link
A
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
BY
WITH
W. LAWRENCE. 
INTRODUCTION,
CHAPTER I.
[binding_recto]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[titlePage_recto]
A
SHORT SYSTEM
OF
COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY,
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
J.F.
BLUMENBACH,
PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF
GOETTINGEN.
BY
WILLIAM LAWRENCE,
FELLOW OF THE
ROYAL COLLEGE, OF SURGEONS IN LONDON, AND
DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY AT ST.
BARTHOLOMEW’S HOSPITAL:
WITH
NUMEROUS
ADDITIONAL NOTES,
AND AN INTRODUCTORY VIEW OF THE
CLASSIFICATION
OF ANIMALS,
BY THE TRANSLATOR.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME,
PATERNOSTER-ROW.
1807.
PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME,
PATERNOSTER-ROW.
[titlePage_verso]
Strahan and Preston,
Printers-Street, London.
Printers-Street, London.
[titlePage_recto]
TO
Sir JOSEPH BANKS, K.B.P.R.S. &c. &c.
WHOSE LABOURS HAVE SO MATERIALLY CONTRIBUTED
TO THE
ADVANCEMENT OF NATURAL HISTORY;
AND WHOSE MUNIFICENT PATRONAGE HAS SO SIGNALLY
PROMOTED EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE;
THIS HUMBLE ATTEMPT
TO FACILITATE THE STUDY OF
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,
AS AN
INDIVIDUAL TRIBUTE OF THAT ESTEEM AND ADMIRATION
WHICH ARE SO UNIVERSALLY FELT AND EXPRESSED
BY THE LOVERS OF SCIENCE,
IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD:
Sir JOSEPH BANKS, K.B.P.R.S. &c. &c.
WHOSE LABOURS HAVE SO MATERIALLY CONTRIBUTED
TO THE
ADVANCEMENT OF NATURAL HISTORY;
AND WHOSE MUNIFICENT PATRONAGE HAS SO SIGNALLY
PROMOTED EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE;
THIS HUMBLE ATTEMPT
TO FACILITATE THE STUDY OF
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,
AS AN
INDIVIDUAL TRIBUTE OF THAT ESTEEM AND ADMIRATION
WHICH ARE SO UNIVERSALLY FELT AND EXPRESSED
BY THE LOVERS OF SCIENCE,
IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD:
BY HIS MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT,
WILLIAM LAWRENCE.
WILLIAM LAWRENCE.
John-Street, Adelphi,
April, 1807.
April, 1807.
[titlePage_verso]
[v]
PREFACE.
The object of the present
publication is
to exhibit a concise, but at the same time
general and systematic view, of the structure
of the body throughout all classes of the ani-
mal kingdom. This science, which is very
aptly denominated, Comparative Anatomy, af-
fords the most essential aid in elucidating the
structure of the human body, and in explain-
ing the doctrines of physiology.
to exhibit a concise, but at the same time
general and systematic view, of the structure
of the body throughout all classes of the ani-
mal kingdom. This science, which is very
aptly denominated, Comparative Anatomy, af-
fords the most essential aid in elucidating the
structure of the human body, and in explain-
ing the doctrines of physiology.
The want of any organ in certain classes of
animals, or its existence under different modi-
fications of form, structure, &c. cannot fail to
suggest most interesting conclusions concern-
ing the office of the same part in the human
subject. Thus our physiological reasonings,
which must necessarily be partial and incom-
plete, when deduced from the structure of a
single animal or class, are extended and cor-
animals, or its existence under different modi-
fications of form, structure, &c. cannot fail to
suggest most interesting conclusions concern-
ing the office of the same part in the human
subject. Thus our physiological reasonings,
which must necessarily be partial and incom-
plete, when deduced from the structure of a
single animal or class, are extended and cor-
[vi]
rected by this general
comparative survey,
and may, therefore, be relied on with the
greater confidence. We are indebted to such
investigations for the discovery of the cir-
culation and of the lymphatic system; for the
elucidation of the functions of digestion and
generation: indeed, there is no branch of
anatomy or physiology which has not received
most material benefit from the same source.
Hence Haller has very justly observed,
that
and may, therefore, be relied on with the
greater confidence. We are indebted to such
investigations for the discovery of the cir-
culation and of the lymphatic system; for the
elucidation of the functions of digestion and
generation: indeed, there is no branch of
anatomy or physiology which has not received
most material benefit from the same source.
Hence Haller has very justly observed,
that
“physiology has been more illus-
trated by Comparative Anatomy, than by the
dissection of the human body.”
The study of Comparative Anatomy is
moreover of the greatest importance in its
connexion with veterinary science, and with
that highly interesting pursuit, natural history.
It would be an affront to my readers to enlarge
upon its utility in the former point of view;
but I may be allowed to observe on the latter
subject, that anatomical structure forms the
only sure basis of a natural Classification of
the animal kingdom; and that any arrange-
ment not founded on this ground-work will
lead us into the most gross and palpable errors.
moreover of the greatest importance in its
connexion with veterinary science, and with
that highly interesting pursuit, natural history.
It would be an affront to my readers to enlarge
upon its utility in the former point of view;
but I may be allowed to observe on the latter
subject, that anatomical structure forms the
only sure basis of a natural Classification of
the animal kingdom; and that any arrange-
ment not founded on this ground-work will
lead us into the most gross and palpable errors.
[vii]
Lastly, this study opens to the mind a great
source of interest and satisfaction, in exhibiting
such numerous and undeniable proofs of
the exertion of contrivance and design in
the animal structure: in displaying those mo-
difications of particular parts and organs, by
which they are adapted to the peculiar cir-
cumstances of the animal, and become subser-
vient to its wants, its necessities, or its enjoy-
ments.
source of interest and satisfaction, in exhibiting
such numerous and undeniable proofs of
the exertion of contrivance and design in
the animal structure: in displaying those mo-
difications of particular parts and organs, by
which they are adapted to the peculiar cir-
cumstances of the animal, and become subser-
vient to its wants, its necessities, or its enjoy-
ments.
The importance of the subject from the
above mentioned circumstances is now so
fully recognized, that it begins with justice
to be considered as an essential part of a regu-
lar medical education. Public lectures have
been delivered on it for some years in Germany
and France; and lately the example has been
followed in this metropolis. Yet a short
elementary treatise on the subject still remains
a desideratum
above mentioned circumstances is now so
fully recognized, that it begins with justice
to be considered as an essential part of a regu-
lar medical education. Public lectures have
been delivered on it for some years in Germany
and France; and lately the example has been
followed in this metropolis. Yet a short
elementary treatise on the subject still remains
a desideratum
Blasius has given a collection of the writings of seve-
ral authors on the anatomy of particular animals, in one
volume 4to, entitled
advantage, particularly on account of the plates. Cuvier’s
Lêçons d’Anatomie comparée, in five large octavo volumes, form
a very valuable and useful repository of facts in Comparative
Anatomy; but the subject is treated at such length, and
with so many uninteresting details, that the book is by no
means adapted for the use of students. There is a most ad-
mirable description of the anatomy of the class Birds in
the fourth volume of Dr. Rees’s New Cyclopaedia, from the
pen of Mr. Macartney: and it were much to be wished,
that we had an account of the whole animal kingdom from
the same able hand.
ral authors on the anatomy of particular animals, in one
volume 4to, entitled
“Anatomia Animalium Figuris variis, Amstel. 1681, which may still be consulted with
illustrata
advantage, particularly on account of the plates. Cuvier’s
Lêçons d’Anatomie comparée, in five large octavo volumes, form
a very valuable and useful repository of facts in Comparative
Anatomy; but the subject is treated at such length, and
with so many uninteresting details, that the book is by no
means adapted for the use of students. There is a most ad-
mirable description of the anatomy of the class Birds in
the fourth volume of Dr. Rees’s New Cyclopaedia, from the
pen of Mr. Macartney: and it were much to be wished,
that we had an account of the whole animal kingdom from
the same able hand.
[viii]
translation of the
present work, in order to
supply this defect. The author is well-
known throughout Europe for his successful
labours in Physiology and Natural History;
and has a particular claim on the public gra-
titude, for the excellent elementary treatises,
which he has published, on different branches
of the profession. The present work will not,
I trust, detract from his well-earned reputa-
tion.
supply this defect. The author is well-
known throughout Europe for his successful
labours in Physiology and Natural History;
and has a particular claim on the public gra-
titude, for the excellent elementary treatises,
which he has published, on different branches
of the profession. The present work will not,
I trust, detract from his well-earned reputa-
tion.
If any reader should think that the author
has treated the subject with too much bre-
vity; the defect is compensated by the nu-
merous references to sources of more de-
tailed information, in the works of the best
and most approved preceding writers; parti-
has treated the subject with too much bre-
vity; the defect is compensated by the nu-
merous references to sources of more de-
tailed information, in the works of the best
and most approved preceding writers; parti-
[ix]
cularly to such as have
given good plates of
the parts, which they describe. These quo-
tations may afford assistance even to those,
who have made some progress in the study.
the parts, which they describe. These quo-
tations may afford assistance even to those,
who have made some progress in the study.
I have taken the liberty of adding notes to
such parts as appeared defective either from
omission, or too great conciseness; and I have
placed these at the end of each chapter.
Many of these are derived from Cuvier’s
work, which I acknowledge in this general
manner, to save the trouble of numerous
references.
such parts as appeared defective either from
omission, or too great conciseness; and I have
placed these at the end of each chapter.
Many of these are derived from Cuvier’s
work, which I acknowledge in this general
manner, to save the trouble of numerous
references.
A short view of the Classification of Animals
is prefixed, for the accommodation of such
readers as may not not understand enough of
natural history. Blumenbach has pub-
lished a most excellent
work in French, by Cuvier, entitled
either of which will be found very useful to
beginners.
is prefixed, for the accommodation of such
readers as may not not understand enough of
natural history. Blumenbach has pub-
lished a most excellent
“Manual of Naturalin German; and there is a similar
History,”
work in French, by Cuvier, entitled
“Tab-
leau Elementaire de l’Histoire Naturelle;”
either of which will be found very useful to
beginners.
[[x]]
[[xi]]
TABLE of CONTENTS.
page
- Introductory View of the Classification of Animals, xv
CHAP. I.
CHAP. II.
CHAP. III.
CHAP. IV.
CHAP. V.
CHAP. VI.
CHAP. VII.
[xii]
CHAP. VIII.
CHAP. IX.
CHAP. X.
CHAP. XI.
CHAP. XII.
CHAP. XIII.
CHAP. XIV.
CHAP. XV.
CHAP. XVI.
[xv]
INTRODUCTION,
containing
A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS,
IN
WHICH THE TECHNICAL TERMS ARE EXPLAINED:
BY THE TRANSLATOR.
It is necessary for me to make
a few remarks on the
classification of this animal kingdom; as the terms em-
ployed in the work differ occasionally from those of the
Linnean system, which has been hitherto chiefly followed
in this country. And, independently of this circum-
stance, such of my readers as have not particularly at-
tended to the study of natural history, may derive assist-
ance and information from a short sketch and explanation
of the arrangement of animals according to their anato-
mical structure, with an enumeration of the chief genera
in each order.
classification of this animal kingdom; as the terms em-
ployed in the work differ occasionally from those of the
Linnean system, which has been hitherto chiefly followed
in this country. And, independently of this circum-
stance, such of my readers as have not particularly at-
tended to the study of natural history, may derive assist-
ance and information from a short sketch and explanation
of the arrangement of animals according to their anato-
mical structure, with an enumeration of the chief genera
in each order.
That the Linnean system is exposed to numerous and
well-grounded objections, and that in many instances it
disregards anatomical structure, which should form the
basis of a natural classification, will be readily allowed by
the most sanguine admirers of it’s illustrious author.
Yet it must be remembered, that the general adoption of
this method renders it desirable to deviate from it in as
few instances as possible; since the introduction of new
orders and names must necessarily create difficulty and
confusion in the study of the science. The French zoolo-
gists, whose successful labours in the advancement of
well-grounded objections, and that in many instances it
disregards anatomical structure, which should form the
basis of a natural classification, will be readily allowed by
the most sanguine admirers of it’s illustrious author.
Yet it must be remembered, that the general adoption of
this method renders it desirable to deviate from it in as
few instances as possible; since the introduction of new
orders and names must necessarily create difficulty and
confusion in the study of the science. The French zoolo-
gists, whose successful labours in the advancement of
[[xvi]]
natural history must
be acknowledged with every due tri-
bute of respect, have carried the rage of innovation too
far, in the universal rejection of the Linnean method,
and the unnecessary multiplication of new orders and
genera. The defects or errors of any system could not
cause so much perplexity and inconvenience as the want
of a generally received standard, and the unlimited li-
cence, in which every individual indulges, of fabricating
new classifications and arrangements. To judge by some
recent works, we should be led to suppose, that the
merit of a systematic arrangement of animals does not
consist in the simplicity or intelligibility of the system;
but is in proportion to the number of newly-created
terms.
bute of respect, have carried the rage of innovation too
far, in the universal rejection of the Linnean method,
and the unnecessary multiplication of new orders and
genera. The defects or errors of any system could not
cause so much perplexity and inconvenience as the want
of a generally received standard, and the unlimited li-
cence, in which every individual indulges, of fabricating
new classifications and arrangements. To judge by some
recent works, we should be led to suppose, that the
merit of a systematic arrangement of animals does not
consist in the simplicity or intelligibility of the system;
but is in proportion to the number of newly-created
terms.
The Zoologie Analytique of Dumeril, (Paris, 8vo. 1806)
appears to have been constructed on this principle; and
recals to our mind the just and forcible observations of
Blumenbach, as expressed in his admirable work on The
Varieties of the Human Species.
appears to have been constructed on this principle; and
recals to our mind the just and forcible observations of
Blumenbach, as expressed in his admirable work on The
Varieties of the Human Species.
“Alienissimus quidemEdit. 3rd, p. 16.
fum a nostericorum multorum novandi pruritu, qui
rebus naturalibus, quae pridem nominibus fuis vel in
vulgus notissimis, insignes funt, nova imponendo, miri-
ficé sibi placent: qui quidem onomatopoietarum lusus
ingentem studio historiae naturalis calamitatem attu-
lit.”
Animals may be distributed into two grand divisions:
those which have a vertebral column, and red-blood;
and those which have no vertebra, and are white-
blooded.
those which have a vertebral column, and red-blood;
and those which have no vertebra, and are white-
blooded.
In the former division there is always an interior skele-
ton; a spinal marrow contained in the vertebral canal;
never more than four members, of which one, or both
pairs are wanting in some instances. The brain is con-
tained in a cranium: there is a great sympathetic nerve;
five senses; two moveable eyes; and three semicircular
ton; a spinal marrow contained in the vertebral canal;
never more than four members, of which one, or both
pairs are wanting in some instances. The brain is con-
tained in a cranium: there is a great sympathetic nerve;
five senses; two moveable eyes; and three semicircular
[xvii]
canals in the
ear.
sesses only two ossicula; and according to our author, other
animals only possess three; as the os lenticulare is represented by
him as an apophys of the incus.
muscular ventricle at least. There are lymphatic, as well
as blood-vessels. The jaws being placed horizontally, the
mouth is opened by their moving from above downwards,
or from before backwards. There is a continuous ali-
mentary canal: peritoneum; liver, spleen, and pancreas,
two kidneys, and renal capsules; and two testicles.
sesses only two ossicula; and according to our author, other
animals only possess three; as the os lenticulare is represented by
him as an apophys of the incus.
muscular ventricle at least. There are lymphatic, as well
as blood-vessels. The jaws being placed horizontally, the
mouth is opened by their moving from above downwards,
or from before backwards. There is a continuous ali-
mentary canal: peritoneum; liver, spleen, and pancreas,
two kidneys, and renal capsules; and two testicles.
The vertebral animals are subdivided into the
warm
and cold-blooded.
and cold-blooded.
Warm-blooded vertebral animals have been
ventricles,
and a double circulation; and breathe by means of lungs.
The cranium is completely filled by the brain. The eyes
are closed by eyelids. The tympanum of the ear is hol-
lowed out of the cranium, and the labyrinth is excavated
in the bone. Besides the semi-circular canals, there is a
cochlea. The nostrils communicate with the fauces, and
allow the passage of air into the lungs. The trunk is
constantly furnished with ribs.
and a double circulation; and breathe by means of lungs.
The cranium is completely filled by the brain. The eyes
are closed by eyelids. The tympanum of the ear is hol-
lowed out of the cranium, and the labyrinth is excavated
in the bone. Besides the semi-circular canals, there is a
cochlea. The nostrils communicate with the fauces, and
allow the passage of air into the lungs. The trunk is
constantly furnished with ribs.
In cold-blooded vertebral animals the brain never
entirely
fills the cranium. The eyes seldom possess moveable
eyelids. When the tympanum exists, it is on a level with
the surface of the head. ’There is no cochlea. The
different parts of the ear are connected but loosely to the
cranium.
fills the cranium. The eyes seldom possess moveable
eyelids. When the tympanum exists, it is on a level with
the surface of the head. ’There is no cochlea. The
different parts of the ear are connected but loosely to the
cranium.
The division of warm-blooded animals contains two
classes; Mammalia and Birds.
classes; Mammalia and Birds.
The mammalia are viviparous, and suckle their
young
(from which circumstance the name is derived). They
(from which circumstance the name is derived). They
[xviii]
have an uterus with
two cornua; and the male has a
penis.
penis.
There are two occipital condyles: a very compli-
cated brain; four ossicula auditus, and a spiral cochlea.
The skin covered with hair. A muscular diaphragm se-
parates the chest and abdomen. There is an epiglottis.
The lower jaw only moves. The fluid in the lacteals is
white, and passes through several conglobate glands.
There is an omentum.
cated brain; four ossicula auditus, and a spiral cochlea.
The skin covered with hair. A muscular diaphragm se-
parates the chest and abdomen. There is an epiglottis.
The lower jaw only moves. The fluid in the lacteals is
white, and passes through several conglobate glands.
There is an omentum.
Blumenbach establishes the following orders in
this
class:
class:
- I. Bimanum. Two handed.
- Genus 1. Homo.
- II. Quadrumana, four handed animals: having a
sepa-
rate thumb, capable of being opposed to the other
fingers, both in their upper and lower extremities.
Teeth like those of man, except that the cuspidati are
generally longer.- 1. Simiae, apes, monkeys, baboons.
- 2. Lemur, macauco.
- III. Bradypoda, slow-moving animals.
- 1. Bradypus, sloth.
- 2. Myrmecophaga, ant-eater.
- 3. Manis, scaly-lizard, or pangolin.
- 4. Dasypus or Tatu, armadillo.
This order forms two in the arrangement of Cuvier.
1st, Tardigrada; which includes the sloths. There
are no incisors in either jaw. There is a complicated
stomach, but no rumination. 2ndly, Edentata, tooth-
less animals. Some of these have no teeth; others want
the incisores and cuspidati. The tongue is long, slender,
and projectile, for seizing the insects on which the ani-
1st, Tardigrada; which includes the sloths. There
are no incisors in either jaw. There is a complicated
stomach, but no rumination. 2ndly, Edentata, tooth-
less animals. Some of these have no teeth; others want
the incisores and cuspidati. The tongue is long, slender,
and projectile, for seizing the insects on which the ani-
[xix]
mals seed; body covered
with hard substances. The
armadillo, manis, ant-eater, and ornithorhyncus, or duck-
billed animal belong to this order.
armadillo, manis, ant-eater, and ornithorhyncus, or duck-
billed animal belong to this order.
- IV. Cheiroptera, having the fingers elongated
for the
expansion of a membrane, which acts as a wing.- Vespertilio, bat.
- V. Glires. Rodentia of
Cuvier – gnawing animals.
Have two long and very large incisor teeth in each jaw,
by which they cut and gnaw hard bodies, chiefly vege-
tables. There is a large interval behind these teeth,
unoccupied by cuspidati.- 1. Sciurus, squirrel.
- 2. Glis, dormouse (Myoxus Linn).
- 3. Mus, mouse and rat.
- 4. Marmota, marmot.
- 5. Cavia, guinea-pig.
- 6. Lepus, hare and rabbit.
- 7. Jaculus, jerboa.
- 8. Castor, beaver.
- 9. Hystrix, porcupine.
- VI. Ferae, predaceous and carnivorous animals.
Very
strong and large pointed canine teeth: molares forming
pointed prominences. Short and simple alimentary
canal, and consequently slender belly.- 1. Erinaceus, hedge-hog.
- 2. Sorex, shrew.
- 3. Talpa, mole.
- 4. Meles, badger.
- 5. Ursus, bear.
- 6. Didelphis, opossum, kanguroo.
- 7. Viverra, weasels, ferret, polecat, civet.
- 8. Mustela, skunk, stoat, &c.
- 9. Canis, dog, wolf, jackal, fox, hyena.
[xx]
- 10. Felis, cat,
lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, pan-
ther, &c. - 11. Lutra, otter.
- 12. Phoca, feal or sea-calf.
- 10. Felis, cat,
lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, pan-
The five first genera of this order, form the plantigrada
of Cuvier; animals which rest the whole of the foot on
the ground. They are less carnivorous than the others;
have a longer intestinal canal, and no caecum.
of Cuvier; animals which rest the whole of the foot on
the ground. They are less carnivorous than the others;
have a longer intestinal canal, and no caecum.
The sixth genus forms the Pedimana of the
same
zoologist: as they possess a separate thumb on the hind
extremities only. They have a pouch in the abdomen
containing the mammae, and holding the young in their
early slate. One species, the kanguroo, (didelphis gigan-
tea), must however be excepted. That is placed among
the rodentia; and does not possess the separate thumb.
zoologist: as they possess a separate thumb on the hind
extremities only. They have a pouch in the abdomen
containing the mammae, and holding the young in their
early slate. One species, the kanguroo, (didelphis gigan-
tea), must however be excepted. That is placed among
the rodentia; and does not possess the separate thumb.
The order carnivora of Cuvier, will include from the
7th to the 11th genus: both inclusive. The seal belongs
to his amphibia.
7th to the 11th genus: both inclusive. The seal belongs
to his amphibia.
- VII. Solidungula (solipeda,Cuvier), a single toe on
each foot, with an undivided hoof. Large intestines, and
particularly an enormous caecum. Incisors in both jaws.- 1. Equus, horse and ass.
- VIII. Pecora or Bisulca (Ruminantia of Cuvier), a
divided hoof. No incisores in the upper jaw. Stomach
consisting of four cavities. Rumination of the food.
Long intestines.- 1. Camelus, camel, dromedary, lama.
- 2. Capra, sheep, goat.
- 3. Antilope, antelope, chamois.
- 4. Bos, ox, buffalo.
- 5. Giraffa, giraffe or camelopard.
- 6. Cervus, elk, deer-kind.
- 7. Moschus, musk.
[xxi]
- IX. Belluae, animals of an unshapely form, and a
tough
and thick hide; whence they have been called by Cu-
vier, pachydermata (from παχυς thick, and δερμα skin).
They have more than two toes: incisors in both jaws;
and in some cases enormous tusks.- 1. Sus, pig kind, pecari, babiroussa.
- 2. Tapir,
- 3. Elephas,
- 4. Rhinoceros,
- 5. Hippopotamus,
- 6. Trichecus, morse or walrus, manati or sea-
cow.
The last genus of this order, together with the phoca
(seals) constitutes the Amphibia of Cuvier. These ani-
mals have short members adapted for swimming.
(seals) constitutes the Amphibia of Cuvier. These ani-
mals have short members adapted for swimming.
- X. Cetacea, whales, living entirely in the
sea; and
formed like fishes; breathe by an opening at the top of
the head, called the blowing-hole; through which they
throw out the water, which enters their mouth with
the food. Smooth skin covering a thick layer of oily
fat. No external ear. A complicated stomach. Multi-
lobular kidneys, larynx of a pyramidal shape, opening
towards the blowing-hole. Testes within the abdo-
men. Mammae at the sides of the vulva. Bones of
the anterior extremity concealed and united by the skin,
so as to form a kind of fin.- 1. Monodon, narwhal, sea-unicorn.
- 2. Balaena, proper whales.
- 3. Physeter,
- 4. Delphinus, dolphin, porpoise.
Cuvier distributes the class mammalia into three grand
divisions:
divisions:
- 1. Those which have claws or nails (mammi-
féres a ongles); including the following orders:
[xxii]
- bimana,
quadrumana, cheiroptera, plantigra-
da, carnivora, pedimana, rodentia, edentata,
tardigrada. - 2. Those which have hoofs (mammif. a
ongles)
including the pachydermata, ruminantia and
solipeda. - 3. Those which have extremities adapted for
swimming (mammif. a pieds en nageoire). Am-
phibia and cetacea.
Birds are oviparous; have a single ovary and
oviduct;
a single occipital condyle; a very large sternum; and
anterior extremities adapted for flying.
a single occipital condyle; a very large sternum; and
anterior extremities adapted for flying.
They have three eyelids; no external ear; a cochlea
conical, but not spiral; a single ossiculum auditus; body
covered with feathers. The lungs are attached to the
surface of the chest; and penetrated by the air, which
goes all over the body: there is a larynx at each end of
the trachea; no epiglottis. The jaws are covered with a
horny substance. The chyle is transparent; no mesen-
teric glands; nor omentum. No bladder of urine; the
ureters terminating in a bag through which the eggs and
faeces come, viz. the cloaca.
conical, but not spiral; a single ossiculum auditus; body
covered with feathers. The lungs are attached to the
surface of the chest; and penetrated by the air, which
goes all over the body: there is a larynx at each end of
the trachea; no epiglottis. The jaws are covered with a
horny substance. The chyle is transparent; no mesen-
teric glands; nor omentum. No bladder of urine; the
ureters terminating in a bag through which the eggs and
faeces come, viz. the cloaca.
This class cannot be distributed into orders so clearly
distinguished by anatomical characters as the preceding
one. Blumenbach divides them into two leading divi-
sions.
distinguished by anatomical characters as the preceding
one. Blumenbach divides them into two leading divi-
sions.
(A) Terrestrial Birds.
- Order I. Accipitres. Birds of prey; with strong
hooked bills, and large curved talons, a membranous
stomach, and short caeca.- 1. Vultur, vultures.
- 2. Faco, falcon, eagle, hawk, kite.
- 3. Strix, owl.
- 4. Lanius, shrike or butcher bird.
[xxiii]
- II. Levirostres, light billed birds, having a large
hollow
bill.- 1. Psittacus, parrot kind.
- 2. Ramphastos, toncan.
- 3. Buceros, rhinoceros bird.
- III. Picae, this and the two following orders
are no
clearly characterised.- 1. Picus, woodpecker.
- 2. Jynx, wryneck.
- 3. Sitta, nuthatch.
- 4. Alcedo, kingsfisher.
- 5. Trochilus, humming birds,
&c. &c.
- IV. Coraces.
- 1. Corvus, crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie,
jay,
&c. - 2. Coracias, roller.
- 3. Paradisea, birds of paradise,
- 4. Cuculus,
cuckow,
&c. &c.
- 1. Corvus, crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie,
jay,
- V. Passeres, small singing-birds.
- 1. Alauda, lark.
- 2. Sturnus, starling.
- 3. Turdus, thrush, blackbird.
- 4. Emberiza, bunting.
- 5. Fringilla, finches,
canary-bird, linnet, spar-
row. - 6. Motacilla, nightingale, redbreast, wren.
- 7. Hirundo, swallows, martins, &c.
- 8. Caprimulgus,
goatsucker.
&c.
[xxiv]
- VI. Gallinae, gallinaceous birds, mostly
domesticated.
They possess a large crop, strong muscular g- 1. Columba, pigeons.
- 2. Tetrao, grous, quail, partridge
- 3. Numida, guinea-fowl.
- 4. Meleagris, turkey.
- 5. Pavo, peacock.
- 6. Otis, bustard.
- VII. Struthiones, struthious birds. The
largest of the
class: possess extremely small wings, and are therefore
incapable of flight; but run very swiftly.- 1. Struthio, ostrich.
- 2. Casuarius, cassowary or emu.
(B) Aquatic Birds.
- Order I. Grallae, waders, frequenting marshes
and
streams; long naked legs; long neck; cylindrical bill
of different lengths.- 1. Ardea, crane, stork, heron, bittern.
- 2. Scolopax, woodcock, snipe, curlew.
- 3. Tringa, lapwing, ruffs and reeves.
- 4. Charadrius, plover.
- 5. Fulica, coot.
- 6. Rallus, rail.
- 7. Phaenicopterus, flamingo.
- 8. Tantalus, ibis, &c.
- II. Anseres, swimming birds; web-footed; bill,
broad
and flat, covered by a somewhat soft substance, on which
large nerves are distributed.- 1. Colymbus, diver.
- 2. Larus, gull.
- 3. Procellaria, petrel.
[xxv]
- 4. Diomedea, albatross.
- 5. Pelecanus, pelican, cormorant.
- 6. Anas, swan, duck, goose.
- 7. Mergus, goosander.
- 8. Alca, puffin.
- 9. Aptenodytes, penguin.
The two classes of cold-blooded vertebral animals are
the
Amphibia and Fishes.
Amphibia and Fishes.
The former, differing considerably from each other,
have very few common characters; for in different in-
stances they walk, fly, swim, and crawl. There is no ex-
ternal ear, nor cochlea; the brain is always very small.
The lungs are in the same cavity with the other viscera;
no epiglottis, omentum, nor mesenteric glands. Two ova-
ries and oviducts. Cloaca, through which the faeces and
urine are expelled; and in which the organs of genera-
tion terminate. Neither hair, feathers, nor mammae.
have very few common characters; for in different in-
stances they walk, fly, swim, and crawl. There is no ex-
ternal ear, nor cochlea; the brain is always very small.
The lungs are in the same cavity with the other viscera;
no epiglottis, omentum, nor mesenteric glands. Two ova-
ries and oviducts. Cloaca, through which the faeces and
urine are expelled; and in which the organs of genera-
tion terminate. Neither hair, feathers, nor mammae.
- Order I. Reptilia, having four feet, (quadrupeda ovi-
para).- 1. Testudo, tortoise, turtle.
- 2. Rana, frog, toad.
- 3. Lacerta, lizards,
crocodile, chameleon, newt,
salamander, iguana, &c.
- II. Serpentia. No external members; body of
an
elongated form, and viscera of a similar shape. They
are oviparous; but the egg is sometimes hatched in the
oviduct. Both jaws moveable.- 1. Crotalus, rattlesnake.
- 2. Boa. Immense serpents of India and Africa.
- 3. Coluber, viper.
- 4. Anguis, blindworm.
[xxvi]
- 5. Amphisbaena.
- 6. Caecilia.
Fishes. Breathe by means of branchiae or gills;
and
have no trachea, nor larynx. Organs of motion consist-
ing of fins. Nose unconnected with the organs of respi-
ration. Ear entirely inclosed in the head; the tympanum,
&c. being absent. Both jaws moveable. The place of the
pancreas supplied by the pyloric caeca. An urinary blad-
der. Two ovaries. Heart consisting of a single auricle
and ventricle. They may be distributed into two leading
divisions; the cartilaginous; whose skeleton consists of
cartilage: the bony; where it is formed of a more firm
substance.
have no trachea, nor larynx. Organs of motion consist-
ing of fins. Nose unconnected with the organs of respi-
ration. Ear entirely inclosed in the head; the tympanum,
&c. being absent. Both jaws moveable. The place of the
pancreas supplied by the pyloric caeca. An urinary blad-
der. Two ovaries. Heart consisting of a single auricle
and ventricle. They may be distributed into two leading
divisions; the cartilaginous; whose skeleton consists of
cartilage: the bony; where it is formed of a more firm
substance.
(A) Cartilaginous Fishes.
- Order I. Chondropterygii; having no
gill-cover; an
uterus, with two oviducts.- 1. Petromyzon, lamprey.
- 2. Gostrobranchus.
- 3. Raia, shark, torpedo, stingray.
- 4. Squalus, stiark, faw-fish.
- 5. Lophius, sea-devil, frog-fish.
- 6. Balistes, file-fish.
- 7. Chimaera.
- II. Branchiostegi; having a gill-cover.
- 1. Accipenser, sturgeon, beluga.
- 2. Ostracion, trunk-fish.
- 3. Tetrodon.
- 4. Diodon, porcupine-fish.
- 5. Cyclopterus, lumpsucker.
- 6. Centriscus.
- 7. Syngnathus, pipe-fish.
- 8. Pegasus.
[xxvii]
(B) Bony Fishes, divided
according to the situation of
their fins.
their fins.
- Order I. Apodes; no ventral fins.
- 1. Muraena, eel-kind.
- 2. Gymnotus, electrical eel.
- 3. Anarrhichas, sea-wolf.
- 4. Xiphias, sword-fish.
- 5. Ammodites, launce.
- 6. Ophidium.
- 7. Stromateus.
- 8. Trichiurus.
- II. Thoracici; ventral fins directly under the thoracic.
- 1. Echeneis, sucking fish,
- 2. Coryphaena, dorado.
- 3. Zeus, dory.
- 4. Pleuronectes, flounder,
plaice, dab, holibut,
sole, turbot. - 5. Chaeladon.
- 6. Sparus.
- 7. Perca, perch.
- 8. Scomber, mackarel, bonito, tunny.
- 9. Mullus,
mullet.
&c. &c.
- III. Abdominales; ventral fins behind the
thoracic;
chiefly inhabit fresh water.- 1. Cobitis, loach.
- 2. Silurus.
- 3. Salmo, salmon, trout, smelt.
- 4. Esox, pike.
- 5. Clupea, herring, sprat, shad.
- 6.
Cyprinus, carp, tench, gold-fish, minow,
&c.
&c.
[xxviii]
- IV. Jugulares; ventral fins in front of the
thoracic.
- 1. Gadus, hadock, cod, whiting, ling.
- 2. Uranoscopus, stargazer.
- 3. Blennius, blenny.
- 4. Callionymus, dragonet.
- 5. Trachinus, weaver.
The animals which have no vertebral column, do not
possess so many common characters as the vertebral classes.
Their hard parts, when they have any, are generally placed
on the surface of the body. The centre of the nervous
system, instead of being inclosed in a bony case, lies in
the same cavity with the viscera. The oesophagus is ge-
nerally surrounded by a nervous chord coming from the
brain. Their respiration is not carried on by lungs; and
they have no voice. Their jaws move in various direc-
tions. They have no urinary secretion.
possess so many common characters as the vertebral classes.
Their hard parts, when they have any, are generally placed
on the surface of the body. The centre of the nervous
system, instead of being inclosed in a bony case, lies in
the same cavity with the viscera. The oesophagus is ge-
nerally surrounded by a nervous chord coming from the
brain. Their respiration is not carried on by lungs; and
they have no voice. Their jaws move in various direc-
tions. They have no urinary secretion.
The invertebral animals were distributed by Linneus
into two classes; insects and worms (vermes). The ana-
tomical structure of these animals was very imperfectly
known, when the Swedish naturalist first promulgated his
arrangement. But the labours of subsequent zoologists,
and particularly those of Cuvier, have succeeded in esta-
blishing such striking and important differences in their
formation, that a subdivision of the Linnean clas-
ses became indispensibly necessary. The insects of
Linneus are divided into crustacea and insecta: and the
vermes of the same author form three classes; viz. mol-
lusca, vermes, and zoophyta.
into two classes; insects and worms (vermes). The ana-
tomical structure of these animals was very imperfectly
known, when the Swedish naturalist first promulgated his
arrangement. But the labours of subsequent zoologists,
and particularly those of Cuvier, have succeeded in esta-
blishing such striking and important differences in their
formation, that a subdivision of the Linnean clas-
ses became indispensibly necessary. The insects of
Linneus are divided into crustacea and insecta: and the
vermes of the same author form three classes; viz. mol-
lusca, vermes, and zoophyta.
The mollusca derive their name from the soft fleshy
na-
ture of their body. This class includes those pulpy
animals, which may either be destitute of an external co-
vering; when they are called mollusca nuda; as the lug:
or may be enclosed in one or more shells, as the snail,
oyster, &c. when they are termed testacea.
ture of their body. This class includes those pulpy
animals, which may either be destitute of an external co-
vering; when they are called mollusca nuda; as the lug:
or may be enclosed in one or more shells, as the snail,
oyster, &c. when they are termed testacea.
[xxix]
The animals of this class have no articulated members:
they have blood-vessels, and a true circulation. They
respire by means of gills. They have a distinct brain,
giving origin to nerves; and a spinal marrow.
they have blood-vessels, and a true circulation. They
respire by means of gills. They have a distinct brain,
giving origin to nerves; and a spinal marrow.
- 1. Sepia, cuttlefish.
- 2. Argonauta.
- 3. Nautilus.
- 4. Limax, slug.
- 5. Aplysia.
- 6. Doris.
- 7. Clio.
- 8. Patella, limpet.
- 9. Helix, snail.
- 10. Haliotis, Venus’s ear.
- 11. Murex, caltrop, or rockshell.
- 12. Strombus, screw.
- 13. Buccinum, whelk.
- 14. Ascidia.
- 15. Thalia.
- 16. Ostrea, oyster.
- 17. Solen, razorshell.
- 18. Cardium, cockle.
- 19. Mytilus, muscle.
&c. &c.
Cuvier classes the numerous genera of this order
un-
der the three following divisions; 1st, cephalopoda, (from
κεφαλη the head, and π
gans of motion placed round the head: 2dly, gasteropoda,
(from γαςηρ the belly, and π
belly: and 3dly, acephala, (from α privative, and κεφαλη
which have no head. The three first genera belong to the
first division; the ten succeeding ones come under the
second; and the remainder exemplify the last order.
der the three following divisions; 1st, cephalopoda, (from
κεφαλη the head, and π
gans of motion placed round the head: 2dly, gasteropoda,
(from γαςηρ the belly, and π
belly: and 3dly, acephala, (from α privative, and κεφαλη
which have no head. The three first genera belong to the
first division; the ten succeeding ones come under the
second; and the remainder exemplify the last order.
[xxx]
According as the shell of the testaceous mollusca
consists
of a single convoluted tube; or of two or more separate
pieces, they are called cochleae bivalves, multivalves, &c.
of a single convoluted tube; or of two or more separate
pieces, they are called cochleae bivalves, multivalves, &c.
Crustacea possess a hard external covering, and
nu-
merous articulated members. A long nervous chord,
beset with ganglia. Compound eyes. Antennae and
palpi like those of insects. A heart and circulating vessels;
and gills. Teeth in the cavity of the stomach.
merous articulated members. A long nervous chord,
beset with ganglia. Compound eyes. Antennae and
palpi like those of insects. A heart and circulating vessels;
and gills. Teeth in the cavity of the stomach.
- 1. Cancer, crab, lobster, crayfish, shrimp.
- 2. Monoculus.
Insects have articulated members and antennae.
Those
which fly are subject to what is called a metamorphosis:
they pass through certain intermediate states of existence,
before they assume the last, or perfect form. From the
egg proceeds the larva, or caterpillar: this changes to the
chrysalis, nympha, or aurelia; from which the perfect in-
fect is produced. Nervous system consisting of a chord
beset with ganglia. No heart nor blood-vessels. Respi-
ration carried on by means of tracheae.
which fly are subject to what is called a metamorphosis:
they pass through certain intermediate states of existence,
before they assume the last, or perfect form. From the
egg proceeds the larva, or caterpillar: this changes to the
chrysalis, nympha, or aurelia; from which the perfect in-
fect is produced. Nervous system consisting of a chord
beset with ganglia. No heart nor blood-vessels. Respi-
ration carried on by means of tracheae.
- Order I. Coleoptera; having a hollow horny
case, un-
der which the wings are folded.- 1. Scarabaeus, beetles.
- 2. Lucanus, stag-beetle.
- 3. Dermestes.
- 4. Coccinella, ladybird.
- 5. Curculio, weevil.
- 6. Lampyris, glow-worm.
- 7. Meloe, Spanish-fly.
- 8. Staphylinus.
- 9. Forficula, earwig.
[xxxi]
- II. Hemiptera; four wings, either stretched
straight
out, or resting across each other.- 1. Blatta, cockroach.
- 2. Gryllus, locust, grasshopper.
- 3. Fulgora, lantern-fly.
- 4. Cimex, bug.
&c. &c.
- III. Lepidoptera; soft hairy body, and four
expanded
wings.- 1. Papilio, butterfly.
- 2. Sphinx,
3. Phalaena,} moths.
- IV. Neuroptera; four reticulated wings.
- 1. Libellula, dragon-fly.
- 2. Ephemera.
&c.
- V. Hymenoptera; generally possessing a
sting.
- 1. Vespa, wasp, hornet.
- 2. Apis, bee.
- 3. Formica, ant.
- 4. Termes, white ant.
- 5. Ichneumon.
&c.
- VI. Diptera; two wings.
- 1. Oestrus, gad-fly.
- 2. Musca, common flies.
- 3. Culex, gnat, mosquito.
- 4. Hippobosca,
horse-leech.
&c.
[xxxii]
- VII. Aptera; no wings.
- 1. Podura, springtail.
- 2. Pediculus, louse.
- 3. Pulex, flea chigger.
- 4. Acarus, tick, mite.
- 5. Arane, spiders.
- 6. Scorpio,
scorpion.
&c.
The Vermes may be divided into two orders;
the
intestinal, which inhabit the bodies of other animals; and
the external.
intestinal, which inhabit the bodies of other animals; and
the external.
The former are not of such a complicated organisation
as the latter; so that they are sometimes arranged among
the zoophytes. The external worms have a nervous chord
possessing ganglia, an elongated body composed of rings;
and having no distinct head. There are no members.
Circulating vessels, but no heart. No nerves have been
discovered in the intestinal worms.
as the latter; so that they are sometimes arranged among
the zoophytes. The external worms have a nervous chord
possessing ganglia, an elongated body composed of rings;
and having no distinct head. There are no members.
Circulating vessels, but no heart. No nerves have been
discovered in the intestinal worms.
- Order I. Intestini.
- 1. Gordius, guinea-worm.
- 2. Ascaris, thread-worm, round-worm.
- 3. Tricocephalus.
- 4. Fasciola, fluke.
- 5. Taenia, tape-worm.
- 6. Hydatis, hydatid.
- II. Externi.
- 1. Aphrodite, sea-mouse.
- 2. Sipunculus.
- 3. Hirudo, leech.
- 4. Nereis.
- 5. Nais
- 5. Planaria.
- 6. Lumbricus,
earthworm.
&c.
[xxxiii]
The Zoophytes have neither brain nor nerves;
no
heart, nor, perhaps, blood-vessels; no articulated mem-
bers.
heart, nor, perhaps, blood-vessels; no articulated mem-
bers.
- Order I. Echinodermata; covered by a hard
and
tough coriaceous skin.- 1. Echinus, sea hedgehog.
- 2. Asterias,
star-fish.
&c.
- II. Soft or Gelatinous
Zoophytes.
- 1. Medusa, sea-blubber, sea-nettles.
- 2. Actinia, sea anemone.
- 3. Hydra, fresh water polype.
- III. Infusoria, the animalcules of
infusions.
- 1. Vorticella, wheel-animal.
- 2. Brachionus.
- 3. Vibrio, eel of vinegar.
- 4. Volvox.
- 6. Monas.
- IV. Inhabitants of corals, corallines, sponges, &c.
[[xxxiv]]
Lately published, by the same Author,
A Description of the Arteries, arranged in the Form
of
Tables, for the Use of Students; translated from the
Latin of A. Murray, Professor of Anatomy at Upsal.
Tables, for the Use of Students; translated from the
Latin of A. Murray, Professor of Anatomy at Upsal.
[[xxxv]]
COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.
[interleaf]
[1]
CHAPTER I.
ON THE BONES OF ANIMALS IN
GENERAL.
§ 1. Red-blooded
true skeleton; to which all their bones
nected, and on which the general form
Parts of a really bony structure are found
only in a few
insects and worms: viz. in the stomach of the lobster, and
other species of the genus cancer; in the mouth of the sea
hedgehog (echinus), &c. These parts at least resemble true
bones more than that body, which is commonly called cuttle-
fish bone; for the description of which see note (A) at the end
of the chapter.
insects and worms: viz. in the stomach of the lobster, and
other species of the genus cancer; in the mouth of the sea
hedgehog (echinus), &c. These parts at least resemble true
bones more than that body, which is commonly called cuttle-
fish bone; for the description of which see note (A) at the end
of the chapter.
true skeleton; to which all their bones
There are a few exceptions to the general
rule, that
viz. the bone of the tongue, commonly called os hyoides; the
bone of the penis, of several mammalia; the bony ring
in the sclerotica of birds; the clavicular bones of some mam-
malia, &c.
“all
the bones of an animal enter into the formation of its skeleton:”
viz. the bone of the tongue, commonly called os hyoides; the
bone of the penis, of several mammalia; the bony ring
in the sclerotica of birds; the clavicular bones of some mam-
malia, &c.
(To these instances we must add two others, which, though
not enumerated by the author, are sufficiently remarkable
to deserve notice: viz. the whole anterior extremity in such
mammalia, as possess no clavicles; and the abdorminal fins
of fishes, which correspond to the posterior extremities of
other animals.) T.
not enumerated by the author, are sufficiently remarkable
to deserve notice: viz. the whole anterior extremity in such
mammalia, as possess no clavicles; and the abdorminal fins
of fishes, which correspond to the posterior extremities of
other animals.) T.
nected, and on which the general form
See Galen’s remarks
on this subject, when speaking of
the resemblance between the ape and the human subject; in
the 1st book of his Chef-d’oeuvre de Anatomicis Administra-
tionibus, tom. 4. p. 26. Chartier’s edition.
the resemblance between the ape and the human subject; in
the 1st book of his Chef-d’oeuvre de Anatomicis Administra-
tionibus, tom. 4. p. 26. Chartier’s edition.
[2]
as the greater or less
flexibility of the body de-
pend.
pend.
§ 2. The ordinary white
has several gradations, which are sometimes ob-
servable in the different parts of the same bone;
as in the grinding teeth of the elephant
in some few genera the whole bony structure is
of a different colour
belone) the bones are green; and in some varie-
The red tint, which
the bones of animals receive in con-
sequence of madder being mixed with the food, is observed
by Ant. Misaud, in his Centuriae Memorabilium seu Arcanorum
omnis generis, p. 161. Cologne, 1572. 12mo.
sequence of madder being mixed with the food, is observed
by Ant. Misaud, in his Centuriae Memorabilium seu Arcanorum
omnis generis, p. 161. Cologne, 1572. 12mo.
It is remarkable, that this well known experiment meets
with very imperfect success in cold blooded animals.
with very imperfect success in cold blooded animals.
has several gradations, which are sometimes ob-
servable in the different parts of the same bone;
as in the grinding teeth of the elephant
A section of a
grinding tooth of the elephant, or of any
other herbivorous animal, as the horse, ox, &c. shews that
its substance contains parts differing considerably in appear-
ance. Besides the processes of enamel, which are intermingled
throughout with the bone, there are two kinds of osseous
structure of different colours. In the above remark, the author
probably alludes to this circumstance, although he has not
particularly described this formation in that part of his
work, which treats on the teeth. See the additional obser-
vations on that subject at the end of the Chapter. T.
other herbivorous animal, as the horse, ox, &c. shews that
its substance contains parts differing considerably in appear-
ance. Besides the processes of enamel, which are intermingled
throughout with the bone, there are two kinds of osseous
structure of different colours. In the above remark, the author
probably alludes to this circumstance, although he has not
particularly described this formation in that part of his
work, which treats on the teeth. See the additional obser-
vations on that subject at the end of the Chapter. T.
in some few genera the whole bony structure is
of a different colour
This has however been asserted without
foundation of
some animals: thus Nicholls, in his Compend. Anat. p. 7,
fays that the amedabad finch (fringilla amandava) has yellow
bones; and others have stated the same circumstance re-
specting the golden pheasant, (phasianus pictus). I have dissect-
ed both these animals, and found the assertions to be in-
correct.
some animals: thus Nicholls, in his Compend. Anat. p. 7,
fays that the amedabad finch (fringilla amandava) has yellow
bones; and others have stated the same circumstance re-
specting the golden pheasant, (phasianus pictus). I have dissect-
ed both these animals, and found the assertions to be in-
correct.
belone) the bones are green; and in some varie-
[3]
ties of the common
fowl they approach to a black
colour
colour
Abulfazel, the vizier of Akber the Great, has re-
marked this of the fowls at Indore, and Neermul in Berar;
in his classical work Ayeen Akbery, vol. 2. p. 72. and Niebuhr
has stated it of those at Persepolis. Travels, vol. 2.
marked this of the fowls at Indore, and Neermul in Berar;
in his classical work Ayeen Akbery, vol. 2. p. 72. and Niebuhr
has stated it of those at Persepolis. Travels, vol. 2.
(Mr. Hunter is said to have discovered that the blackness
resides in the periosteum. Rees’s Cyclopaedia, Ast. Birds.) T.
resides in the periosteum. Rees’s Cyclopaedia, Ast. Birds.) T.
§ 3. The structure of the bones is subject to
still greater variations; which occur in the diffe-
rent bones of the same skeleton, as well as in the
whole skeleton of particular classes and orders. In-
stances may be observed in the dry and brittle tex-
ture of the air bones of birds; in the long fibres,
which appear on splitting the bones of the larger
amphibia and fishes; in the peculiar tenacity and
solidity of individual parts in some, cartilaginous
fishes
still greater variations; which occur in the diffe-
rent bones of the same skeleton, as well as in the
whole skeleton of particular classes and orders. In-
stances may be observed in the dry and brittle tex-
ture of the air bones of birds; in the long fibres,
which appear on splitting the bones of the larger
amphibia and fishes; in the peculiar tenacity and
solidity of individual parts in some, cartilaginous
fishes
For a further
account of the differences in the structure
of bones see note (A) at the end of the chapter.
of bones see note (A) at the end of the chapter.
§ 4. Excepting the crown of the teeth, bones
are universally covered with periosteum; and for
the most part they contain marrow
are universally covered with periosteum; and for
the most part they contain marrow
The erroneous opinion, which Aristotle held, of the
want of marrow in the bones of the lion, does not require an
express refutation. On that subject, as well as on some other
mistaken assertions, see R. Henerapolog. proVesalioad-
versusSylvium. Venet. 1555. 8vo. p. 27.
want of marrow in the bones of the lion, does not require an
express refutation. On that subject, as well as on some other
mistaken assertions, see R. Henerapolog. proVesalioad-
versusSylvium. Venet. 1555. 8vo. p. 27.
[4]
which varies much in
consistence, being fluid in the
whales.
whales.
§ 5. Bones are formed by the ossification of ori-
ginal cartilages; the teeth being again for the most
part excepted. Ossification commences earlier and
proceeds more rapidly in viviparous, than in ovi-
parous animals
comparing the incubated bird with the foetus of
mammalia. Again, in the latter class, many points
in the formation of the bones are completed sooner
in quadrupeds than in man
ginal cartilages; the teeth being again for the most
part excepted. Ossification commences earlier and
proceeds more rapidly in viviparous, than in ovi-
parous animals
It is well known that the incubation of the
chick occu-
pies twenty-one-days. The commencement of ossification is
not perceptible before the beginning of the ninth day; which
corresponds with the seventeenth week of human pregnancy.
In the human embryo the first points of ossification may be
discerned in the seventh or eight week after conception, (cer-
tainly not in the third or fourth week, as some great anato-
mists have lately supposed). These facts shew how little con-
fidence can be placed in that remark of Haller’s, which
concludes his excellent observations on the formation of the
bones in the incubated chick.
pies twenty-one-days. The commencement of ossification is
not perceptible before the beginning of the ninth day; which
corresponds with the seventeenth week of human pregnancy.
In the human embryo the first points of ossification may be
discerned in the seventh or eight week after conception, (cer-
tainly not in the third or fourth week, as some great anato-
mists have lately supposed). These facts shew how little con-
fidence can be placed in that remark of Haller’s, which
concludes his excellent observations on the formation of the
bones in the incubated chick.
“The facts, which we have
shewn in the bones of the chick, will hold good of those of
the other classes of animals, and of man.”
comparing the incubated bird with the foetus of
mammalia. Again, in the latter class, many points
in the formation of the bones are completed sooner
in quadrupeds than in man
In note (B) at the
end of the chapter, there is a short
account of the composition of the different bony substances,
which belong to the various classes of animals. T.
account of the composition of the different bony substances,
which belong to the various classes of animals. T.
An example occurs in the closure of the
fontanells. I
have found these openings of considerable size in young
foetuses of the ferae and pecora, but could hardly discern any
trace of them at the time of birth; nothing at least which
could be compared to their magnitude in a human foetus of
nine months. When we compare the pelvis, and the whole
mechanism of parturition in the woman, with those of the
female quadruped, the cause of this difference appears. We
then discover, why the yielding and overlapping of the large
bones of the cranium, which is chiefly effected by the fon-
tanells, is only required to facilitate the birth of the human
foetus.
have found these openings of considerable size in young
foetuses of the ferae and pecora, but could hardly discern any
trace of them at the time of birth; nothing at least which
could be compared to their magnitude in a human foetus of
nine months. When we compare the pelvis, and the whole
mechanism of parturition in the woman, with those of the
female quadruped, the cause of this difference appears. We
then discover, why the yielding and overlapping of the large
bones of the cranium, which is chiefly effected by the fon-
tanells, is only required to facilitate the birth of the human
foetus.
[5]
Additional Notes on the First Chapter.
(A) Ossification does not go on with equal rapi-
dity in all animals, nor in all the bones of the same
animal. Thus the ossification of the internal ear
of man, and the mammalia, is completed before
any other parts; and it surpasses all other bone in
its density, and in the proportional quantity of
phosphate of lime, which it contains. In the cetacea,
particularly the balaena and physeter (the black and
white whales,) this part acquires a density and hard-
ness equal to that of marble. Its section presents an
homogeneous appearance, without the least vestige
of fibres, cellular texture, or vessels.
dity in all animals, nor in all the bones of the same
animal. Thus the ossification of the internal ear
of man, and the mammalia, is completed before
any other parts; and it surpasses all other bone in
its density, and in the proportional quantity of
phosphate of lime, which it contains. In the cetacea,
particularly the balaena and physeter (the black and
white whales,) this part acquires a density and hard-
ness equal to that of marble. Its section presents an
homogeneous appearance, without the least vestige
of fibres, cellular texture, or vessels.
Bones are slow in acquiring their complete
formation, in proportion to the remoteness of the
period, at which the growth of the animal is
finished. The skeleton remains constantly in a
cartilaginous state in some animals; such are the
shark, skate, sturgeon, and all those fishes, which,
formation, in proportion to the remoteness of the
period, at which the growth of the animal is
finished. The skeleton remains constantly in a
cartilaginous state in some animals; such are the
shark, skate, sturgeon, and all those fishes, which,
[6]
from this
circumstance, have been denominated
cartilaginous, or chondropterygii. Although the
bones of other fishes, of reptiles, and serpents ac-
quire a greater hardness, they constantly remain
more flexible, and retain a larger proportion of
gelatine in their structure, than those of warm-
blooded animals.
cartilaginous, or chondropterygii. Although the
bones of other fishes, of reptiles, and serpents ac-
quire a greater hardness, they constantly remain
more flexible, and retain a larger proportion of
gelatine in their structure, than those of warm-
blooded animals.
The bony texture of the mammalia is not so fine
and delicate as that of man: it is particularly loose
and coarse in the cetacea, where the distinction of
the fibres is very manifest, even on the external
surface. In the jaw and the ribs particularly, they
may be loosened by maceration, and become very
obvious.
and delicate as that of man: it is particularly loose
and coarse in the cetacea, where the distinction of
the fibres is very manifest, even on the external
surface. In the jaw and the ribs particularly, they
may be loosened by maceration, and become very
obvious.
The bones of reptiles and fishes have a very
homogeneous appearance, the earthy matter and
the gelatine appearing to be uniformly mingled:
this is more strikingly marked, as we approach to
the cartilaginous fishes, where the gelatine predomi-
nates, and conceals the earth.
homogeneous appearance, the earthy matter and
the gelatine appearing to be uniformly mingled:
this is more strikingly marked, as we approach to
the cartilaginous fishes, where the gelatine predomi-
nates, and conceals the earth.
Several animals have no medullary cavities even
in their long bones. This is the case with the
cetacea, the seal, and turtle.
in their long bones. This is the case with the
cetacea, the seal, and turtle.
The structure of the bones of birds should be
noticed in this place. They are almost universally
hollow: but their cavities, which never contain
marrow, are filled with air. This organization
unites the advantages of lightness and strength.
For a further account of it see the chapter on the
organs of respiration.
noticed in this place. They are almost universally
hollow: but their cavities, which never contain
marrow, are filled with air. This organization
unites the advantages of lightness and strength.
For a further account of it see the chapter on the
organs of respiration.
[7]
The horn of the stag is a real bone, as
appears
both from its texture, and its component elements.
Its outer part is hard, compact, and fibrous: the in-
ternal substance is reticulated, but very firm; and
possesses no cavities nor marrow. See the chapter
on the skeleton of the mammalia, for the mode of
its formation, &c.
both from its texture, and its component elements.
Its outer part is hard, compact, and fibrous: the in-
ternal substance is reticulated, but very firm; and
possesses no cavities nor marrow. See the chapter
on the skeleton of the mammalia, for the mode of
its formation, &c.
The shells of the testaceous animals are formed
of a calcareous substance, which is sometimes
laminated; sometimes as hard and denfe as mar-
ble. This is mingled, as in other bones, with a
gelatinous matter, from which it may be separated
by means of acids. The earth is not disposed in
fibres or laminae, as in other bones; but is uni-
formly expanded through the animal substance.
of a calcareous substance, which is sometimes
laminated; sometimes as hard and denfe as mar-
ble. This is mingled, as in other bones, with a
gelatinous matter, from which it may be separated
by means of acids. The earth is not disposed in
fibres or laminae, as in other bones; but is uni-
formly expanded through the animal substance.
The layers of the shell are formed successively,
as the animal increases in size. The exterior or
smallest are formed first: others are successively
deposited on the inner surface of these; each new
layer extending beyond the margin of the former
one, so that the shell, by every addition increases
in thickness and circumference. Are these new
layers formed by vessels existing in the shell itself,
or are they produced by exudation from the sur-
face of the animal? Reaumeur broke the shell
of snails, and found that no reproduction took
place, when he covered the exposed part of the
animal’s body; while the injury was quickly re-
paired, when no artificial obstacle impeded the
effusion of fluids from the surface. This experi-
as the animal increases in size. The exterior or
smallest are formed first: others are successively
deposited on the inner surface of these; each new
layer extending beyond the margin of the former
one, so that the shell, by every addition increases
in thickness and circumference. Are these new
layers formed by vessels existing in the shell itself,
or are they produced by exudation from the sur-
face of the animal? Reaumeur broke the shell
of snails, and found that no reproduction took
place, when he covered the exposed part of the
animal’s body; while the injury was quickly re-
paired, when no artificial obstacle impeded the
effusion of fluids from the surface. This experi-
[8]
ment seems to
prove that the shell is formed by
deposition from the body of the animal: but there
is an argument equaily strong in favour of the ex-
istence of vessels in the shell itself. Between the
two last formed layers of the convex shell of the
oyster, a considerable cavity is found, filled with a
fluid, and communicating by a particular opening
with the internal parts of the body. This must be
destroyed and reproduced whenever a new lamina
is added; and we cannot understand how such
processes can be effected without arterial and ab-
sorbing vessels.
deposition from the body of the animal: but there
is an argument equaily strong in favour of the ex-
istence of vessels in the shell itself. Between the
two last formed layers of the convex shell of the
oyster, a considerable cavity is found, filled with a
fluid, and communicating by a particular opening
with the internal parts of the body. This must be
destroyed and reproduced whenever a new lamina
is added; and we cannot understand how such
processes can be effected without arterial and ab-
sorbing vessels.
Grustaceous animals, (crab, lobster, &c.)
have a
skeleton which surrounds and contains their soft
parts, and which serves at the same time the pur-
poses of a skin. When it has attained its perfect
consistence, it grows no more: but as the soft
parts still increase, the shell separates, and is de-
tached, being succeeded by a larger one. This
new covering is partly formed before the other
separates: it is at first soft, sensible, and vascular;
but it speedily acquires a hard consistence by the
increased deposition of calcareous matter.
skeleton which surrounds and contains their soft
parts, and which serves at the same time the pur-
poses of a skin. When it has attained its perfect
consistence, it grows no more: but as the soft
parts still increase, the shell separates, and is de-
tached, being succeeded by a larger one. This
new covering is partly formed before the other
separates: it is at first soft, sensible, and vascular;
but it speedily acquires a hard consistence by the
increased deposition of calcareous matter.
Some of the mollusca have hard parts in the
in-
terior of their body. The common cuttlefish (sepia
officinalis) has a white, firm, and calcareous mass
of an oval form, and slightly convex on its two
surfaces, commonly known by the name of the
cuttlefish-bone, contained in the substance of its
body. It has no connection with any soft part,
terior of their body. The common cuttlefish (sepia
officinalis) has a white, firm, and calcareous mass
of an oval form, and slightly convex on its two
surfaces, commonly known by the name of the
cuttlefish-bone, contained in the substance of its
body. It has no connection with any soft part,
[9]
whence it appears
completely as a foreign body:
no vessel nor nerve can be perceived to enter it;
nor does it receive the attachment of any tendon.
In the calmar (sepia loligo), this body resembles
horn in its appearance; it is transparent, hard, and
brittle. Its form resembles that of a leaf, except
that it is larger; and sometimes that of a sword-
blade. These parts must grow like shells, by the
simple addition of successive layers.
no vessel nor nerve can be perceived to enter it;
nor does it receive the attachment of any tendon.
In the calmar (sepia loligo), this body resembles
horn in its appearance; it is transparent, hard, and
brittle. Its form resembles that of a leaf, except
that it is larger; and sometimes that of a sword-
blade. These parts must grow like shells, by the
simple addition of successive layers.
(B) As chemical analysis has discovered some
interesting differences in the constituent ingredients
of the hard parts of various animals; it seems
right to give a short account of them in the pre-
sent place.
interesting differences in the constituent ingredients
of the hard parts of various animals; it seems
right to give a short account of them in the pre-
sent place.
The bones and teeth of red-blooded animals,
consist chiefly of phosphate of lime, deposited in
the interstices of an animal substance; which, when
freed from the earthy matter by the immersion of
the bone in an acid, approaches in its consistence
to cartilage. This is completely dissolved by boil-
ing in a close vessel, and is thereby proved to con-
sist of gelatine. A small quantity of carbonate of
lime is mixed with the phosphate; and hence ef-
fervescence arises when a bone or tooth is sub-
jected to the action of acids.
consist chiefly of phosphate of lime, deposited in
the interstices of an animal substance; which, when
freed from the earthy matter by the immersion of
the bone in an acid, approaches in its consistence
to cartilage. This is completely dissolved by boil-
ing in a close vessel, and is thereby proved to con-
sist of gelatine. A small quantity of carbonate of
lime is mixed with the phosphate; and hence ef-
fervescence arises when a bone or tooth is sub-
jected to the action of acids.
The relative proportions of these ingredients in
the general structure of bone have not hitherto
been determined with much accuracy; but the
obvious differences of structure and appearance
the general structure of bone have not hitherto
been determined with much accuracy; but the
obvious differences of structure and appearance
[10]
not only in the
different classes, orders, and genera,
but even in the several bones of the same individual,
and in parts of the same bone, leave no doubt that
much variation must exist in these points.
but even in the several bones of the same individual,
and in parts of the same bone, leave no doubt that
much variation must exist in these points.
The horn of the stag is bone, containing a large
proportion of gelatine.
proportion of gelatine.
The bones of fishes contain phosphate of lime;
but the animal substance exists in very large pro-
portion, particularly in those which are called car-
tilaginous, where it completely obscures the earthy
matter.
but the animal substance exists in very large pro-
portion, particularly in those which are called car-
tilaginous, where it completely obscures the earthy
matter.
Carbonate and phosphate of lime, deposited on a
cartilaginous basis, which retains the form of the
part, after the earthy matter has been separated,
constitute the external covering of the crustaceous
animals (crab, lobster, &c.). The carbonate is in
greatest quantity.
cartilaginous basis, which retains the form of the
part, after the earthy matter has been separated,
constitute the external covering of the crustaceous
animals (crab, lobster, &c.). The carbonate is in
greatest quantity.
Carbonate of lime, with a small quantity of phos-
phate, forms the earthy principle of the shell of
the echinus.
phate, forms the earthy principle of the shell of
the echinus.
The shells of the testacea, are entirely composed
of carbonate of lime, united to a gelatinous sub-
stance. When immersed in acid, a rapid effer-
vescence ensues. Some of them, which are very
hard in their texture, and have an enamelled sur-
face, contain so little animal matter, that it does not
retain the form of the shell, which is completely
dissolved by acids, like the enamel of the teeth.
But others, which consist of what is called mother
of pearl, and are formed by successive strata, (e.g.
of carbonate of lime, united to a gelatinous sub-
stance. When immersed in acid, a rapid effer-
vescence ensues. Some of them, which are very
hard in their texture, and have an enamelled sur-
face, contain so little animal matter, that it does not
retain the form of the shell, which is completely
dissolved by acids, like the enamel of the teeth.
But others, which consist of what is called mother
of pearl, and are formed by successive strata, (e.g.
Digitalisat/529