link
A
A
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND
AUGMENTED,
William Coulson.
59, Aldersgate Street,
Oct. 1, 1827. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
J.F. Blumenbach.
Gottingen,
March 31, 1824. 
INTRODUCTION.
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[interleaf]
[interleaf]
[interleaf]
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[interleaf]
[titlePage_recto]
A
MANUAL
OF
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
[titlePage_verso]
[titlePage_recto]
A
MANUAL
OF
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
OF
J.F.
BLUMENBACH,
WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES,
By
WILLIAM LAWRENCE, Esq. F.R.S.
SURGEON TO ST.
BARTHOLOMEW’S HOSPITAL, TO BRIDEWELL,
AND BETHLEM HOSPITALS,
ETC.
ETC.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND
AUGMENTED,
By WILLIAM
COULSON,
DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY AT THE MEDICAL SCHOOL, ALDERSGATE
STREET,
AND MEMBER OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR W. SIMPKIN AND R. MARSHALL,
STATIONERS’-HALL COURT, LUDGATE STREET.
1827.
PRINTED FOR W. SIMPKIN AND R. MARSHALL,
STATIONERS’-HALL COURT, LUDGATE STREET.
[titlePage_verso]
J. M’Creery, Tooks Court,
Chancery-lane, London.
Chancery-lane, London.
[i]
ADVERTISEMENT.
In submitting this work to the
public, the Editor
deems it right to state briefly in what respects the
present edition of Mr. Lawrence’s translation of
Blumenbach differs from the original edition of
1807. The difference consists partly in the addition
of new matter, and partly in a new, and, he trusts,
improved arrangement both of the text of the author,
and of the additional notes of the Translator.
deems it right to state briefly in what respects the
present edition of Mr. Lawrence’s translation of
Blumenbach differs from the original edition of
1807. The difference consists partly in the addition
of new matter, and partly in a new, and, he trusts,
improved arrangement both of the text of the author,
and of the additional notes of the Translator.
With respect to the new disposition of the matter,
the notes of Blumenbach have been incorporated,
wherever it has been practicable to effect such an union,
with the text; an arrangement which is sanctioned, in
many instances, by the authority of the author him-
self in the later editions of his work; and which will
be found, it is hoped, to contribute not less to the pro-
fit, than to the convenience of the student. Frequent
annotations necessarily divert the attention of the rea-
der from the chain of reasoning, or the detail of facts
which the text may present to him; and there is the
less reason for isolating the information contained in
the notes of Blumenbach, as it is for the most part
the notes of Blumenbach have been incorporated,
wherever it has been practicable to effect such an union,
with the text; an arrangement which is sanctioned, in
many instances, by the authority of the author him-
self in the later editions of his work; and which will
be found, it is hoped, to contribute not less to the pro-
fit, than to the convenience of the student. Frequent
annotations necessarily divert the attention of the rea-
der from the chain of reasoning, or the detail of facts
which the text may present to him; and there is the
less reason for isolating the information contained in
the notes of Blumenbach, as it is for the most part
[ii]
strictly relevant to the
subject matter of the text.
The additional notes of Mr. Lawrence, which, in
the edition of 1807, were annexed en masse to the
end of each chapter, have, in this edition, been
printed in a distinct type at the end of each para-
graph of the text which they are designed to illus-
trate.
The additional notes of Mr. Lawrence, which, in
the edition of 1807, were annexed en masse to the
end of each chapter, have, in this edition, been
printed in a distinct type at the end of each para-
graph of the text which they are designed to illus-
trate.
Of the new matter, part has been introduced by
the author in editions of this Manual, subsequent to
that translated in 1807, and part has been annexed
to, or incorporated with the notes of Mr. Lawrence
by the present editor.
the author in editions of this Manual, subsequent to
that translated in 1807, and part has been annexed
to, or incorporated with the notes of Mr. Lawrence
by the present editor.
The works of the more recent physiologists and
comparative anatomists, especially those of Cuvier,
Blainville, Rudolphi, Carus, Meckel, Tiede-
mann, and the Lectures of Sir E. Home, have been
diligently examined, with a view of supplying such in-
formation as the lapse of twenty years had rendered
necessary, in order to complete the plan of illustra-
tion adopted by the Translator. Many scarce and
valuable monographs have also been consulted for
that purpose. The information derived from these
sources is in some instances sufficiently distinguish-
ed, by the dates of the works cited, from former addi-
tions to this Manual, and, where there is no such dis-
tinction apparent on the face of the additional matter,
the Editor has not thought it necessary to point out
what has been added to the commentaries of Mr.
comparative anatomists, especially those of Cuvier,
Blainville, Rudolphi, Carus, Meckel, Tiede-
mann, and the Lectures of Sir E. Home, have been
diligently examined, with a view of supplying such in-
formation as the lapse of twenty years had rendered
necessary, in order to complete the plan of illustra-
tion adopted by the Translator. Many scarce and
valuable monographs have also been consulted for
that purpose. The information derived from these
sources is in some instances sufficiently distinguish-
ed, by the dates of the works cited, from former addi-
tions to this Manual, and, where there is no such dis-
tinction apparent on the face of the additional matter,
the Editor has not thought it necessary to point out
what has been added to the commentaries of Mr.
[iii]
Lawrence, preferring rather to place his own hum-
ble endeavours to increase the utility of the work
under the shelter afforded to them by the name of
the distinguished Translator.
ble endeavours to increase the utility of the work
under the shelter afforded to them by the name of
the distinguished Translator.
To that eminent individual the Editor has now to
make his public acknowledgments for the mark of
friendship and confidence with which he has been
honoured, in being intrusted with the superintend-
ence of this publication. For the sake of the sci-
ence, indeed, he regrets that the numerous profes-
sional avocations of Mr. Lawrence have prevented
him from presenting the public with an improved
edition of this, one of his earliest literary produc-
tions; but he trusts, that as far as diligence and zeal
can supply the want of the Translator’s superintend-
ing care, the confidence which has been reposed in
him has not been entirely misplaced. Mr. Law-
rence’s translation of this work was produced at
the outset of his professional life, at a time when a
knowledge of the German language might be consi-
dered a rare acquisition in this country; and his il-
lustrations of the text, even at this early period of
his career, afforded an earnest of that reputation
which he has since acquired by the splendour of
his physiological researches. Blumenbach has him-
self borne ample testimony to the merits of his com-
mentator; indeed it is as gratifying to remark the spi-
rit of candour and cordial approbation with which
make his public acknowledgments for the mark of
friendship and confidence with which he has been
honoured, in being intrusted with the superintend-
ence of this publication. For the sake of the sci-
ence, indeed, he regrets that the numerous profes-
sional avocations of Mr. Lawrence have prevented
him from presenting the public with an improved
edition of this, one of his earliest literary produc-
tions; but he trusts, that as far as diligence and zeal
can supply the want of the Translator’s superintend-
ing care, the confidence which has been reposed in
him has not been entirely misplaced. Mr. Law-
rence’s translation of this work was produced at
the outset of his professional life, at a time when a
knowledge of the German language might be consi-
dered a rare acquisition in this country; and his il-
lustrations of the text, even at this early period of
his career, afforded an earnest of that reputation
which he has since acquired by the splendour of
his physiological researches. Blumenbach has him-
self borne ample testimony to the merits of his com-
mentator; indeed it is as gratifying to remark the spi-
rit of candour and cordial approbation with which
[iv]
the labours of our
distinguished countryman are
uniformly noticed by the continental writers, as it is
humiliating to reflect on the spirit of envy and ma-
lignity by which they have been assailed at home.
Envy and malignity, however, have done their
worst; it may be said rather that they have had the
effect of establishing the fame of Mr. Lawrence,
and of placing, beyond all competition, his claims
to the highest rank in his profession.
uniformly noticed by the continental writers, as it is
humiliating to reflect on the spirit of envy and ma-
lignity by which they have been assailed at home.
Envy and malignity, however, have done their
worst; it may be said rather that they have had the
effect of establishing the fame of Mr. Lawrence,
and of placing, beyond all competition, his claims
to the highest rank in his profession.
The Editor cannot conclude these observations
without expressing his acknowledgments to Mr.
Clift, the conservator of the Hunterian Museum, for
the great facilities he has afforded him in the prose-
cution of inquiries connected with this publication.
The value of the Hunterian Museum, with a view
to any practical advantage that can be derived from
it in physiological or pathological investigations, is
indeed greatly diminished by the want of a digested
catalogue of its contents. This want will, it is to
be hoped, be speedily supplied; in the mean time
nothing is better calculated to diminish the incon-
veniences resulting from it, than the urbanity, and
the readiness to afford information, which are dis-
played on all occasions by the present conservator.
without expressing his acknowledgments to Mr.
Clift, the conservator of the Hunterian Museum, for
the great facilities he has afforded him in the prose-
cution of inquiries connected with this publication.
The value of the Hunterian Museum, with a view
to any practical advantage that can be derived from
it in physiological or pathological investigations, is
indeed greatly diminished by the want of a digested
catalogue of its contents. This want will, it is to
be hoped, be speedily supplied; in the mean time
nothing is better calculated to diminish the incon-
veniences resulting from it, than the urbanity, and
the readiness to afford information, which are dis-
played on all occasions by the present conservator.
[v]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
TO
THE FOURTH EDITION.
I was first led, both by
inclination and by the nature
of my professional pursuits, to devote the greater
portion of my time to the study of physiology, or the
foundation of medical science, as it has been termed
by Zimmermann, and to natural history, or the ma-
teria prima philosophiae, as it has been called by Ba-
con. I soon became convinced, and experience has
confirmed my conviction, that Haller was right
when he said of comparative anatomy, that it had
thrown more light upon physiology than even the
dissection of the human subject; an opinion which
has been further sanctioned by the authority of Leib-
nitz, who has declared comparative anatomy to be
the soul of that branch of knowledge which is de-
dicated to the history of the animal kingdom. If I
of my professional pursuits, to devote the greater
portion of my time to the study of physiology, or the
foundation of medical science, as it has been termed
by Zimmermann, and to natural history, or the ma-
teria prima philosophiae, as it has been called by Ba-
con. I soon became convinced, and experience has
confirmed my conviction, that Haller was right
when he said of comparative anatomy, that it had
thrown more light upon physiology than even the
dissection of the human subject; an opinion which
has been further sanctioned by the authority of Leib-
nitz, who has declared comparative anatomy to be
the soul of that branch of knowledge which is de-
dicated to the history of the animal kingdom. If I
[vi]
may venture to believe
that I have not laboured in
vain in these two departments of science, the suc-
cess of my efforts is to be attributed to the collateral
assistance which I have derived from comparative
anatomy. As I may at least claim the merit of
having been the first to deliver lectures annually on
this subject, in Germany, and of having by these
means excited a taste for the science, and a zeal to
contribute to its advancement; so I trust that this
edition of my Manual, the first work of the kind
which has ever appeared on comparative anatomy,
as applied to the whole animal kingdom, will fur-
ther facilitate the study, and render it more univer-
sally useful. I have the more reason to think that
my readers will approve the plan of this work, as it
is, in fact, the same which I have pursued in my
elementary treatises on physiology and natural his-
tory; and which, from the various advantages it com-
bines, has been found best calculated to afford faci-
lities to students.
vain in these two departments of science, the suc-
cess of my efforts is to be attributed to the collateral
assistance which I have derived from comparative
anatomy. As I may at least claim the merit of
having been the first to deliver lectures annually on
this subject, in Germany, and of having by these
means excited a taste for the science, and a zeal to
contribute to its advancement; so I trust that this
edition of my Manual, the first work of the kind
which has ever appeared on comparative anatomy,
as applied to the whole animal kingdom, will fur-
ther facilitate the study, and render it more univer-
sally useful. I have the more reason to think that
my readers will approve the plan of this work, as it
is, in fact, the same which I have pursued in my
elementary treatises on physiology and natural his-
tory; and which, from the various advantages it com-
bines, has been found best calculated to afford faci-
lities to students.
To give effect to such a plan it was necessary to
make a judicious selection from the vast mass of
materials which have been accumulated by the la-
bours of comparative anatomists. This I have en-
deavoured to accomplish, while at the same time I
have kept in view the application of the science to
physiology and natural history, and have occasion-
ally interspersed a few remarks illustrative of these
make a judicious selection from the vast mass of
materials which have been accumulated by the la-
bours of comparative anatomists. This I have en-
deavoured to accomplish, while at the same time I
have kept in view the application of the science to
physiology and natural history, and have occasion-
ally interspersed a few remarks illustrative of these
[vii]
branches of knowledge.
It is evident that a minute
description of the muscles, vessels, nerves, &c.,
of the various classes of animals, could not be
comprised within the limits which I have prescribed
to myself. Comparative Osteology, however, de-
serves a more detailed examination, for the skele-
tons of red-blooded animals are not only intimately
connected with the rest of their anatomical struc-
ture, but also with their form, economy, and peculiar
habits.
description of the muscles, vessels, nerves, &c.,
of the various classes of animals, could not be
comprised within the limits which I have prescribed
to myself. Comparative Osteology, however, de-
serves a more detailed examination, for the skele-
tons of red-blooded animals are not only intimately
connected with the rest of their anatomical struc-
ture, but also with their form, economy, and peculiar
habits.
To domestic animals, and to such as the sports of
the field bring most frequently under our notice, I
have paid particular attention; partly, because such
animals are most easily procured for dissection, and
partly on account of the great interest which is
likely to be taken in a correct knowledge of their
structure. With regard to foreign animals, I have
uniformly adverted to their most striking peculiari-
ties.
the field bring most frequently under our notice, I
have paid particular attention; partly, because such
animals are most easily procured for dissection, and
partly on account of the great interest which is
likely to be taken in a correct knowledge of their
structure. With regard to foreign animals, I have
uniformly adverted to their most striking peculiari-
ties.
I have carefully cited my authorities for such
facts as I have not myself had an opportunity of
verifying; availing myself, in such cases, partly of
the best engravings which have been published, and
partly of the best monographs, and papers which
have appeared on the subject of comparative anato-
my in periodical collections; so that I have scarce-
ly omitted to notice a single author who has contri-
buted any thing of importance, and the notes to this
facts as I have not myself had an opportunity of
verifying; availing myself, in such cases, partly of
the best engravings which have been published, and
partly of the best monographs, and papers which
have appeared on the subject of comparative anato-
my in periodical collections; so that I have scarce-
ly omitted to notice a single author who has contri-
buted any thing of importance, and the notes to this
[viii]
Manual furnish a
complete synopsis of the literature
of the science.
of the science.
I have devoted a large portion of the work to the
classes of warm-blooded animals, as those in which
readers, whose time will not admit of extended in-
vestigation, will take the greatest interest. I have
not, however, neglected the classes of cold-blooded
animals, and the two last classes of the Linnaean
system, having generally explained the comparative
anatomy of the invertebrated animals, by an exam-
ple or two taken from each class.
classes of warm-blooded animals, as those in which
readers, whose time will not admit of extended in-
vestigation, will take the greatest interest. I have
not, however, neglected the classes of cold-blooded
animals, and the two last classes of the Linnaean
system, having generally explained the comparative
anatomy of the invertebrated animals, by an exam-
ple or two taken from each class.
To such authorities as the large systematic works
of Blainville, Carus, Cuvier, Geoffroy, Meck-
el, Rudolphi, Tiedemann, and Treviranus, I
now, to avoid frequent repetition, refer once for all.
The same observation applies to the engravings
given by some of these writers, and especially by
Cuvier and Carus, as well as to the masterly mo-
nographs of Bojanus, Cuvier, Home, Spix,
Tiedemann, &c., and to the copious additional
notes with which the celebrated Lawrence has
enriched his translation of this Manual.
of Blainville, Carus, Cuvier, Geoffroy, Meck-
el, Rudolphi, Tiedemann, and Treviranus, I
now, to avoid frequent repetition, refer once for all.
The same observation applies to the engravings
given by some of these writers, and especially by
Cuvier and Carus, as well as to the masterly mo-
nographs of Bojanus, Cuvier, Home, Spix,
Tiedemann, &c., and to the copious additional
notes with which the celebrated Lawrence has
enriched his translation of this Manual.
Notwithstanding this
observation, the author has very fre-
quently quoted Mr. Lawrence’s notes; but in this edition, where
the notes so cited immediately follow the text, references of this
kind are of course omitted. – Ed.
quently quoted Mr. Lawrence’s notes; but in this edition, where
the notes so cited immediately follow the text, references of this
kind are of course omitted. – Ed.
I shall scarcely be expected to offer any apology
[xix]
for not having
translated many well known technical
Latin terms, the translation of which would, in fact,
have rendered the things signified less intelligible;
nor is it, I trust, necessary for me to enlarge on the
numerous additions and improvements by which
the utility of the work has been increased in this
edition.
Latin terms, the translation of which would, in fact,
have rendered the things signified less intelligible;
nor is it, I trust, necessary for me to enlarge on the
numerous additions and improvements by which
the utility of the work has been increased in this
edition.
[[x]]
[xi]
INTRODUCTION.This
introduction is substantially the same as that given by
Mr. Lawrence
in the original edition of this work.
This
introduction is substantially the same as that given by
Mr. Lawrence in the original edition of this work.
Mr. Lawrence in the original edition of this work.
Anatomical structure is the
natural foundation
on which a systematic arrangement of the different
classes and species which compose the animal king-
dom may be established. Aristotle has adopted
to a certain extent this basis of classification; but it
is evident that no great advances could be made by
the ancients in a branch of knowledge, which pre-
supposes an intimate acquaintance with the struc-
ture and organization of animals. No attempt at
classification before the time of Linnaeus has any
pretensions to the name of a system affording accu-
rate criteria for distinguishing the different classes
of animals. The classification of Linnaeus, which
is adopted with some modifications by Blumenbach
in the following work, is founded on the observation
on which a systematic arrangement of the different
classes and species which compose the animal king-
dom may be established. Aristotle has adopted
to a certain extent this basis of classification; but it
is evident that no great advances could be made by
the ancients in a branch of knowledge, which pre-
supposes an intimate acquaintance with the struc-
ture and organization of animals. No attempt at
classification before the time of Linnaeus has any
pretensions to the name of a system affording accu-
rate criteria for distinguishing the different classes
of animals. The classification of Linnaeus, which
is adopted with some modifications by Blumenbach
in the following work, is founded on the observation
[xii]
of differences of
structure in the organs of circula-
tion in such animals as possess a cardiac system.
tion in such animals as possess a cardiac system.
| Mammalia, viviparous Birds, oviparous | { Heart furnished with two ventricles, two auricles; blood warm and red. |
| Amphibia, respiring by lungs Fishes, breathing by gills | { Heart furnished with one ventricle and one au- ricle; blood cold and red. |
| Insects, furnished with antennae Vermes, furnished with tentacula | } Sanies cold and colour- less. |
Animals may be divided into two great families;
the first family possessing vertebrae and red blood;
the second without vertebrae, and most of them with
white blood. The former have always an internal
articulated skeleton, of which the chief connecting
part is the vertebral column. The anterior part of
this column supports the head; the canal which
passes from one end of it to the other incloses the
common fasciculus of the nerves; its posterior extre-
mity is most frequently prolonged, in order to form
the tail, and its sides are articulated with the ribs,
which are seldom wanting. None of this family of
animals has more than four limbs, some of them
have two only, and others have none.
the first family possessing vertebrae and red blood;
the second without vertebrae, and most of them with
white blood. The former have always an internal
articulated skeleton, of which the chief connecting
part is the vertebral column. The anterior part of
this column supports the head; the canal which
passes from one end of it to the other incloses the
common fasciculus of the nerves; its posterior extre-
mity is most frequently prolonged, in order to form
the tail, and its sides are articulated with the ribs,
which are seldom wanting. None of this family of
animals has more than four limbs, some of them
have two only, and others have none.
[xiii]
The brain is inclosed in a particular osseous ca-
vity of the head, called the cranium. All the nerves
of the spine contribute filaments to form a nervous
cord, which has its origin in the nerves of the cra-
nium, and is distributed to the greater part of the
viscera.
vity of the head, called the cranium. All the nerves
of the spine contribute filaments to form a nervous
cord, which has its origin in the nerves of the cra-
nium, and is distributed to the greater part of the
viscera.
The senses are always five in number. There are
always two eyes, moveable at pleasure. The ear
has always at least three semicircular canals. The
sense of smell is always confined to particular cavi-
ties in the fore part of the head.
always two eyes, moveable at pleasure. The ear
has always at least three semicircular canals. The
sense of smell is always confined to particular cavi-
ties in the fore part of the head.
The circulation is always performed by one fleshy
ventricle at least; and where the ventricles are two
in number, they are always close together, forming a
single mass. The absorbent vessels are distinct from
the sanguiferous veins.
ventricle at least; and where the ventricles are two
in number, they are always close together, forming a
single mass. The absorbent vessels are distinct from
the sanguiferous veins.
The two jaws are always placed horizontally, and
open from above downwards. The intestinal canal
is continued without interruption from the mouth to
the anus, which is always placed behind the pelvis,
that is, behind the circle of bones which affords a
fixed point for the posterior extremities. The in-
testines are enveloped within a membranous sac,
termed peritonaeum. There is always a liver and a
pancreas, which pour their secretions into the cavity
of the intestines; and there is always a spleen,
within which part of the blood undergoes some pre-
paratory change before it is sent to the liver.
open from above downwards. The intestinal canal
is continued without interruption from the mouth to
the anus, which is always placed behind the pelvis,
that is, behind the circle of bones which affords a
fixed point for the posterior extremities. The in-
testines are enveloped within a membranous sac,
termed peritonaeum. There is always a liver and a
pancreas, which pour their secretions into the cavity
of the intestines; and there is always a spleen,
within which part of the blood undergoes some pre-
paratory change before it is sent to the liver.
[xiv]
There are always two kidneys for the secretion of
urine, placed on the two sides of the spine, and
without the peritonaeum. The testicles also are
always two in number. There are always two bo-
dies called atrabiliary capsules, placed over the kid-
neys; the use of them is unknown.
urine, placed on the two sides of the spine, and
without the peritonaeum. The testicles also are
always two in number. There are always two bo-
dies called atrabiliary capsules, placed over the kid-
neys; the use of them is unknown.
Animals with vertebrae are subdivided into two
classes, one of which is warm-blooded, and the
other cold-blooded.
classes, one of which is warm-blooded, and the
other cold-blooded.
Warm-blooded vertebrated animals have always
two ventricles and a double circulation. They re-
spire by means of lungs, and cannot exist without
respiration. The brain almost always fills the cavity
of the cranium. The eyes are covered with eye-
lids. The tympanum of the ear is sunk within the
cranium; the different parts of the labyrinth are
completely inclosed within bone; and besides the
semicircular canals, the labyrinth contains the coch-
lea, with two scalae, resembling the shell of the snail.
The nostrils always communicate with the throat,
and afford a passage for the air in respiration. The
trunk is furnished with ribs, and almost all the
species of this branch of animals have four limbs.
two ventricles and a double circulation. They re-
spire by means of lungs, and cannot exist without
respiration. The brain almost always fills the cavity
of the cranium. The eyes are covered with eye-
lids. The tympanum of the ear is sunk within the
cranium; the different parts of the labyrinth are
completely inclosed within bone; and besides the
semicircular canals, the labyrinth contains the coch-
lea, with two scalae, resembling the shell of the snail.
The nostrils always communicate with the throat,
and afford a passage for the air in respiration. The
trunk is furnished with ribs, and almost all the
species of this branch of animals have four limbs.
Cold-blooded vertebrated animals resemble one
another more by their negative than their positive
characters. Many of them are destitute of ribs;
some of them are totally destitute of limbs. The
brain never fills the whole cavity of the cranium.
another more by their negative than their positive
characters. Many of them are destitute of ribs;
some of them are totally destitute of limbs. The
brain never fills the whole cavity of the cranium.
[xv]
The eyes seldom have
moveable eyelids. The tym-
panum of the ear, when present, is always close to
the surface of the head; it is often absent, as are
likewise the ossicula auditus; the cochlea is always
wanting. The different parts of the ear are not
firmly attached to the cranium; they are often
loosely connected to it in the same cavity as the
brain.
panum of the ear, when present, is always close to
the surface of the head; it is often absent, as are
likewise the ossicula auditus; the cochlea is always
wanting. The different parts of the ear are not
firmly attached to the cranium; they are often
loosely connected to it in the same cavity as the
brain.
Each of these two branches is subdivided into
two classes.
two classes.
The two classes of warm-blooded animals are the
Mammalia and Birds.
Mammalia and Birds.
The Mammalia are viviparous, and suckle their
young with milk secreted by the mammae. The fe-
males have consequently always the cavity termed
uterus with two cornua, and the males have always
a penis.
young with milk secreted by the mammae. The fe-
males have consequently always the cavity termed
uterus with two cornua, and the males have always
a penis.
The head is supported on the first vertebra by
two eminences. The vertebrae of the neck are ne-
ver less than six, nor more than nine. The brain
has a more complicated structure than in other
animals, and contains many parts which are not to
be found in the other classes, such as the corpus
callosum, fornix, pons, &c.
two eminences. The vertebrae of the neck are ne-
ver less than six, nor more than nine. The brain
has a more complicated structure than in other
animals, and contains many parts which are not to
be found in the other classes, such as the corpus
callosum, fornix, pons, &c.
The eyes have two eyelids only. The ear con-
tains four small bones, articulated together, and has
a spiral cochlea. The tongue is quite soft and
fleshy. The skin is covered entirely with hairs, in
tains four small bones, articulated together, and has
a spiral cochlea. The tongue is quite soft and
fleshy. The skin is covered entirely with hairs, in
[xvi]
the greatest number, and
in all it is covered par-
tially.
tially.
The lungs fill the cavity of the chest, which is
separated from the abdomen by a fleshy diaphragm.
separated from the abdomen by a fleshy diaphragm.
There is one larynx only, situated at the basis of
the tongue, and completely covered by the epiglottis,
when the animal swallows.
the tongue, and completely covered by the epiglottis,
when the animal swallows.
The lower jaw only is moveable; both jaws are
covered with lips.
covered with lips.
The biliary and pancreatic ducts are inserted
into the intestinal canal at the same place. The
lacteal vessels convey a white milky chyle, and pass
through a number of conglobate glands, situated at
the mesentery. A membrane, called omentum, sus-
pended from the stomach and adjacent viscera, co-
vers the fore part of the intestines. The spleen is
always upon the left side, between the stomach,
ribs, and diaphragm.
into the intestinal canal at the same place. The
lacteal vessels convey a white milky chyle, and pass
through a number of conglobate glands, situated at
the mesentery. A membrane, called omentum, sus-
pended from the stomach and adjacent viscera, co-
vers the fore part of the intestines. The spleen is
always upon the left side, between the stomach,
ribs, and diaphragm.
Blumenbach establishes the following orders
in
this class:
this class:
Vid. Gore’s translation of Blumenbach’sNatural History,
p. 32.
p. 32.
Ordo I. Bimanus. Two handed.
- Genus. Homo.
II. Quadrumana, four-handed
animals: having a
separate thumb capable of being opposed to
separate thumb capable of being opposed to
[xvii]
the other fingers, both in
their upper and lower
extremities, teeth like those of man, except that
the cuspidati are generally longer.
extremities, teeth like those of man, except that
the cuspidati are generally longer.
- 1. Simiae, apes, monkeys, baboons.
- 2. Lemur, macauco.
III. Chiroptera.
The fingers of the fore feet, the thumb excepted,
are, in these animals, longer than the whole body;
and between them is stretched a thin membrane for
flying. Hence they are as little capable of walking
on the ground as apes, with their hands, or sloths,
with their hooked claws, which are calculated for
climbing.
are, in these animals, longer than the whole body;
and between them is stretched a thin membrane for
flying. Hence they are as little capable of walking
on the ground as apes, with their hands, or sloths,
with their hooked claws, which are calculated for
climbing.
- 1. Vespertilio, bat, calugo, &c.
IV. Digitata.
Mammifera, with separate toes on all four feet.
This order contains the greatest number of genera
and species, and is therefore conveniently divided,
according to the differences of the teeth, into three
families, glires, ferae, and bruta.
This order contains the greatest number of genera
and species, and is therefore conveniently divided,
according to the differences of the teeth, into three
families, glires, ferae, and bruta.
- (A) Glires.With two chisel-shaped incisor teeth in each jaw,
for the purpose of gnawing without canine teeth.- 1. Sciurus, squirrel.
[xviii]
- 2. Glis, dormouse (Myoxus, Linn.)
- 3. Mus, mouse and rat.
- 4. Marmota, marmot.
- 5. Savia, guinea-pig.
- 6. Lepus, hare and rabbit.
- 7. Jaculus, jerboa.
- 8. Hystrix, porcupine.
- (B) Ferae.With pointed or angular front teeth, and mostly
with only a single canine tooth on each side, which
is generally, however, of remarkable size and
strength. The carnivorous animals, properly so
called, and some other genera with teeth of the
same kind, compose this family.- 1. Erinaceus, hedgehog.
- 2. Sorex, shrew.
- 3. Talpa, mole.
- 4. Didelphis marsupialis, opossum.
- 5. Viverrae, weasels, ferret, polecat, civet.
- 6. Mustela, stunk, stoat, &c.
- 7. Ursus, bear.
- 8. Canis, dog, wolf, jackall, fox, hyaena.
- 9. Felis, cat, lion, tiger, leopard, lynx,
panther,
&c.
The three first genera belong to the insectivora of
Cuvier; their feet are short, and their power of mo-
[xix]
- tion weak. They have no coecum, and walking they
rest the whole of the foot on the ground. They live
principally on insects, whence their name is derived.
The fourth genus belongs to the marsupialia of Cu-
vier ; the animals of this class have a pouch in the
abdomen which contains the mammae, as well as
the young in their early state. The remaining ge-
nera, with the exception of the bear, belong to the
digitigrada of Cuvier. - (C) Bruta.Without teeth, or at least without front teeth.
- 1. Bradypus, sloth.
- 2. Myrmecophaga, ant-eater.
- 3. Manis, scaly ant-eater.
- 4. Dasypus or Tatu, armadillo.
This order forms the edentata of Cuvier, the
tongue is long, slender, and projectile, for seizing
the insects on which the animals live. The armadillo,
manis, ant-eater, and ornithorhynchus, or duck-billed
animal, belong to this order.
V. Solidungula (Solipeda,
Cuv.).
A single toe on each foot, with an undivided
hoof. Large intestines, and particularly an enor-
mous coecum. Incisors in both jaws.
hoof. Large intestines, and particularly an enor-
mous coecum. Incisors in both jaws.
- 1. Equus, horse or ass.
[xx]
VI. Bisulca (Pecora).
These are the ruminantia of Cuvier, their hoof
is
divided. No incisors in the upper jaw. Stomach
consisting of four cavities. Rumination of the food.
Long intestines.
divided. No incisors in the upper jaw. Stomach
consisting of four cavities. Rumination of the food.
Long intestines.
- 1. Camelus, camel, dromedary, lama.
- 2. Capra, sheep, goat.
- 3. Antilope, antelope, chamois.
- 4. Bos, ox, buffalo.
- 5. Giraffa, giraffe, or camelopard.
- 6. Cervus, elk, deer kind.
- 7. Moschus, musk.
VII. Multungula (Belluae).
Animals of an unshapely form, and a tough and
thick hide; whence they have been called by Cu-
vierpachydermata (from παχυς thick, and δερμα skin).
They have more than two toes; incisors in both
jaws, and in some cases enormous tusks.
thick hide; whence they have been called by Cu-
vierpachydermata (from παχυς thick, and δερμα skin).
They have more than two toes; incisors in both
jaws, and in some cases enormous tusks.
- 1. Sus, pig kind, pecari, babiroussa.
- 2. Tapir.
- 3. Elephas.
- 4. Rhinoceros.
- 5. Hippopotamus.
VIII. Palmata.
Mammifera with webbed feet, the genera being
[xxi]
divided (as in the order
Digitata) according to the
forms of the teeth into three families:
forms of the teeth into three families:
(A) Glires. (B) Ferae. (C) Bruta.
- (A) Glires.With chisel-shaped gnawing teeth.Castor, beaver.
- (B) Ferae.With the teeth of carnivorous animals.Phoca, seal.
- (C) Bruta.Without teeth, or at least without front teeth.Ornithorhynchus, duck-billed animal.Trichechus, walrus.The last genus of the order, together with the
phoca, (seal) constitutes the amphibia of Cuvier.
These animals have short members adapted for
swimming.
IX. Cetacea.
Whales living entirely in the sea, and formed like
fishes; breathe by an opening at the top of the head,
called the blowing-hole, through which they throw
out the water, which enters their mouth with the food.
fishes; breathe by an opening at the top of the head,
called the blowing-hole, through which they throw
out the water, which enters their mouth with the food.
[xxii]
Smooth skin covering a
thick layer of oily fat. No
external ear. A complicated stomach. Multilobu-
lar kidneys; larynx of a pyramidal shape, opening
towards the blowing hole. Testes within the abdo-
men. Mammae at the sides of the vulva. Bones of
the anterior extremity concealed and united by the
skin, so as to form a kind of fin.
external ear. A complicated stomach. Multilobu-
lar kidneys; larynx of a pyramidal shape, opening
towards the blowing hole. Testes within the abdo-
men. Mammae at the sides of the vulva. Bones of
the anterior extremity concealed and united by the
skin, so as to form a kind of fin.
- 1. Monodon, narwhale, sea-unicorn.
- 2. Balaena, proper whales.
- 3. Physeter, macrocephalus, white whale.
- 4. Delphinus, dolphin, porpoise.
Cuvier distributes the class mammalia into
three
grand divisions:
grand divisions:
1. Those which have claws or nails, (mammifères
à
ongles) including the following orders: bimana,
quadrumana, chiroptera, plantigrada, carnivora, pe-
dimana, rodentia, edentata, tardigrada.
ongles) including the following orders: bimana,
quadrumana, chiroptera, plantigrada, carnivora, pe-
dimana, rodentia, edentata, tardigrada.
2. Those which have hoofs (mammif. à ongles) in-
cluding the pachydermata, ruminantia, and soli-
peda.
cluding the pachydermata, ruminantia, and soli-
peda.
3. Those which have extremities adapted for
swimming (mammif. à pieds en nageoire). Amphibia
and cetacea.
swimming (mammif. à pieds en nageoire). Amphibia
and cetacea.
BIRDS.
Birds are oviparous. They have only one ova-
rium and one oviduct, in which they differ from other
rium and one oviduct, in which they differ from other
[xxiii]
oviparous animals.
The head is supported on the
first vertebrae of the neck by a single eminence. The
vertebrae of the neck are very numerous, and the
sternum very large. The anterior extremities are
used for flying, and the posterior for walking.
first vertebrae of the neck by a single eminence. The
vertebrae of the neck are very numerous, and the
sternum very large. The anterior extremities are
used for flying, and the posterior for walking.
The eyes have three eyelids. There is no exter-
nal ear; the tympanum contains only one bone, and
the cochlea is a cone slightly curved. The tongue
has a bone internally. The body is covered with
feathers. The lungs are attached to the ribs. The
air passes through the lungs in its way to the air-
bags, which are dispersed throughout the body.
There is no diaphragm. The trachea has a larynx
at each end, and the upper one has no epiglottis.
The upper mouth consists of a horny bill without
lips, teeth, or gums, and both mandibles are move-
able.
nal ear; the tympanum contains only one bone, and
the cochlea is a cone slightly curved. The tongue
has a bone internally. The body is covered with
feathers. The lungs are attached to the ribs. The
air passes through the lungs in its way to the air-
bags, which are dispersed throughout the body.
There is no diaphragm. The trachea has a larynx
at each end, and the upper one has no epiglottis.
The upper mouth consists of a horny bill without
lips, teeth, or gums, and both mandibles are move-
able.
The pancreas and liver send out several excretory
ducts, which enter the intestines at different places.
The chyle is transparent, and there are no mesenteric
glands nor omentum. The spleen is in the centre
of the mesentery. The ureters terminate in a cavity
called the cloaca, which also affords an exit to the
solid excrement and to the eggs. There is no uri-
nary bladder.
ducts, which enter the intestines at different places.
The chyle is transparent, and there are no mesenteric
glands nor omentum. The spleen is in the centre
of the mesentery. The ureters terminate in a cavity
called the cloaca, which also affords an exit to the
solid excrement and to the eggs. There is no uri-
nary bladder.
This class cannot be distributed into orders so
clearly distinguished by anatomical characters as
the preceding one. Blumenbach divides them into
two leading divisions.
clearly distinguished by anatomical characters as
the preceding one. Blumenbach divides them into
two leading divisions.
[xxiv]
(A) Land Birds.
- Order I. Accipitres. Birds of prey, almost all
with
short strong feet, large sharp claws, and a strong
hooked beak, which for the most part termi-
nates above in two short cutting points, and is
commonly covered at the root with a fleshy
membrane. A membranous stomach, and short
coeca.- 1. Vultur, vultures.
- 2. Falco, falcon, eagle, hawk, kite.
- 3. Strix, owl.
- 4. Lanius, shrike or butcher-bird.
- II. Levirostres. Light-billed birds, having a
large
hollow bill.- 1. Psittacus, parrot kind.
- 2. Ramphastos, toucan.
- 3. Buceros, rhinoceros bird.
- III. Pici. The birds of this order have short
feet,
and commonly a straight bill.- 1. Picus, woodpecker.
- 2. Jynx, wryneck.
- 3. Sitta, nuthatch.
- 4. Alcedo, kingsfisher.
- 5. Merops, bee-eater.
- 6. Upupa, hoopoe.
[xxv]
- 7. Certhio, creeper.
- 8. Trochilus, humming birds, &c. &c.
- IV. Coraces. The birds of this order have
short
feet with a strong bill, convex on the upper part,
and of moderate size.- 1. Buphagar, ox-pecker.
- 2. Crotophaga, razor-billed blackbird.
- 3. Corvus, crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie,
jay, &c. - 4. Coracias, roller.
- 5. Gracula, minor grakle.
- 6. Paradisea, birds of paradise.
- 7. Cuculus, cuckoo.
- 8. Oriolus, oriole.
- V. Passeres. Small singing birds, with short
and
slender feet, and conical sharp-pointed bills of
various size and form.- 1. Alauda, lark.
- 2. Sturnus, starling.
- 3. Turdus, thrush, blackbird.
- 4. Ampelis, chatterer.
- 5. Loxia, cross-billed tribe.
- 6. Emberizo, bunting.
- 7. Fringilla, finches,
canary-bird, linnet,
sparrow. - 8. Musicapa, fly-catcher.
[xxvi]
- 9. Motacilla, nightingale, redbreast, wren.
- 10. Pipra, manakin.
- 11. Parus, titmouse.
- 12. Hirundo, swallow, martins, &c.
- 13. Caprimulgus, goatsucker, &c.
- VI. Gallinae. Gallinaceous birds, mostly
domesti-
cated, have short legs with a convex bill, which
is covered with a fleshy membrane at its base,
and of which the upper half overlaps the lower
on each side. They possess a large crop.- 1. Columba, pigeons.
- 2. Tetrao, grouse, quail, partridge.
- 3. Numida, guinea-fowl.
- 4. Phasianus, cock pheasant.
- 5. Crax, curesso.
- 6. Meleagris, turkey.
- 7. Pavo, peacock.
- 8. Otis, bustard.
- VII. Struthiones. Struthious birds. The
largest
of the class; possess extremely small wings,
and are therefore incapable of flight; but run
very swiftly.- 1. Struthio, ostrich, cassowary.
- 2. Didus, dodo.
[xxvii]
(B) Aquatic Birds.
- Order I. Grallae. These birds have
cylindrical
bills of various lengths; long stilt-like legs;
long neck, and short tail. They mostly live in
marshes, and feed on amphibia.- 1. Phaenicopterus, flamingo.
- 2. Platalaea, spoonbill.
- 3. Palamedea, horned screamer.
- 4. Ardea, crane, stork, heron, bittern.
- 5. Tantalus, ibis, &c.
- 6. Scolopax, woodcock, snipe, curlew.
- 7. Tringa, lapwing, ruffs and reeves.
- 8. Charadrius, plover.
- 9. Hamatopus, sea-pie.
- 10 Fulica, water-hen, coot.
- 11. Parra, spur-winged water-hen.
- 12. Rallus, rail.
- 13. Psophia, trumpeter.
- II. Anseres. Swimming birds; web-footed;
the
upper mandible mostly ends in a little hook,
and, together with the lower, is in most instances
plentifully supplied with nerves.- 1. Rhincops, sea-crow.
- 2. Sterna, noddy, silver bird.
- 3. Colymbus, diver.
[xxviii]
- 4. Larus, gull.
- 5. Plotus, darter.
- 6. Phaeton, tropic bird.
- 7. Procellaria, petrel.
- 8. Diomedea, albatross.
- 9. Pelecanus, pelican, cormorant.
- 10. Anas, swan, duck, goose.
- 11. Mergus, goosander.
- 12. Alca, auk, puffin.
- 13. Aptenodytes, penguin.
The two classes of cold-blooded vertebral animals
are the
are the
AMPHIBIA AND FISHES.
The animals of the former class differ from one
another in many very essential particulars, and have
not so many characters in common as the other
classes. Some of the reptiles walk, some fly, some
swim, many can only creep. The organs of the
senses, and particularly the ear, differ almost as
much as the organs of motion; none of the reptiles,
however, have a cochlea. The skin is either naked
or covered with scales. The brain is always very
small. The lungs are in the same cavity with the
other viscera; there are no air-bags beyond the
lungs, hut the cells of these organs are very large.
There is but one larynx, and no epiglottis. Both
the jaws are moveable. There are neither mesente-
another in many very essential particulars, and have
not so many characters in common as the other
classes. Some of the reptiles walk, some fly, some
swim, many can only creep. The organs of the
senses, and particularly the ear, differ almost as
much as the organs of motion; none of the reptiles,
however, have a cochlea. The skin is either naked
or covered with scales. The brain is always very
small. The lungs are in the same cavity with the
other viscera; there are no air-bags beyond the
lungs, hut the cells of these organs are very large.
There is but one larynx, and no epiglottis. Both
the jaws are moveable. There are neither mesente-
[xxix]
ric glands, nor
omentum. The spleen is in the centre
of the mesentery. The female has always two ova-
ria and two oviducts. There is a bladder.
of the mesentery. The female has always two ova-
ria and two oviducts. There is a bladder.
The class of reptiles, in the arrangement of Cuvier,
corresponds to the orders of reptiles pedati, and ser-
pentes apodes, belonging to the class of amphibia
in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus.
corresponds to the orders of reptiles pedati, and ser-
pentes apodes, belonging to the class of amphibia
in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus.
- Order I. Reptilia, having four feet, (quadrupeda
ovipara) the toes of which are, according to
their mode of life, either separate, (pedes digita-
ti) connected by membranes, (palmati) or con-
founded with one another in the form of a fin
(pinnati).- 1. Testudo, tortoise, turtle.
- 2. Rana, frog, toad.
- 3. Draco, dragon.
- 4. Lacerta, lizards,
crocodiles, chameleon,
newt, salamander, iguana, &c.
- II. Serpentia. No external organs of motion;
body
of an elongated form, covered with scales,
plates, or rings. Their slender, and for the
most part cloven tongue serves them for tast-
ing. Many are provided with an active ve-
nom, contained in little bags on the front of the
upper jaw, secreted by particular glands, and
conveyed into the wound made in biting by
[xxx]
- means of isolated
teeth, which are tubular, with
a longitudinal opening at the top. They are
oviparous, but the egg is sometimes hatched in
the oviduct. Both jaws moveable.- 1. Crotalus, rattle-snake.
- 2. Boa. Immense
serpents of India and
Africa. - 3. Coluber, viper.
- 4. Anguis, blind-worm.
- 5. Amphisbaena.
- 6. Caecilia.
Fishes respire by means of organs in the shape of
combs, placed at the two sides of the neck, between
which they force water to pass. They have, conse-
quently, neither trachea, larynx, nor voice. The
body is formed for swimming. Besides the four
fins, which correspond to the limbs, they have ver-
tical ones upon the back, under the tail, and at its
extremity; but they are sometimes wanting.
combs, placed at the two sides of the neck, between
which they force water to pass. They have, conse-
quently, neither trachea, larynx, nor voice. The
body is formed for swimming. Besides the four
fins, which correspond to the limbs, they have ver-
tical ones upon the back, under the tail, and at its
extremity; but they are sometimes wanting.
The nostrils are not employed in respiration.
The ear is quite hid within the cranium. The skin
is naked, or covered with scales. The tongue
is osseous. Both jaws are moveable. There are
often coeca in place of the pancreas. There is a
bladder and two ovaria.
The ear is quite hid within the cranium. The skin
is naked, or covered with scales. The tongue
is osseous. Both jaws are moveable. There are
often coeca in place of the pancreas. There is a
bladder and two ovaria.
The class of Fishes include the Fishes and the Amphibia
Nantes
of Linnaeus.
of Linnaeus.
[xxxi]
The animals destitute of vertebrae have less in
common, and form a less regular series than the ver-
tebrated animals. But, when they have hard parts,
these are generally placed on the outside of the
body, at least when articulated; and the nervous
system has not its middle part inclosed within a ca-
nal of bone, but loosely situated in the same cavity
with the other viscera.
common, and form a less regular series than the ver-
tebrated animals. But, when they have hard parts,
these are generally placed on the outside of the
body, at least when articulated; and the nervous
system has not its middle part inclosed within a ca-
nal of bone, but loosely situated in the same cavity
with the other viscera.
The brain is the only part of the nervous system
which is placed above the alimentary canal. It
sends out two branches, which encircle the oesopha-
gus like a necklace, and which afterwards unite and
form the common fasciculus of the nerves.
which is placed above the alimentary canal. It
sends out two branches, which encircle the oesopha-
gus like a necklace, and which afterwards unite and
form the common fasciculus of the nerves.
None of the animals without vertebrae respire by
cellular lungs, and none of them have a voice.
Their jaws are placed in all kinds of directions, and
many of them have only organs of suction. None
of them have kidneys, or secrete urine. Those
among them which have articulated members have
always six at least.
cellular lungs, and none of them have a voice.
Their jaws are placed in all kinds of directions, and
many of them have only organs of suction. None
of them have kidneys, or secrete urine. Those
among them which have articulated members have
always six at least.
(A) Cartilaginous Fishes.
- Order I. Chondropterygii; have no
branchial
operculum, and, in most, the mouth is placed
on the under side of the head.- 1. Petromyzon, lamprey.
- 2. Gastrobranchus, hag-fish.
- 3. Raia, ray, skate, torpedo, stingray.
[xxxii]
- 4. Squalus, shark, saw-fish.
- 5. Lophius, sea-devil, frog-fish.
- 6. Balistes, file-fish.
- 7. Chimaera, sea-ape.
- II. Branchiostegi, with opercula to the
gills.
- 1. Accipenser, sturgeon, beluga.
- 2. Ostracion, trunk-fish.
- 3. Tetrodon, globe-fish.
- 4. Diodon, porcupine-fish.
- 5. Cyclopterus, lumpsucker.
- 6. Centriscus, snipe-fish.
- 7. Syngnathus, pipe-fish.
- 8. Pegasus, sea-dragon.
(B) Bony Fishes, divided
according to the situa-
tion of their fins.
tion of their fins.
- Order I. Apodes, without ventral fins.
- 1. Muraena, eel-kind.
- 2. Gymnotus, electrical eel.
- 3. Trichiurus.
- 4. Anarrhichus, sea-wolf.
- 5. Ammodites, launce.
- 6. Ophidium.
- 7. Stromateus.
- 8. Xiphias, sword-fish.
- 9. Leptocephalus.
[xxxiii]
- II. Jugulares. Ventral fins in front of the
thoracic.
- 1. Callionymus, dragonet.
- 2. Uranoscopus, star-gazer.
- 3. Trachinus, sting-fish.
- 4. Gadus, haddock, cod, whiting, ling.
- 5. Blennius, eel-pout.
- III. Thoracici. Ventral fins directly under
the
thoracic.- 1. Cepola, ribbon-fish.
- 2. Echeneis, sucking fish.
- 3. Coryphaena, dorado.
- 4. Gobius, gudgeon.
- 5. Cottus, pogge.
- 6. Scorpaena.
- 7. Zeus, dory.
- 8. Pleuronectes, flounder,
plaice, dab, hali-
but, sole, turbot. - 9. Chaetodon.
- 10. Sparus, gilthead, sea-bream.
- 11. Labrus, rainbow-fish.
- 12. Sciaenae.
- 13. Perca, perch.
- 14. Gasterosteus, stickleback.
- 15. Scomber, mackerel, bonito, tunny.
- 16. Mullus, mullet.
- 17. Trigla, flying-fish.
[xxxiv]
- IV. Abdominales. Ventral fins behind the tho-
racic; chiefly inhabit fresh water.- 1. Cobitis, loach.
- 2. Silurus.
- 3. Loncaria, harness-fish.
- 4. Salmo, salmon, trout, smelt.
- 5. Fistularia.
- 6. Esox, pike.
- 7. Polypterus.
- 8. Elops.
- 9. Argentina.
- 10. Atherina.
- 11. Mugil.
- 12. Exocoetus.
- 13. Polynemus.
- 14. Clupea, herring, sprat, shad.
- 15. Cyprinus, carp, tench, gold-fish, minnow,
&c. &c.
The invertebral animals were distributed by Lin-
naeus into two classes, insects and worms (vermes).
The anatomical structure of these animals was very
imperfectly known when the Swedish naturalist first
promulgated his arrangement. But the labours of
subsequent zoologists, and particularly those of Cu-
vier, have succeeded in establishing such striking
and important differences in their formation, that a
subdivision of the Linnaean classes becomes indispen-
naeus into two classes, insects and worms (vermes).
The anatomical structure of these animals was very
imperfectly known when the Swedish naturalist first
promulgated his arrangement. But the labours of
subsequent zoologists, and particularly those of Cu-
vier, have succeeded in establishing such striking
and important differences in their formation, that a
subdivision of the Linnaean classes becomes indispen-
[xxxv]
sably necessary. The
insects of Linnaeus are di-
vided into crustacea and insecta; and the vermes of
the same author form three classes, viz. mollusca,
vermes, and zoophyta.
vided into crustacea and insecta; and the vermes of
the same author form three classes, viz. mollusca,
vermes, and zoophyta.
The Insects form the third class.
In their perfect state they have, like the crus-
tacea, articulated limbs and antennae. Most of them
have also membranous wings, which enable them to
fly. All these last pass through several metamor-
phoses, in one of which they are quite destitute of
the power of motion. All of them have a nervous
system similar to that of the crustacea; but insects
have neither heart nor blood-vessels, and respire by
tracheae. Not only the liver, but all the secreting
organs are wanting, and their place is supplied by
long vessels, which float loosely in the abdomen.
The form of the intestinal canal is often very differ-
ent in the same individual, in its three different
states.
tacea, articulated limbs and antennae. Most of them
have also membranous wings, which enable them to
fly. All these last pass through several metamor-
phoses, in one of which they are quite destitute of
the power of motion. All of them have a nervous
system similar to that of the crustacea; but insects
have neither heart nor blood-vessels, and respire by
tracheae. Not only the liver, but all the secreting
organs are wanting, and their place is supplied by
long vessels, which float loosely in the abdomen.
The form of the intestinal canal is often very differ-
ent in the same individual, in its three different
states.
The class of Insects corresponds to the same class in the
Systema
Naturae, with the exception of the two genera separated from it, in
order to form the class of crustacea.
Naturae, with the exception of the two genera separated from it, in
order to form the class of crustacea.
The animals which resemble the larvae of insects,
and have, like them, the medullary cord knotted,
may be placed in the same class with insects, though
they undergo no metamorphosis; but there are some
of that number which have distinct sanguiferous
and have, like them, the medullary cord knotted,
may be placed in the same class with insects, though
they undergo no metamorphosis; but there are some
of that number which have distinct sanguiferous
[xxxvi]
vessels, and which
must be arranged in a separate
class, intermediate between the mollusca, crustacea,
and insects. To this class belong earth-worms and
leeches.
class, intermediate between the mollusca, crustacea,
and insects. To this class belong earth-worms and
leeches.
- Order I. Coleoptera. Having a hollow horny
case,
under which the wings are folded.- 1. Scarabaeus, beetles.
- 2. Lucanus, stag-beetle.
- 3. Dermestes.
- 4. Ptinus.
- 5. Histur.
- 6. Gyrinus.
- 7. Byrrhus,
- 8. Silpha, carrion beetle.
- 9. Cassida, tortoise beetle.
- 10. Coccinella, ladybird.
- 11. Chrysomela.
- 12. Hispa.
- 13. Bruchus, seed-beetle.
- 14. Curculio, weevil.
- 15. Attelabus, nut-beetle.
- 16. Cerambyx.
- 17. Leptura.
- 18. Necydalis.
- 19. Lampyris, glow-worm.
- 20. Cantharis.
- 21. Elater, skipper.
[xxxvii]
- 22. Cicindela.
- 23. Buprestis.
- 24. Dyticus, water-beetle.
- 25. Carabus.
- 26. Tenebrio, meal-worm beetle.
- 27. Meloe, Spanish fly.
- 28. Mordella.
- 29. Staphylinus.
- 30. Forficula, earwig.
- II. Hemiptera. Four wings, either
stretched
straight out, or resting across each other.
Some are provided with jaws, others with a
proboscis, bent towards the abdomen.- 1. Blatta, cockroach.
- 2. Mantis.
- 3. Gryllus, locust, grasshopper.
- 4. Fulgora, lantern-fly.
- 5. Cicada.
- 6. Notonecta.
- 7. Nepa, water scorpion.
- 8. Cimex, bug.
- 9. Aphis, plant louse.
- 10. Chermes.
- 11. Coccus.
- 12. Thrips.
[xxxviii]
- III. Lepidoptera. Soft hairy body, and four ex-
panded wings, covered with coloured scales.- 1. Papilio, butterfly.
- 2. Sphinx, hawk moth.
- 3. Phalaena, moth.
- IV. Neuroptera. Four reticulated wings,
glitter-
ing with colours of every kind.- 1. Libellula, dragon-fly.
- 2. Ephemera, day-fly.
- 3. Phryganea, water-moth.
- 4. Hemerobius.
- 5. Myrmeleon, ant-lion.
- V. Hymenoptera. Generally possessing a
sting,
and having four membranous wings.- 1. Cynips.
- 2. Tenthredo.
- 3. Sirex.
- 4. Ichneumon.
- 5. Sphex.
- 6. Chrysis, golden fly.
- 7. Vespa, wasp, hornet.
- 8. Apis, bee.
- 9. Formica, ant.
- 10. Termes, white ant.
[xxxix]
- VI. Diptera. Two-winged insects, having two
small
balances placed on the thorax behind the wings,
and generally covered with a little scale.- 1. Oestrus, gad-fly.
- 2. Tipula, crane fly.
- 3. Musca, common fly.
- 4. Tabanus, gnat.
- 5. Culex, gnat, mosquito.
- 6. Empis.
- 7. Conops.
- 8. Asilus, hornet fly.
- 9. Hippobosca, horse-leech.
- VII. Aptera. No wings.
- 1. Lepisma, sugar-mite.
- 2. Produra, springtail.
- 3. Pediculus, louse.
- 4. Pulex, flea.
- 5. Acarus, tick, mite.
- 6. Hydrachna.
- 7. Phalangium, shepherd.
- 8. Aranea, spider.
- 9. Scorpio, scorpion.
- 10. Cancer, crab.
- 11. Monoculus, horse-shoe fisch.
- 12. Oniscus.
- 13. Scolopendra.
- 14. Julus, centipede.
[xl]
The Vermes may be divided into two orders;
the
intestinal, which inhabit the bodies of other animals;
and the external.
intestinal, which inhabit the bodies of other animals;
and the external.
The former are not of such a complicated organi-
zation as the latter; so that they are sometimes ar-
ranged among the zoophytes. The external worms
have a nervous chord possessing ganglia, an elon-
gated body composed of rings; and having no dis-
tinct head. There are no members. Circulating ves-
sels, but no heart. No nerves have been discovered
in the intestinal worms.
zation as the latter; so that they are sometimes ar-
ranged among the zoophytes. The external worms
have a nervous chord possessing ganglia, an elon-
gated body composed of rings; and having no dis-
tinct head. There are no members. Circulating ves-
sels, but no heart. No nerves have been discovered
in the intestinal worms.
The class of worms comprehends some of the ge-
nera arranged by Linnaeus among the vermes intes-
tina, such as the lumbricus, gordius, thrudo; some
of the genera placed by the same naturalist among
the vermes mollusca, such as the aphrodita, nereis, te-
rebella, and lastly some genera included in his order
of vermes testacea, such as the serpula dentalium.
nera arranged by Linnaeus among the vermes intes-
tina, such as the lumbricus, gordius, thrudo; some
of the genera placed by the same naturalist among
the vermes mollusca, such as the aphrodita, nereis, te-
rebella, and lastly some genera included in his order
of vermes testacea, such as the serpula dentalium.
- Order I. Intestina.
- 1. Gordius, hair-worm.
- 2. Ascaris, thread-worm, round-worm.
- 3. Trichocephalus.
- 4. Echinorhynchus.
- 5. Lumbricus, earth-worm.
- 6. Fasciola, fluke.
- 7. Taenia, tape-worm.
- 8. Hydatis, hydatid.
Digitalisat/476