation and exercise various kinds of faculties, which we
shall concisely enumerate, as far as they belong to our
subject.
Consult Alex. Chrichton’s Inquiry into the nature and origin of mental
derangement, comprehending a concise system of the Physiology and Pathology
of the human mind. Lond. 1798, 2 vols. 8vo. Imm. Kaut’s Authropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht. Könisb. 1798, 8vo. Chr. Meiner’s Untersuchungen
über die Denkkräfte und Willenskräfte des Menschen nach Anleitung der Er-
fahrung. Gött 1806, 2 vols. 8vo.
derangement, comprehending a concise system of the Physiology and Pathology
of the human mind. Lond. 1798, 2 vols. 8vo. Imm. Kaut’s Authropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht. Könisb. 1798, 8vo. Chr. Meiner’s Untersuchungen
über die Denkkräfte und Willenskräfte des Menschen nach Anleitung der Er-
fahrung. Gött 1806, 2 vols. 8vo.
62. The sensibility of the nerves, mentioned above among
the vital powers, (43) constitutes, as it were, the medium
which propagates the impressions of stimuli upon sensible
parts, and especially upon the organs of sense (to be hereaf-
ter examined,) to the sensorial portion of the brain, in such
a manner that they are perceived by the mind.
the vital powers, (43) constitutes, as it were, the medium
which propagates the impressions of stimuli upon sensible
parts, and especially upon the organs of sense (to be hereaf-
ter examined,) to the sensorial portion of the brain, in such
a manner that they are perceived by the mind.
63. The mental faculty to be first enumerated, and in-
deed to be placed at the bottom of the scale, is the faculty
of perception, by means of which the mind takes cogni-
zance of impressions made upon the body, and chiefly
upon the organs of sense, and becomes furnished with
ideas.
deed to be placed at the bottom of the scale, is the faculty
of perception, by means of which the mind takes cogni-
zance of impressions made upon the body, and chiefly
upon the organs of sense, and becomes furnished with
ideas.
[30]
64. This faculty is assisted by another of a higher order.
– attention, which so directs the mind when excited to any
idea, that it dwells upon that idea alone, and surveys it
fully.
– attention, which so directs the mind when excited to any
idea, that it dwells upon that idea alone, and surveys it
fully.
65. To preserve and recall the marks of ideas, is the of-
fice of memory, that part of the mind, which, in the language
of Cicero, is the guardian of the rest.
fice of memory, that part of the mind, which, in the language
of Cicero, is the guardian of the rest.
66. Imagination,
mind, which represents not merely the signs, but the very
images of objects in the most lively manner, as if they were
present before the eyes.
The
difference, analogy, and relation of memory and judgment, have
given rise to various controversies. Some celebrated psychologists have in-
cluded both under the word imagination taken in its most comprehensive
sense, and have divided it into two species: memory, representing for-
mer ideas, and the facultas fingendi, representing such ideas only as are
formed by abstraction. They again divide memory into sensitive (imagina-
tion in a stricter sense) and intellectual.
given rise to various controversies. Some celebrated psychologists have in-
cluded both under the word imagination taken in its most comprehensive
sense, and have divided it into two species: memory, representing for-
mer ideas, and the facultas fingendi, representing such ideas only as are
formed by abstraction. They again divide memory into sensitive (imagina-
tion in a stricter sense) and intellectual.
Their facultas fingendi, they also subdivide into
intellectual (the more ex-
cellent,) and phantasy, obeying mechanical laws. Feder’s Grundsätze der
Logik und Metaphysik.Götting. 1794. p. 20.
cellent,) and phantasy, obeying mechanical laws. Feder’s Grundsätze der
Logik und Metaphysik.Götting. 1794. p. 20.
mind, which represents not merely the signs, but the very
images of objects in the most lively manner, as if they were
present before the eyes.
67. Abstraction forms general notions more remote
from
sense.
sense.
68. Judgment compares and examines the relations of
the
ideas of sense and of abstract notions.
ideas of sense and of abstract notions.
69. Lastly reason, – the most noble and excellent of all
the
faculties, draws inferences from the comparisons of the judg-
ment.
faculties, draws inferences from the comparisons of the judg-
ment.
Of this the highest
prerogative of the human mind, by which man
exerts his dominion over other animals, and indeed over the whole creation,
I have fully treated in my book De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 32, ed. 3.
exerts his dominion over other animals, and indeed over the whole creation,
I have fully treated in my book De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 32, ed. 3.
70. The combination of these constitutes the intellec-
[31]
tual faculty;
but there is another order,
relating to appetency,to take the word in its most extensive meaning.
71. For since we are impelled by various internal stimuli
to provide food and other necessaries, and also to satisfy the
sexual instinct, and are impelled the more violently, in pro-
portion as imagination inflames our wishes, desires, properly
so called, are thus produced; and if, on the other hand, the
mind becomes weary of unpleasant sensations, aversions
occur.
to provide food and other necessaries, and also to satisfy the
sexual instinct, and are impelled the more violently, in pro-
portion as imagination inflames our wishes, desires, properly
so called, are thus produced; and if, on the other hand, the
mind becomes weary of unpleasant sensations, aversions
occur.
72. Finally, that faculty which selects out of many desires
and aversions, and can at pleasure determine to perform
functions for certain purposes, is denominated volition.
and aversions, and can at pleasure determine to perform
functions for certain purposes, is denominated volition.
73. Our order of enumeration corresponds with that of the
developement of the faculties, and with the relation in which
those termed brute, – common to man and animals, and those
more or less peculiar to man, stand to each other.
developement of the faculties, and with the relation in which
those termed brute, – common to man and animals, and those
more or less peculiar to man, stand to each other.
NOTE.
The great peculiarities of Gall’s Metaphysics are, that the
faculties usually regarded as distinct, are considered com-
mon; and certain faculties established which were not re-
garded as distinct. Spurzheim enumerates thirty-three dis-
tinct faculties, and the various modes of operation common
to all these, constitute judgment, memory, &c. – the distinct
faculties of former metaphysicians.
faculties usually regarded as distinct, are considered com-
mon; and certain faculties established which were not re-
garded as distinct. Spurzheim enumerates thirty-three dis-
tinct faculties, and the various modes of operation common
to all these, constitute judgment, memory, &c. – the distinct
faculties of former metaphysicians.
[32]
SECT. VI.
OF HEALTH AND HUMAN NATURE.
74. Sincehealth,
depends upon such a harmony and equilibrium of the
matter and powers of the system, as is requisite for the
due performance of its functions, it is very evident how
the four principles examined above, contribute to its sup-
port.
Theod. G. Aug.
Roose Uber die Krankheiten der Gesunden,
Gotting,
1801, 8vo.
1801, 8vo.
G. Chr. Klett, Tentamen evolvendi notionem de sanitate
hominis, Wirceb.
1794, 8vo.
1794, 8vo.
depends upon such a harmony and equilibrium of the
matter and powers of the system, as is requisite for the
due performance of its functions, it is very evident how
the four principles examined above, contribute to its sup-
port.
75. Fluids properly prepared are the first requisite; in
the
next place, solids duly formed from the fluids; then the in-
vigorating influence of the vital powers; lastly, a sound mind
in this sound body.
next place, solids duly formed from the fluids; then the in-
vigorating influence of the vital powers; lastly, a sound mind
in this sound body.
76. These four principles act and react perpetually upon
each other: the fluids are stimuli to the solids; these again
are calculated by their vital powers to experience the influ-
ence of these stimuli, and react upon them. In reference
to the intimate union of the mind with the body, suffice
it at present to remark, that it is far more extensive than
might at first be imagined. For instance, the influence of
the will is not contained in the narrow limits of those ac-
tions designated voluntary in the schools of physiology; and
the mind, on the other hand, is influenced by the affec-
each other: the fluids are stimuli to the solids; these again
are calculated by their vital powers to experience the influ-
ence of these stimuli, and react upon them. In reference
to the intimate union of the mind with the body, suffice
it at present to remark, that it is far more extensive than
might at first be imagined. For instance, the influence of
the will is not contained in the narrow limits of those ac-
tions designated voluntary in the schools of physiology; and
the mind, on the other hand, is influenced by the affec-
[33]
tions of the body, in many other ways than by the
perceptions
of sense.
of sense.
Galen, quod animi mores corporis temperaturas sequantur.
St. J Van Geuns, De corporum habitudine animae
huiusque virium indice ac
moderatrice. Harderv. 1789. 4to.
moderatrice. Harderv. 1789. 4to.
77. From the endless variety and modification of the con-
ditions belonging to these four principles, it may be easily
understood, what great latitude
of health. For since, as Celsus long ago observed, every
one has some part weaker than the rest, Galen may in this
sense assert with truth, that no one enjoys perfect health.
And even among those whom we commonly regard as in
good health, this is variously modified in each individual.
ditions belonging to these four principles, it may be easily
understood, what great latitude
Galen, De sanitate tuenda, L. 1.
of health. For since, as Celsus long ago observed, every
one has some part weaker than the rest, Galen may in this
sense assert with truth, that no one enjoys perfect health.
And even among those whom we commonly regard as in
good health, this is variously modified in each individual.
W.F. Ad. Gerresheim, De sanitate cuivis homini propria. Ludg.
Bat.
1764, 4to.
1764, 4to.
78. Upon this endless modification is founded the differ-
ence
and aptitude of the living solid
ence
Lavater’s Physiognomische Fragmente. T. iv. p. 343.
W. Ant. Ficker’s Comment de temperamentis hominum
quatenus ex fabrica
et structura corporis pendent Gott. 1791, 4to.
et structura corporis pendent Gott. 1791, 4to.
J.N. Hallé in the Mem. de la Soc. Médicale
d’Emulat. T. iii. p. 342.
and aptitude of the living solid
To the numerous arguments
by which the moderns have overthrown the
doctrine of the ancients, and proved that the temperament depends on the
living solids, rather than on the nature of the blood, I may add the celebrated
example of the Hungarian sister twins, who, at the beginning of the last cen-
tury, were born united at the lower part of the back, and attained their twen-
ty-second year in this state. They were, as is well known, of very different
temperaments; although dissection discovered, that their sanguiferous sys-
tems anastomosed so considerably, that the blood of both must have been the
same.
doctrine of the ancients, and proved that the temperament depends on the
living solids, rather than on the nature of the blood, I may add the celebrated
example of the Hungarian sister twins, who, at the beginning of the last cen-
tury, were born united at the lower part of the back, and attained their twen-
ty-second year in this state. They were, as is well known, of very different
temperaments; although dissection discovered, that their sanguiferous sys-
tems anastomosed so considerably, that the blood of both must have been the
same.
[34]
be affected by
stimuli, especially the mental; and again,
of the mental stimuli, to be excited with greater or less
facility.
of the mental stimuli, to be excited with greater or less
facility.
79. So various are the differences of degree and com-
bination in the temperaments, that their divisions and or-
ders may be multiplied almost without end. We shall con-
tent ourselves with the four orders commonly received.
The sanguineous – excited most readily, but slightly: The
choleric – excited readily and violently: The melancholic –
excited slowly, but more permanently: And the phlegmatic –
excited with difficulty.
bination in the temperaments, that their divisions and or-
ders may be multiplied almost without end. We shall con-
tent ourselves with the four orders commonly received.
Kant, l. c. p. 257, sq.
The sanguineous – excited most readily, but slightly: The
choleric – excited readily and violently: The melancholic –
excited slowly, but more permanently: And the phlegmatic –
excited with difficulty.
This division, although built by Galen upon an absurd
foundation borrowed from an imaginary depravation of the
elements of the blood, appears, if made to stand alone, both
natural and intelligible.
foundation borrowed from an imaginary depravation of the
elements of the blood, appears, if made to stand alone, both
natural and intelligible.
80. The predisposing and occasional causes of the
diversi-
ty of temperaments are very numerous; v.c. hereditary ten-
dency, habit of body, climate, diet, religion, mode of life, and
luxury.
ty of temperaments are very numerous; v.c. hereditary ten-
dency, habit of body, climate, diet, religion, mode of life, and
luxury.
Feder in the Untersuchung über den menschlichen Willen. T.
ii. p. 49.
81. Besides the variety of temperaments, circumstances
peculiar to every individual, by influencing the number, as
well as the energy and vigour of the functions, increase the
latitude (77) in which the term health must be received.
In regard to age, the health of a new-born infant is different
from that of an adult; in regard to sex, it differs in a mar-
riageable virgin and an old woman past child-bearing, and
during menstruation and suckling; in regard to mode of life,
it is different in the barbarous tribes of North America, and
in effeminate Sybarites.
peculiar to every individual, by influencing the number, as
well as the energy and vigour of the functions, increase the
latitude (77) in which the term health must be received.
In regard to age, the health of a new-born infant is different
from that of an adult; in regard to sex, it differs in a mar-
riageable virgin and an old woman past child-bearing, and
during menstruation and suckling; in regard to mode of life,
it is different in the barbarous tribes of North America, and
in effeminate Sybarites.
[35]
Moreover, in every person, custom has an extraordinary
influence
therefore acquired the name of second nature.
influence
Galen De
Consuetudine.
G E. Stahl. De consuetunis efficacia generli in
actibus vitalibus. Hal.
1700, 4to.
1700, 4to.
H. Cullen, De Consuetudine. Edinb. 1780, 8vo.
C. Natorp, De vi consuetudinis. Gott. 1808,
4to.
therefore acquired the name of second nature.
82. The more functions flourish simultaneously in the
body, the more considerable is its life, and vice versâ.
Hence life is greatest, when the functions have attained
their highest perfection in adult age; and least, when the
functions, although very perfect, are fewer and more slug-
gish, v.c. in the newly conceived embryo; life is for the
same reason less vigorous during sleep than during the oppo-
site state.
body, the more considerable is its life, and vice versâ.
Hence life is greatest, when the functions have attained
their highest perfection in adult age; and least, when the
functions, although very perfect, are fewer and more slug-
gish, v.c. in the newly conceived embryo; life is for the
same reason less vigorous during sleep than during the oppo-
site state.
83. The functions have been long divided by physiolo-
gists into four classes. This division, although not unex-
ceptionable, nor exactly conformable to nature,
the memory.
gists into four classes. This division, although not unex-
ceptionable, nor exactly conformable to nature,
See Platner’s Quaest. physiol. p. 31. Versuch einer Anthropologie. T. i.
p. 100, 222, and my own remarks on the bad foundation of this division, in
the preface to my Enchiridion Anat. Comparate, p. xi. sq.
p. 100, 222, and my own remarks on the bad foundation of this division, in
the preface to my Enchiridion Anat. Comparate, p. xi. sq.
the memory.
J.J. Bernhard’s Versuch einer Vertheidigung der alten Eintheilung
der
Functionen. und einer Classification des organisirten Körper, nach denselben,
Erf. 1804, 8vo.
Functionen. und einer Classification des organisirten Körper, nach denselben,
Erf. 1804, 8vo.
1. The first class comprehends the vital functions, so
term-
ed, because their uninterrupted and complete performance
is necessary to life. Such are the circulation and respira-
tion.
ed, because their uninterrupted and complete performance
is necessary to life. Such are the circulation and respira-
tion.
2. The second comprehends the animal functions,
by
which animals are chiefly distinguished from vegetables.
which animals are chiefly distinguished from vegetables.
[36]
Such is the connection of the
mind with the body, especially
sense and muscular motion.
sense and muscular motion.
3. The third is the natural, by means of which the body
is
nourished.
nourished.
4. The fourth, the genital, intended for the propagation
of
the species.
the species.
We shall now examine each of these separately, begin-
ning with the vital. (A)
ning with the vital. (A)
NOTES.
(A) The consideration of a division as ancient as Aris-
totle, and much preferable to that which Blumenbach adopts,
will perhaps form a useful note to the eighty-third para-
graph and the greater part of the fourth section.
totle, and much preferable to that which Blumenbach adopts,
will perhaps form a useful note to the eighty-third para-
graph and the greater part of the fourth section.
In this, the functions are arranged in two classes; the
animal constituting one peculiar to animals; and the vital
and natural united into another, common to vegetables and
animals under the title of organic or vital. The generative
relating in their object to the species rather than to the indi-
vidual, and of but temporary duration, may be thrown into a
separate and inferior division.
animal constituting one peculiar to animals; and the vital
and natural united into another, common to vegetables and
animals under the title of organic or vital. The generative
relating in their object to the species rather than to the indi-
vidual, and of but temporary duration, may be thrown into a
separate and inferior division.
We owe the revival of this classification, and our know-
ledge of the characteristics of each class of functions, to Dr.
Philip Wilson
ledge of the characteristics of each class of functions, to Dr.
Philip Wilson
Treatise on Febrile diseases. Ch. iii. Sect. 3. First
Edition, 1799 Paper
read to the Royal Med. Society of Edinburgh, 1791, or 1792, and inserted in its
Records. Essay on Opium, 1795. – Edinburgh Med. and Surgical Journal,
July, 1809, p. 301, sq.
read to the Royal Med. Society of Edinburgh, 1791, or 1792, and inserted in its
Records. Essay on Opium, 1795. – Edinburgh Med. and Surgical Journal,
July, 1809, p. 301, sq.
Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la
Mort.
[37]
ceived the whole honour, both in Great Britain and on the
Continent.
Bichat’s Antomie
Generale, Tom. 1, cii. et. ciii.
The animal functions render us feeling, thinking and
wil-
ling beings; they are the actions of the senses which receive
impressions, of the brain which perceives them, reflects upon
them, and wills, of the voluntary muscles which execute the
will in regard to motion, and of the nerves which are the
agents of transmission. The brain is their central organ.
The vital or organic functions are independent of mind, and
give us simply the idea of life: they are digestion, circula-
tion, respiration, exalation, absorption, secretion, nutrition,
calorification. Their heart is their central organ.
ling beings; they are the actions of the senses which receive
impressions, of the brain which perceives them, reflects upon
them, and wills, of the voluntary muscles which execute the
will in regard to motion, and of the nerves which are the
agents of transmission. The brain is their central organ.
The vital or organic functions are independent of mind, and
give us simply the idea of life: they are digestion, circula-
tion, respiration, exalation, absorption, secretion, nutrition,
calorification. Their heart is their central organ.
The organs of the animal functions are double and corre-
spondent, there being on each side of the median line of the
body, either two distinct organs, as the eyes, ears, extremi-
ties, or two correspondent halves, as is the case with the
brain, spinal marrow, nose, tongue, &c.
spondent, there being on each side of the median line of the
body, either two distinct organs, as the eyes, ears, extremi-
ties, or two correspondent halves, as is the case with the
brain, spinal marrow, nose, tongue, &c.
The organs of the vital or organic functions, are in very
few instances double, or situated with their centres in the
median line and possessed of symmetrical halves: witness
the heart, stomach, liver. There are indeed two kidneys,
but they continually differ in size, figure, and situation: the
two lugs are very dissimilar.
few instances double, or situated with their centres in the
median line and possessed of symmetrical halves: witness
the heart, stomach, liver. There are indeed two kidneys,
but they continually differ in size, figure, and situation: the
two lugs are very dissimilar.
Hence Bichat infers, that in the animal functions a
harmony of action in each organ, or each half of the
organ, is indispensable to perfection, when both organs or
sides act together; and that if such harmony do not
harmony of action in each organ, or each half of the
organ, is indispensable to perfection, when both organs or
sides act together; and that if such harmony do not
[38]
act alone. This is unquestionably true of the eye, but
can be supposed by analogy only with regard to the brain,
ears, &c. It certainly does not hold good in the action
of the voluntary muscles, or in the operations of the brain
or spinal marrow in willing their actions. From the du-
plicity of the organs, it also happens that one side may
cease to act without detriment to the function of the
other, while in the vital or organic class no harmony of
action is possible, and the derangement of any one part
of an organ generally affects the whole; an obstruction in
the colon disturbs the functions of the whole alimentary
canal.
The animal functions experience periodical intermissions
– sleep. The organic or vital continue incessantly, suffering
merely remissions. The blood constantly circulates, the per-
spiratory fluid is constantly secreted, the stomach has no
sooner digested one meal than we commit another to it: yet
we shall hereafter see that the actions of the heart, lungs, &c.
have daily intervals of relaxation.
– sleep. The organic or vital continue incessantly, suffering
merely remissions. The blood constantly circulates, the per-
spiratory fluid is constantly secreted, the stomach has no
sooner digested one meal than we commit another to it: yet
we shall hereafter see that the actions of the heart, lungs, &c.
have daily intervals of relaxation.
The animal functions are much influenced by habit; the
vital or organic are considered by Bichat as removed from
its influence. The effects of habit on our sensations
and voluntary motions are manifest: yet I think them
equally great upon the organic functions. The operation
of food and all descriptions of ingesta is most remarkably
modified by habit; through it poisons become comparatively
innoxious, and divers bear a long suspension of respira-
tion.
vital or organic are considered by Bichat as removed from
its influence. The effects of habit on our sensations
and voluntary motions are manifest: yet I think them
equally great upon the organic functions. The operation
of food and all descriptions of ingesta is most remarkably
modified by habit; through it poisons become comparatively
innoxious, and divers bear a long suspension of respira-
tion.
Bichat regards the passions as directly influencing the
organic functions only, and springing from the state of
the organs of that class. Here he is to me perfectly un-
organic functions only, and springing from the state of
the organs of that class. Here he is to me perfectly un-
Digitalisat/441